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D.S. D.F. Symbol Examples Gas Liquid Solid G / G L / G T / G None Fog, clouds Smoke, dust, powders Liquid Gas Liquid Solid G / L L 1 / L 2 S / L Foam Emulsions Suspensions, suspensions Solid gas Liquid Solid G / T F / T T 1 / T 2 Pumice, bread Soil, soil Minerals, alloys Classification of dispersed systems
10 -7 m or >100 nm 2. Colloidal disperse systems 10 -7 - 10 -9 m, 1 - 100 nm Molecular ionic (true) solutions: 10 -7 m or >100 nm 2. Colloidal disperse systems 10 -7 - 10 -9 m, 1 - 100 nm Molecular-ionic (true) solutions: 5 II. According to the degree of dispersion of the dispersed phase 1. Coarsely dispersed systems >10 -7 m or >100 nm 2. Colloidal-dispersed systems m, nm Molecular-ionic (true) solutions: 10 -7 m or >100 nm 2. Colloidal-dispersed systems 10 -7 - 10 -9 m, 1 - 100 nm Molecular ionic (true) solutions: 10 -7 m or >100 nm 2. Colloidal dispersed systems 10 -7 - 10 -9 m, 1 - 100 nm Molecular ionic (true) solutions: 10 -7 m or >100 nm 2. Colloidal-dispersed systems 10 -7 - 10 -9 m, 1 - 100 nm Molecular-ionic (true) solutions: 10 -7 m or >100 nm 2. Colloidal-dispersed systems 10 -7 - 10 -9 m, 1 - 100 nm Molecular-ionic (true) solutions: title = "(!LANG: II. According to the degree of dispersion of the dispersed phase 1. Coarsely dispersed systems> 10 -7 m or > 100 nm 2. Colloidal-dispersed systems 10 -7 - 10 -9 m, 1 - 100 nm Molecular-ionic (true) solutions:
Coarsely dispersed systems Colloidal-dispersed systems True solutions Heterogeneous Thermodynamically unstable Age with time Particles do not pass through the paper filter Heterogeneous Thermodynamically unstable Age with time Pass Homogeneous Stable Do not age Pass Properties of systems of varying degrees of dispersion
Coarsely dispersed systems Colloidal-dispersed systems True solutions Particles do not pass through ultrafilters (membranes) Reflect light, therefore are opaque Do not pass Transparent, but scatter light, therefore opalescent (gives a Tyndall cone) Pass Transparent
II. Condensation methods physical methods: a - solvent replacement method b - vapor condensation method chemical methods: - reduction reactions (Ag 2 O + H 2 2Ag + H 2 O) - oxidation reactions (2H 2 S + SO 2 3S + 2H 2 O) - exchange reactions (СuСl 2 + Na 2 S CuS + 2NaCl) - hydrolysis reactions (FeСl 3 + ЗН 2 O Fe (OH) 3 + 3HCI)
Conditions for obtaining the sol: 1. poor solubility of D.F. in D.S., i.e. the presence of a phase boundary; 2. particle size m (1-100 nm); 3. the presence of a stabilizer ion, which, being sorbed on the nucleus, prevents particles from sticking together (the stabilizer ion is determined by the Panetta-Fajans rule)
The unit m mol (NH 4) 2 S is taken in excess n mol: n (NH 4) 2 S 2n NH n S 2- POI counterions (aggregate n S 2-POI core (2n-x) NH 4 + adsorption layer) x- granule x NH 4 + micelle part of the counterions diffuse layer X - did not enter the adsorption layer СuSO 4 + (NH 4) 2 S CuS + (NH 4) 2 SO 4
There are 2 potential jumps in a micelle: 1) φ - electrothermodynamic - φ ~ 1 V. 2) ζ (zetta) - electrokinetic - ζ = 0.1 V isoelectric. ( n Сu 2+ (n-x) SO 4 2- ) 2x+ x SO 4 2- φ ζ
II. Aggregative stability is the ability of the system to resist the adhesion of particles of the dispersed phase. Criteria: 1. ionic shell, i.e. the presence of a double electric layer; DES \u003d adsorption + diffuse layer 2. solvate (hydrate) shell of the solvent (the more, the mouth-st); 3. value of ζ– potential of the granule (the more > ζ, the more stable) 4. temperature. ζ, the mouth) 4. temperature."> 
Coagulation threshold - the smallest amount of electrolyte that causes apparent coagulation of 1 liter of sol γ = C· V / V about γ - coagulation threshold, mol/l; С - electrolyte concentration, mol/l; V is the volume of the electrolyte solution, l; V o - the volume of the sol, l. P \u003d 1 / γ - coagulating ability of the electrolyte
C2C2 C1C γ2γ2 γ1γ1 Coagulation with electrolyte mixtures: 1 – additivity; 2 - antagonism; 3 - synergy
Protection of colloids from coagulation The resistance of colloids to the action of electrolytes increases with the addition of HMCs (proteins, polysaccharides: gelatin, starch, sodium casein). then the hydrophobic parts of the sol surrounded by HMS molecules become more hydrophilic and their stability in an aqueous solution increases 2. The solvate shells around the hydrophobic particles increase, which prevents the sol particles from approaching and sticking together.
DISPERSIVE AND COLLOID SYSTEMS MADE BY STUDENT GR. ZM -11 BALASHOV TECHNICIUM OF AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION LUDOVSKIKH RUSLAN HEAD: GALAKTIONOVA I. A.
Dispersed systems These include heterogeneous systems consisting of two or more phases with a highly developed interface between them. The special properties of dispersed systems are due precisely to the small particle size and the presence of a large interfacial surface. In this regard, the properties of the surface, and not of the particles as a whole, are decisive. Processes occurring on the surface, and not inside the phase, are characteristic.
A feature of dispersed systems is their dispersity - one of the phases must necessarily be fragmented, it is called the dispersed phase. A continuous medium in which particles of the dispersed phase are distributed is called a dispersion medium.
Classification of dispersed systems according to the particle size of the dispersed phase - Coarsely dispersed (> 10 microns): sugar, soil, fog, raindrops, volcanic ash, magma, etc. - Medium dispersed (0.1-10 microns): human blood erythrocytes , E. coli, etc. - Highly dispersed (1-100 nm): influenza virus, smoke, turbidity in natural waters, artificially obtained sols of various substances, aqueous solutions of natural polymers (albumin, gelatin, etc.), etc. - Nanoscale (1-10 nm): glycogen molecule, fine pores of coal, metal sols obtained in the presence of organic molecules that limit the growth of particles, carbon nanotubes, magnetic nanowires made of iron, nickel, etc.
Suspensions Suspensions (medium - liquid, phase - solid insoluble in it). These are building solutions, river and sea silt suspended in water, a living suspension of microscopic living organisms in sea water - plankton, which feed on giants - whales, etc.
Emulsions Emulsions (both the medium and the phase are liquids insoluble in each other). From water and oil, you can prepare an emulsion by shaking the mixture for a long time. These are milk, lymph, water-based paints, etc., well known to you.
Aerosols Aerosols are suspended particles in a gas (eg air) of small particles of liquids or solids. Dusts, smokes, fogs differ. The first two types of aerosols are suspensions of solid particles in a gas (larger particles in dusts), the last one is a suspension of liquid droplets in a gas. For example: fog, thunderclouds - a suspension of water droplets in the air, smoke - small solid particles. And the smog hanging over the largest cities of the world is also an aerosol with a solid and liquid dispersed phase.
Colloidal systems (translated from the Greek "colla" - glue, "eidos" kind of glue-like) are such dispersed systems in which the particle size of the phase is from 100 to 1 nm. These particles are not visible to the naked eye, and the dispersed phase and the dispersed medium in such systems are separated by settling with difficulty.
Colloidal solutions or sols Colloidal solutions or sols. This is the majority of fluids of a living cell (cytoplasm, nuclear juice - karyoplasm, the contents of organelles and vacuoles). And the living organism as a whole (blood, lymph, tissue fluid, digestive juices, etc.) Such systems form adhesives, starch, proteins, and some polymers.
Micelles Micelles are a separate particle of the dispersed phase of a sol, i.e., a highly dispersed colloidal system with a liquid dispersion medium. A micelle consists of a core of a crystalline or amorphous structure and a surface layer that includes solvate-bound molecules (surrounding liquid molecules).
Coagulation Coagulation - the phenomenon of sticking together of colloidal particles and their precipitation - is observed when the charges of these particles are neutralized when an electrolyte is added to the colloidal solution. In this case, the solution turns into a suspension or gel. Some organic colloids coagulate when heated (glue, egg white) or when the acid-base environment of the solution changes.
Gels or jelly Gels or jelly are gelatinous precipitates formed during the coagulation of sols. These include a large number of polymer gels, confectionery, cosmetic and medical gels so well known to you (gelatin, jelly, marmalade, Bird's Milk cake) and, of course, an infinite number of natural gels: minerals (opal), jellyfish bodies, cartilage, tendons , hair, muscle and nerve tissue, etc.
In modern surgical practice, blood substitutes play an extremely important role. With their help, it is possible to successfully treat extreme conditions, in particular traumatic shock, acute blood loss, severe intoxication, etc. Blood substitutes are widely used in cardiac surgery, in particular when using the method of cardiopulmonary bypass. In addition, they are used in hemodialysis, organ and tissue transplantation, and regional perfusion. Colloidal solutions are of particular importance in modern surgery. colloid solutions.
Colloidal solutions Natural (drugs and products of blood plasma processing) - fresh frozen plasma (FFP) - fresh frozen plasma (FFP) - albumin - albuminArtificial dextran derivatives - dextran derivatives - derivatives - hydroxyethyl starch derivatives hydroxyethyl starch (HES); (HEC); - gelatin derivatives - gelatin derivatives
Fresh frozen plasma is the most widely used drug. It is plasma separated from erythrocytes and quickly frozen. I, II, V, VII, VIII, IX clotting factors are stored in FFP. In terms of its effect on the hemostasis system, FFP is an optimal transfusion medium. However, a number of properties significantly limit its application. First of all, this is a high risk of transmission of viral infections. In addition, the donor plasma contains antibodies and leukocytes, which are a powerful factor in the development of leukoagglutination and a systemic inflammatory response. This leads to generalized damage to the endothelium, primarily the vessels of the pulmonary circulation. To date, it is generally accepted that FFP transfusion in clinical practice is carried out only to prevent or restore hemostatic disorders associated with a deficiency of blood clotting factors. Fresh frozen plasma (FFP) is the most widely used drug. It is plasma separated from erythrocytes and quickly frozen. I, II, V, VII, VIII, IX clotting factors are stored in FFP. In terms of its effect on the hemostasis system, FFP is an optimal transfusion medium. However, a number of properties significantly limit its application. First of all, this is a high risk of transmission of viral infections. In addition, the donor plasma contains antibodies and leukocytes, which are a powerful factor in the development of leukoagglutination and a systemic inflammatory response. This leads to generalized damage to the endothelium, primarily the vessels of the pulmonary circulation. To date, it is generally accepted that FFP transfusion in clinical practice is carried out only to prevent or restore hemostatic disorders associated with a deficiency of blood clotting factors.
Fresh frozen plasma is stored in special freezers at -40. Once thawed, plasma should be used within one hour and should not be re-frozen. The volume of fresh frozen plasma obtained by centrifugation from a single dose of blood is ml. Fresh frozen plasma is stored in special freezers at -40. Once thawed, plasma should be used within one hour and should not be re-frozen. The volume of fresh frozen plasma obtained by centrifugation from a single dose of blood is ml.
Albumin Albumin is a protein synthesized in the liver. The medical industry produces 5, 10 and 20% solutions of albumin. 5% albumin solution is isooncotic, 10% and 20% are hyperoncotic. Albumin is a protein synthesized in the liver. The medical industry produces 5, 10 and 20% solutions of albumin. 5% albumin solution is isooncotic, 10% and 20% are hyperoncotic. Albumin solutions are prepared from human blood plasma, placenta free from HIV and hepatitis viruses, by fractionation. Albumin solutions are prepared from human blood plasma, placenta free from HIV and hepatitis viruses, by fractionation. Many clinical studies have led to the conclusion that albumin is not the optimal colloid for volume replacement in blood loss, since critical conditions are characterized by increased capillary permeability, as a result of which albumin leaves the vascular bed much faster, increasing oncotic pressure in the extravascular sector. The latter leads to edema, including the lungs. There is evidence that albumin transfusion is accompanied by a negative inotropic effect. In general, indications for albumin transfusions today can be reduced only to the need to correct severe hypoalbuminemia. Many clinical studies have led to the conclusion that albumin is not the optimal colloid for volume replacement in blood loss, since critical conditions are characterized by increased capillary permeability, as a result of which albumin leaves the vascular bed much faster, increasing oncotic pressure in the extravascular sector. The latter leads to edema, including the lungs. There is evidence that albumin transfusion is accompanied by a negative inotropic effect. In general, indications for albumin transfusions today can be reduced only to the need to correct severe hypoalbuminemia.
Albumin solution is a clear yellow to light brown liquid. The drug should be visually transparent and should not contain suspensions and sediment. The drug is considered suitable for use provided that the tightness and capping are maintained, there are no cracks on the bottles, and the label is intact.
Derivatives of dextran Dextrans are polysaccharides obtained from the processing of sugar beet juice. The most commonly used solutions are: The most commonly used solutions are: low molecular weight dextran-40 (rheopoliglucin, rheomacrodex) duration 4-6 hours Medium molecular weight dextrans cause a volume effect up to 130% duration 4-6 hours Low molecular weight dextrans cause a volume effect up to 175% duration 3-4 hours Low molecular weight dextrans cause a volume effect up to 175% duration 3-4 hours showed that drugs based on dextran have a significant negative effect on the hemostasis system, and the degree of this effect is directly proportional to the molecular weight and the dose of dextran received.This is due to the fact that, having an "enveloping" effect, dextran blocks the adhesive properties of platelets and zhizhet functional activity of coagulation factors. This reduces the activity of factors II, V and VIII. Limited diuresis and rapid excretion of the dextran fraction by the kidneys causes a significant increase in urine viscosity, resulting in a sharp decrease in glomerular filtration up to anuria ("dextran kidney"). Often observed anaphylactic reactions occur due to the fact that in the body of almost all people there are antibodies to bacterial polysaccharides. These antibodies interact with the administered dextrans and activate the complement system, which in turn leads to the release of vasoactive mediators. Practical use has shown that dextran-based preparations have a significant negative effect on the hemostasis system, and the degree of this effect is directly proportional to the molecular weight and the dose of dextran received. This is due to the fact that, having a "enveloping" effect, dextran blocks the adhesive properties of platelets and reduces the functional activity of coagulation factors. This reduces the activity of factors II, V and VIII. Limited diuresis and rapid excretion of the dextran fraction by the kidneys causes a significant increase in urine viscosity, resulting in a sharp decrease in glomerular filtration up to anuria ("dextran kidney"). Often observed anaphylactic reactions occur due to the fact that in the body of almost all people there are antibodies to bacterial polysaccharides. These antibodies interact with the administered dextrans and activate the complement system, which in turn leads to the release of vasoactive mediators.
Gelatin derivatives Gelatin is a denatured protein derived from collagen. Plasma substitutes based on gelatin have a relatively weak effect on the hemostasis system; have a limited duration of action. Of this group, the most interesting is the drug "Gelofusin" - a 4% solution of gelatin (modified liquid gelatin) in a solution of sodium chloride. This is a plasma-substituting solution with a half-life of about 9 hours. Gelofusin is a 4% solution of gelatin (modified liquid gelatin) in sodium chloride solution. This is a plasma-substituting solution with a half-life of about 9 hours. Gelofusin has a positive effect on hemodynamics and oxygen transport function in general. Gelofusin favorably affects hemodynamics and oxygen transport function in general. Experience based on clinical studies confirms that gelofusin has advantages over other artificial gelatin-based colloids currently used. Gelofusin does not have significant effects on blood coagulation, even when infusion volumes exceeded 4 liters per day.
Absolute indications for transfusion of colloidal solutions acute blood loss acute blood loss (more than 15% of the BCC), (more than 15% of the BCC), traumatic shock, traumatic shock, major operations, accompanied by extensive tissue damage and bleeding. severe operations, accompanied by extensive tissue damage and bleeding.
Relative indications for transfusion of colloidal solutions Blood transfusion plays only an auxiliary role among other therapeutic measures. Anemia (with a decrease in hemoglobin below 80 g / l). Severe intoxication. Ongoing bleeding and coagulation disorder. Decreased immune status. Long-term chronic inflammatory processes with decreased reactivity.
Method of transfusion of colloidal solutions Transfusion of colloidal solutions is carried out by the method of jet or drip intravenous infusion. Drip blood transfusion is performed in cases where it is necessary to inject blood slowly and for a long time, jet when you need to quickly replenish blood loss. For jet and drip transfusion, a disposable system is used, which is sealed in a transparent plastic bag. The system is assembled as follows: the metal cap is removed from the vial and the cork is treated with alcohol. Check the package with the system for tightness by squeezing it between the fingers. Cut the package with scissors, take out the system and the air duct. Needles from the system and the air duct are injected into the cork and attached to the vial with a rubber ring. Fill the system with the solution, making sure that there are no air pockets (air embolism!). To displace air from the system and fill the dropper, the latter is raised until the dropper is at the bottom, and the nylon filter is at the top. After that, the clamp is loosened, and the filter housing is half filled with blood coming through the dropper. Then the filter housing is lowered and the entire system is filled with blood. Clamp the system with a clamp. A venous tourniquet is applied to the patient's arm. Wash hands with alcohol. Remove the cap from the venipuncture needle and perform venipuncture.
Technique for performing venipuncture The patient sits or lies, his arm should have a firm support and lie on a table or couch in the position of maximum extension in the elbow joint, for which a roller covered with oilcloth is placed under the elbow. A filled vein is easier to puncture. To do this, stop the outflow of blood from the vein: a tourniquet is applied to the shoulder above the elbow bend, which compresses the veins. However, the blood flow through the arteries should not be disturbed, which can be verified by feeling the pulse on the radial artery (if the pulse is weak or not felt at all, the tourniquet should be loosened; if the veins do not swell and the skin of the arm below the tourniquet does not acquire a blue-purple color, indicating venous congestion, it is necessary to tighten the tourniquet more tightly). For greater tension of the veins, the patient is offered to clench and unclench his fist several times or lower his hand down before applying the tourniquet. The skin of the elbow is disinfected with alcohol. During disinfection, with the fingertips of the left hand, you can examine the veins of the elbow bend and choose the least displaced under the skin, then stretch the skin of the elbow bend, slightly shifting it downwards, in order to fix the vein if possible. The puncture of the vein is performed in two stages. The needle is held with the right hand (cut up parallel to the intended vein) and it is pierced at an acute angle to the skin (the needle will lie next to the vein and parallel to it). Then a vein is pierced from the side (there is a feeling of falling into a void). If there is blood, then the needle is in the vein. If there is no blood, then, without removing the needle from the skin, the puncture should be repeated. As soon as blood appears from the cannula of the needle, it is necessary to advance the needle into the vein a few millimeters and hold it with your right hand in such a position that the vein is in place. Connect the system to the needle. Fix the needle with a sticky plaster.
Relative contraindications for transfusion of colloidal solutions Blood transfusion plays only an auxiliary role among other therapeutic measures. Anemia (with a decrease in hemoglobin below 80 g / l). Anemia (with a decrease in hemoglobin below 80 g / l). Severe intoxication. Severe intoxication. Ongoing bleeding and coagulation disorder. Ongoing bleeding and coagulation disorder. Decreased immune status. Decreased immune status. Long-term chronic inflammatory processes with decreased reactivity. Long-term chronic inflammatory processes with decreased reactivity. Severe violations of the liver and kidneys; Severe violations of the liver and kidneys; Allergic diseases (bronchial asthma, acute eczema, angioedema); Allergic diseases (bronchial asthma, acute eczema, angioedema); Active tuberculosis in the stage of infiltration. Active tuberculosis in the stage of infiltration.
