Biography of Cicero. The main provisions of Cicero's oratory

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION "CHUVASH STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY IM. I. Ya. Yakovlev"

Department of Communication Technologies

in the discipline "Rhetoric"

Topic: "The rhetorical views of Cicero"

Completed by a student:

IV, SO-01-07, FRF

Smirnova Asya Petrovna

Scientific adviser: Vaganova E. A.

Cheboksary 2011

Introduction……………………………………………………………………3

1. Oratory of ancient Rome and Greece…………………….5

2. Cicero as a speaker…………………………………………………………8

Conclusion………………………………………………………………..16

Bibliography……………………………………………………..17

Introduction

"It seems to me there is nothing more beautiful,

as the ability to use the power of words to control a crowd of listeners, get their hearts, direct their will wherever you want and

warn her wherever you want...”

(M.T.Cicero)

In the history of mankind there are such personalities who, having once appeared, then pass through centuries, through millennia, through all the change of eras and generations accessible to our mental gaze. Such people are truly "eternal companions" of mankind. Moreover, when we talk about them or have them in mind, we can talk about any historical era and any area of human activity. We can talk about political and statesmen, about representatives of science, culture, art. In this sense, there are no restrictions, no conditions. There is only one condition: a tangible contribution made to the development of human society, its material and spiritual existence. Mark Tullius Cicero undoubtedly belongs to the number of such "eternal companions" of mankind.

In the history of rhetoric and oratory, Cicero entered, first of all, as a brilliant stylist and inspired speaker, with his speeches and written compositions, he greatly contributed to the construction, design and persuasiveness of the public speeches of his colleagues and followers. He invariably followed the testament of the greatest orator of antiquity, Demosthenes, who said that in oratory "and the first thing, and the second, and the third is pronunciation."

Three treatises on oratory reflect the rich experience of ancient rhetoric and his own practical experience as the greatest Roman orator. These treatises - "On the Orator", "Brutus, or On the Famous Speakers", "The Orator" - monuments of the ancient theory of literature, ancient humanism, which had a profound influence on the entire European culture.

The relevance of the chosen topic is due to the fact that rhetoric, as you know, is more than two and a half thousand years old, but many problems raised in antiquity are of concern to us today.

The purpose of this work is to analyze the contribution of Cicero to the art of rhetoric.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to consider the oratory of ancient Rome and Greece and the rhetorical concept of Cicero.

1. Oratory of ancient Rome and Greece

Love for a beautiful word, a lengthy and magnificent speech, replete with various epithets, metaphors, comparisons, is already noticeable in the earliest works of Greek literature - in the Iliad and the Odyssey. In the speeches uttered by the heroes of Homer, admiration for the word, its magical power is noticeable - so, it is always “winged” there and can strike like a “feathered arrow”. Homer's poems make extensive use of direct speech in its most dramatic form, dialogue. In terms of volume, the dialogic parts of the poems far exceed the narrative ones. Therefore, the heroes of Homer seem unusually talkative, the abundance and fullness of their speeches is sometimes perceived by the modern reader as prolixity and excess 1 .

The very nature of Greek literature favored the development of oratory. It was much more "oral", so to speak, more designed for direct perception by listeners, admirers of the author's literary talent. Having become accustomed to the printed word, we do not always realize what great advantages the living word, which sounds in the mouth of the author or reader, has over the written word. Direct contact with the audience, the richness of intonation and facial expressions, the plasticity of gesture and movement, and finally, the very charm of the speaker's personality make it possible to achieve a high emotional upsurge in the audience and, as a rule, the desired effect. Public speaking is always an art.

In Greece of the classical era, for the social system of which the form of a city-state, a polis, in its most developed form - a slave-owning democracy, is typical, especially favorable conditions were created for the flourishing of oratory. The supreme body in the state, at least nominally, was the People's Assembly, to which the politician addressed directly. In order to attract the attention of the masses (demos), the speaker had to present his ideas in the most attractive way, while convincingly refuting the arguments of his opponents. In such a situation, the form of speech and the skill of the speaker played, perhaps, no less a role than the content of the speech itself. “The power that iron has in war, the word has in political life,” said Demetrius Falerky.

The theory of eloquence was born from the practical needs of Greek society, and the teaching of rhetoric became the highest level of ancient education. The created textbooks and manuals corresponded to the tasks of this training. They began to appear from the 5th century BC. e., but almost did not reach us. In the IV century BC. e. Aristotle is already trying to generalize the theoretical achievements of rhetoric from a philosophical point of view. According to Aristotle, rhetoric explores the system of evidence used in speech, its style and composition: rhetoric is conceived by Aristotle as a science closely related to dialectics (i.e., logic). Aristotle defines rhetoric as “the ability to find possible ways of persuading about any given subject. He divides all speeches into three types: deliberative, judicial, and epidictic (ceremonial). The matter of deliberative speeches is to persuade or reject, judicial speeches are to accuse or justify, epidictic speeches are to praise or condemn. The topics of deliberative speeches are also determined here - these are finances, war and peace, defense of the country, import and export of products, legislation.

Of the three genres of public speech mentioned in classical antiquity, the deliberative genre, or, in other words, political eloquence, was the most important.

In epidictic speeches, the content often receded before the form, and some of the examples that have come down to us turn out to be a striking example of art for art's sake. However, not all epidictic speeches were empty. The historian Thucydides included in his work a funeral word over the bodies of the fallen Athenian soldiers, put into the mouth of Pericles. This speech, which Thucydides wove with such skill into the fabric of his vast historical canvas, is the political program of Athenian democracy in its heyday, presented in a highly artistic form. It is an invaluable historical document, not to mention its aesthetic value as a monument of art 2 .

The development of eloquence in Rome was largely facilitated by brilliant examples of Greek oratory, which from the 2nd century. BC e. becomes the subject of careful study in special schools.

Passionate speeches were made by politicians, such as the reformers, the Gracchi brothers, especially Gaius Gracchus, who was an orator of exceptional power. Captivating the masses with the gift of words, he also used some theatrical techniques in his speeches.

Among Roman speakers, for example, such a technique as showing scars from wounds received in the struggle for freedom was widespread.

Like the Greeks, the Romans distinguished two directions in eloquence: Asian and Attic.

Atticism was characterized by a concise, simple language, which was written by the Greek orator Lysias and the historian Thucydides. The Attic direction in Rome was followed by Julius Caesar, the poet Lipinius Calv, the republican Mark Julius Brutus, to whom Cicero dedicated his treatise Brutus.

Cicero developed his own, middle style, which combined the features of the Asian and Attic directions.

2. Cicero as an orator

The greatest classic of ancient eloquence and the theorist of oratory was the ancient Roman orator and politician Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BC). Cicero was born on January 3, 106 BC. e. in Arpin, the small town of Latsia. A native of horsemanship - a trading and monetary class, politically unequal with the Senate nobility, Cicero managed to enter the Senate and reach the highest positions solely thanks to his rhetorical talent. Cicero is widely known as a famous orator - his name has even become a household name - he is much less known as a politician and almost completely unknown as a philosopher. This distribution of "aspects" of his fame is not accidental. As a representative of oratory and Roman literature, he firmly entered the history of world culture for centuries; as a politician, he was related to such an era and events that are now of interest only to historians, and, finally, as a philosopher, he can hardly be considered a major and independent thinker who said some new word in this area. And, nevertheless, his philosophical works are of great interest.

Cicero's theory of eloquence occupies a middle position between Asianism and moderate classical Atticism. Cicero believes that the basis of oratory, first of all, is a deep knowledge of the subject; if there is no deep content behind the speech, assimilated and known by the speaker, then the verbal expression is empty and childish chatter. Eloquence is an art, but the most difficult of the arts. Cicero complains that eloquence among all the sciences and arts has the least representatives. And this is no coincidence. In his opinion, there are few truly good speakers, because eloquence is something that is more difficult than it seems. Eloquence is born from many knowledge and skills. “Indeed,” he writes, “after all, here it is necessary to acquire the most diverse knowledge, without which fluency in words is meaningless and ridiculous; it is necessary to give beauty to speech itself, and not only by selection, but also by the arrangement of words; and all the movements of the soul with which nature has endowed the human race must be studied to the subtlety, because all the power and art of eloquence must be manifested in this, either to calm or excite the souls of listeners. To all this must be added humor and wit, education worthy of a free man, speed and brevity, both in reflection and in attack, imbued with subtle grace and good manners. Besides, it is necessary to know the whole history of antiquity in order to draw examples from it; one should also not miss acquaintance with the laws and civil rights. Do I still need to expand on the performance itself, which requires monitoring body movements, gestures, facial expressions, and sounds and shades of voice? .. Finally, what can I say about the treasury of all knowledge - memory? After all, it goes without saying that if our thoughts and words, found and considered, are not entrusted to her for safekeeping, then all the virtues of the orator, no matter how brilliant they may be, will be wasted.

Cicero outlined his views on rhetorical science in the books “On the Orator” (55 BC), which presents the image of the ideal orator-philosopher, “Brutus”, or “On Famous Orators” - the history of Greek and Roman eloquence, “Orator ”(46 BC), which discusses the style of speech and ways to achieve success in speech. Noting the enormous possibilities of eloquence for influencing the masses of people and controlling them, Cicero considered him one of the main instruments of the state. Therefore, he was convinced that any statesman and public figure should master the art of public speech.

The treatises have developed a training program for a real speaker, who has a deep knowledge of the subject and has mastered the theory of eloquence. According to Cicero, learning should begin with the assimilation of "well-known and hackneyed rules", which include knowledge about the purpose of the speech and the tasks of the speaker, common places, types of eloquence, composition of speech, means of decorating it, etc. Without denying the benefits of exercising in impromptu speeches, Cicero emphasized the importance of pre-prepared speeches: “ ... although it is useful to speak often without preparation, it is much more useful to give yourself time to think and then speak more carefully and diligently.

The treatise "On the Speaker" is written in the form of a dialogue, which conditions the discussion. Mark Antony, a proponent of practical eloquence, argues that it is sufficient for the speaker to state his subject clearly. Cicero expresses his views through the mouth of Crassus, who believes that the speaker must understand both rhetorical theory and fiction, history, philosophy and psychology.

In the same treatise, Cicero deals with the construction and content of speech, its design. A prominent place is given to the language, rhythm and periodicity of speech, its pronunciation, and Cicero refers to the performance of an actor who, through facial expressions and gestures, achieves an impact on the soul of the listeners. In the first part of the work "On the Orator", Cicero tries to create the ideal of an educated orator, an orator-politician, who would be both a philosopher and a historian, and would know the law. History, philosophy and law were general subjects at that time. “If we are talking about what is truly excellent,” writes Cicero, “then the palm belongs to the one who is both learned and eloquent. If we agree to call him both an orator and a philosopher, then there is nothing to argue about, but if these two concepts are separated, then philosophers will be lower than orators, because a perfect orator has all the knowledge of philosophers, and a philosopher does not always have the eloquence of an orator; and it is a great pity that philosophers neglect this, for, it seems, it could serve as the completion of their education. This is how the image of an ideal speaker arises, educated and thereby rising above ordinary consciousness, above the crowd, capable of leading it along.

The speaker's duty is to find something to say; put the found in order; give it a verbal form; affirm all this in memory; pronounce. As you can see, Cicero adheres to the established classical scheme, according to the canon of which a five-part division of the rhetorical process is given, that is, the whole path "from thought to sounding public word." In addition, it is the speaker's task to win over the audience; state the essence of the matter; establish a controversial issue; reinforce your position refute the opinion of the enemy; in conclusion, to give shine to their positions and finally overthrow the position of the enemy.

According to Cicero, the most important thing for an orator is the verbal expression of thought and speech. The first requirement for speech is the purity and clarity of the language (expression of thought). Purity and clarity are developed by study and perfected through the reading of exemplary orators and poets. For the purity of speech, it is necessary to choose words flawlessly, to use morphological forms correctly. Clarity of speech is associated with correct, normative pronunciation: the speaker needs to properly control the organs of speech, breathing, and the sounds of speech themselves. “It is not good when sounds are pronounced too strongly; it is also not good when they are obscured by excessive negligence; it is not good when the word is pronounced in a weak, dying voice; it is also not good when they are pronounced, puffing, as if in shortness of breath /.../, there are, on the one hand, such shortcomings that everyone tries to avoid, for example, the voice is weak, feminine or, as it were, unmusical, dissonant and deaf. On the other hand, there is such a drawback that others deliberately seek: for example, some people like the rude peasant pronunciation, because it seems to them that it rather gives their speech a touch of antiquity. The concept of the purity of the language included the normativity of speech ("It is clear that for this you need to speak in pure Latin ..."), that is, the use of normative pronunciation and normative morphological forms and constructions. But this is not enough. Cicero remarks: "After all, no one has ever admired speaker only because he speaks Latin correctly. If he does not know how, he is simply ridiculed, and not only for an orator, and they do not consider him a person.

Two other treatises "Brutus" and "Orator" are dedicated to one of the murderers of Caesar, Mark Junius Brutus. The treatise "Brutus" is a dialogue, Brutus, Atticus and Cicero himself participate in it. However, this is not a lively conversation, the work can rather be called a lecture by Cicero, which outlines the history of Roman rhetoric. Here, as we have already mentioned, there are also polemical thoughts: Cicero criticizes Atticism. Having written this essay, Cicero sent it to Brutus, who was at that time the governor of Cisalpine Gaul. The latter responded, asking for more clarification on certain provisions or, perhaps, disagreeing with something.

Then Cicero wrote the essay "The Orator" - the final work of the rhetorical trilogy. This is a long letter to Brutus: addressing him, the orator explains his opinion. He talks about the requirements for a perfect speaker, his education, and emphasizes that the ideal speaker is the one who, in his speech, both instructs the listeners, and gives them pleasure, and subjugates their will. The first is his duty, the second is the guarantee of his popularity, the third is a necessary condition for success.

Cicero's "Orator" is divided into five parts. These five parts represent five steps, five levels of successive deepening into the subject. The first stage is introductory: introduction, the concept of the ideal image of the speaker, the most general requirements for it: from the content side - philosophical education, from the form side - possession of all three styles. The simple style is designed to convince, the medium style is to please, the high style is to excite and captivate the listener. The second stage is specifically rhetorical: limiting the topic to judicial eloquence, considering "location", "location" and - in violation of the usual order - "pronunciation"; the verbal expression is temporarily set aside for a more detailed analysis. This more detailed analysis of verbal expression is the third step: again there is a separation of the oratorical from the non-oratorical style, again three styles of eloquence are analyzed, the philosophical and scientific training of the speaker is again discussed, and some particular questions of the style are additionally considered. Of the three sections of the doctrine of verbal expression, one is selected for further development - the section on the combination of words; this is the fourth step of deepening into the subject. Finally, of the questions that make up the section on word combinations, one stands out and is studied with the greatest care and detail - this is the question of rhythm and its consideration under four headings (origin, reason, essence, use) is the fifth and last step, the limit of deepening the topic (168-237). After that, a short conclusion closes the treatise. The transitions between these five levels are carefully marked by Cicero. The first movement opens with an introductory dedication to Brutus, after which Cicero warns of the difficulties of the subject. Exactly the same dedication and reminder of the difficulties of the topic is repeated at the beginning of the second part. The third part, on verbal expression, has its own little introduction. At the junction of the third and fourth parts, a digression is introduced: is it appropriate for a statesman to talk about rhetoric, delving into such small technical details. And, finally, the fifth part, on rhythm, is again introduced with a special introduction, a kind of apologia for rhythm, which is even followed by a separate plan for the subsequent presentation. Thus, in five stages, a gradual disclosure of the theme of the treatise is made: the author quickly deals with questions that are of little interest to him in order to move on to more and more important questions and, finally, delve into the theme of oratorical rhythm, a detailed analysis of which serves as the crown of the work. At the same time, questions that occupy the author relentlessly arise, repeating themselves, at several levels of research: for example, philosophical education and three styles of eloquence are discussed in detail twice: in the introductory section and in the section on verbal expression 4 .

Preaching the ideal of the speaker, Cicero saw in the speaker a citizen of high culture, constantly enriching his knowledge by reading literature, studying history, and being interested in philosophy, law, ethics and aesthetics.

The most important is the contribution of Cicero to the development and improvement of rhetorical text processing techniques. From antiquity, a proverb has come down to us: "It is difficult to say shorter than Caesar, and longer than Cicero." The flexibility of his mind, the flight of his creative and artistic imagination. Each speaker's speech is a harmonious logical structure, decorated with exquisite stylistic means, where content and form create harmony, constitute a single artistic integrity of comprehensive and deep knowledge, a variety of feelings and perfection of presentation. Every speech he makes is a work of art.

Cicero's performance skills were impeccable. Each gesture of the speaker, his facial expressions, eye movements, voice modulation arose under the influence of the corresponding content of the spoken speech, created a magnificent harmony, captivating the listeners. In many ways, the success of the presentation was determined by the voice, which the speaker always had to worry about. He had a strong and beautiful voice, well-trained, capable of expressing a variety of feelings. When Cicero turned his words. Full of anger against Catiline, the voice was harsh, gusty. It sounded with great force, because this speech contains angry and stormy intonations.

All this can be conveyed only with the help of the power and modulation flexibility of the voice. Nature generously endowed the orator with sharpness and an extraordinary ability to introduce various types of humor into the text of speeches. He quite extensively covered the theory of the ridiculous in his treatise On the Orator. All this he skillfully used this sharp weapon against opponents. The oratorical prose of Cicero belongs to the stylistic perfection and accuracy of the statement.

A brilliant stylist, able to express the slightest shades of thought, Cicero was the creator of that elegant literary language, which was considered a model of Latin prose.

Conclusion

So, Cicero entered the history of rhetoric and oratory, first of all, as a brilliant stylist and an inspired speaker, with his speeches and written compositions, he greatly contributed to the construction, design and persuasiveness of the public speeches of his colleagues and followers. Concern about the style of speech, its emotional impact on the listener in the future began to gradually prevail over its content and persuasiveness. Thus, of the three tasks of the orator: to convince, delight and captivate, which Cicero spoke of, after him rhetoric focused on one - the delight of the listener.

The ideal speaker, according to Cicero, is a person who combines in his personality the subtlety of a dialectic, the thought of a philosopher, the language of a poet, the memory of a lawyer, the voice of a tragic poet, and, finally, the gestures, facial expressions and grace of great actors.

The contribution of Cicero to the treasury of world culture is inexhaustible. It is inexhaustible, if only because modern (usually called European) civilization is the direct heir of Roman antiquity. This is known quite widely, it is generally recognized, but for us now it is important to emphasize something else: in the connecting chain, Cicero himself was one of the important links - his personality, his activities, his legacy. Oddly enough, one of his contemporaries was able to foresee this special character of posthumous glory, who said about Cicero this way: “His triumph and laurels are more worthy than the triumph and laurels of a commander, for he who expanded the limits of the Roman spirit is preferable to the one who expanded the limits of Roman domination.” The contemporary who said these words was Julius Caesar.

The most important is the contribution of Cicero to the development and improvement of rhetorical text processing techniques.

Bibliography

Zaretskaya, E.N. Rhetoric: Theory and practice of speech communication / E.N. Zaretskaya. - M. : Delo, 2002. - 480 p.

Kuznetsov, I.N. Rhetoric, or oratory / I.N. Kuznetsov. - M. : UNITI, 2004. - 424 p.

Pochikaeva, N.M. Fundamentals of oratory and speech culture / N.M. Pochikaev. - M. : Phoenix, 2003. - 320 p.

Kokhtev, N.N. Fundamentals of oratory. Moscow University / N.N. Kokhtev. - M. : 1992. - 521 p.

Gasparova, M.L. Mark Tullius Cicero. Three treatises on oratory / M.L. Gasparov. - M .: "Nauka", 1972. 75s.

Melnikova, S.V. Business rhetoric (speech culture of business communication): Textbook / S.V. Melnikov. - UlGTU. : 1999. - 106 p.

Utchenko, S.P. Cicero and his time / S.P. Utchenko. - M .: Thought, 1972.

Abstract >> Culture and art

Subsystem (interpersonal space). 2. Sight. 3. Optical-kinetic subsystem, which ... Aristotle, Demosthenes, Mark Thulius Cicero. Rhetorical the ideal of Ancient Greece - ... a wave), 2) visual (management glance), 3) semantic (ensuring adequate ...

Rhetoric (4)
Abstract >> Culture and art
During the Renaissance, experts were interested in rhetorical and philosophical writings Cicero, according to the latter, they got acquainted with Greek ... prose. During the Enlightenment, rationalist philosophical views Cicero influenced Voltaire and Montesquieu...

Cicero as Orator of Republican Rome

1. Introduction

Main part

1 Biography of Cicero

2 Cicero's commitment to the Republic

3 State according to Cicero

4 Oratory of Cicero

Conclusion

Bibliography

The purpose of the work: to reveal the attitude of Cicero to the Republic

Objectives of the work: to show the political views of Cicero in different periods of the Roman Empire, to analyze his commitment to the republican system, to talk about his struggle with the opponents of the republic, to reveal the personality of Cicero.

Introduction

Didn't you teach: life is rich in love;

Not luxury, but friendship will shelter us;

The wise man prefers Socrates to Philo,

And Phidias - Aphrodite's fun ?!

But where is that Rome?

What was the reward?

Your head - at the Roman rostra sticks out ...

V. B. Mironov.

Mark Tullius Cicero is a great ancient Roman orator and politician. His fame has not faded for many centuries. He is known as an excellent orator, politician, philosopher and writer. His works, such as "The Orator", "On the State", "On the Laws" and others, are relevant in our time. His citizenship, patriotism and commitment to democracy attract even modern people.

Professor F. Zelinsky wrote that Cicero "... is the richest of all the personalities bequeathed to us by the ancient world." Biography and activities of Cicero are of great interest. He was a very controversial person. Zelinsky, who saw in Cicero the most complex and comprehensive personality of the Roman Empire, singled out six most important aspects of activity: 1) Cicero's actual state activity; 2) Cicero as a person; 3) Cicero as a writer; 4) Cicero as an orator; 5) Cicero as a philosopher; 6) Cicero as a teacher of subsequent generations. In this report, it is necessary to consider in more detail only the political views of Cicero, his attitude to the state system of the Roman Empire.

It is known that Cicero was an ardent supporter of the republic, not recognizing any other political system. But in fact, this is not entirely true. With all his verbal bows and praise to republicanism, he himself "had a penchant for Caesarism." This apparent duality of his nature is explained both by innate qualities and by the conditions in which he had to act, struggle and work. On the other hand, perhaps it is precisely the contradictory and very ambiguous nature of Cicero's personality that makes her so attractive.

The authors who consider this topic have similar points of view. The role of Cicero in the development of the republic is obvious. But, at the same time, not quite unambiguous assessments of his political activity are given. Cicero was the first of those people who in history were "sometimes the support of the state, then the creators of the revolution, legal advisers, publicists in the pagan empire." Cicero may have made major political mistakes, but his political role is nonetheless equated with that of Caesar. Cicero did a lot for his fatherland and, in spite of everything, was always considered a true patriot. For Rome, he became something like “Pushkin for Russia, Goethe for Germany, Dante for Italy” (G. Knabe).

Cicero is a talented, widely educated person, possessing a sharp mind and a wonderful gift for words, but at the same time painfully ambitious, petty conceited, unrestrainedly boastful, indecisive, easily discouraged and at the slightest failure, succumbing to other people's influences and opinions, hypocritical, deceitful and, finally, even cowardly. This is how he was described as a person. We are more familiar with his somewhat idealized image. But, it should be noted that personal qualities also influenced Cicero's political beliefs. Perhaps, if he had been more resolute and firm, the ideal system for Cicero would have triumphed in the Roman Empire.

Thus, the personality and political views of Cicero deserve special attention. More than one generation of people will show interest in relation to Cicero. His name will last forever.

Biography of Cicero

Mark Tullius Cicero was born on January 3, 106 BC. e. near the city of Arpina. His father came from the equestrian class. When Cicero was 7 years old (according to other sources 15), his father moved to Rome to give his two sons a decent education.

The fact that Cicero was not a native Roman, but a migrant, from those whom the Romans called "new people" (homines novi), influenced his career. Such people wanted to rise in any way, to become famous. Cicero dreamed of becoming a consul. He repeatedly said later that his youth was entirely devoted to studies, that he devoted them "days and nights" without a break. Cicero studied rhetoric, philosophy and law. Just in his youth, Cicero wrote his first "scientific work" - a textbook on rhetoric, usually called "On the Selection of Material" (although later Cicero spoke of him as "an immature and unfinished work"). Cicero stubbornly sought to make a good career and was ready to make every effort to do so.

The first court speech of Cicero that has come down to us was delivered in defense of a certain Publius Quinctius, who was the brother-in-law of the actor Roscius, who in turn was in close relations with Cicero (81). The participation of Cicero in this process and the protection of Quinctius were of some importance for his future career. Cicero was forced from the very beginning to seek the patronage of some noble Roman family. His mentor in the field of recitation, Roscius was a freedman of the Roscii family - representatives of the municipal aristocracy. In turn, the Roscii family was quite closely connected with the Metellus, one of the most noble and influential Roman families. All these connections and relationships, of course, were taken into account by Cicero and were far from being indifferent to him. The outcome of this case is not known for certain, but Cicero probably won this process, because the next year he defended at the trial a member of the aforementioned Roscii family. And this process was much louder than the case of Publius Quinctius, because Chrysogonus, an associate of Sulla, the dictator of that time, was involved in it. Cicero, fearing for his life, tried not to interfere with Sulla in this matter, shielding him in every possible way. However, the danger was still there. Some scholars believe that Roscius' defense did not put Cicero in any danger. Most likely, it is not. Despite the fact that the speech at the trial and the justification of Roscius brought great fame to Cicero, he chose to leave Rome, fearing the revenge of Sulla and his entourage, and not at all because of poor health and the advice of doctors (Plutarch's version).

Cicero was absent for two years. During this time he visited Athens, Asia Minor and Rhodes. There, Cicero received a lot of new knowledge. He returned to Rome only after the death of Sulla. However, he was in no hurry to engage in state affairs, taking a wait-and-see position for a while. However, in 76 Cicero was elected quaestor. This can be seen as the beginning of his social and political career. He went to Sicily and earned fame and love of the local population there. But the thirst for greater glory led Cicero back to Rome. He began to appear in public as often as possible, to speak at the Forum, in courts. During this period, Cicero brilliantly won the process of Verres (5 speeches written for this process have survived to this day and are of particular value). After this, Cicero was elected praetor. Now it was not so long before he reached the consulship. True, for him - a stranger, an alien, an "upstart", this task was by no means simple and not easily achievable. Moreover, his popularity as a lawyer could not compensate for the extreme vagueness and lack of formality of his political position. He simply did not yet have a solid reputation as a politician. His political position was rather cautious, "average", and therefore rather vague. And that was bad for his career. Cicero understood this very well, and therefore unexpectedly took a decisive and successful move - an open public speech in support of Pompey. Pompey was in those years the most popular figure among the military and political figures of Rome. His successful actions and victory over the Mediterranean pirates in 67 made him literally the idol of the Roman crowd. Cicero's support for Pompey was that Cicero delivered a speech in the Forum in defense of the bill of the tribune Manilius. It was the first purely political speech of the famous orator. The essence of the matter boiled down to the following: the Romans waged a protracted war with the Pontic king Mithridates (who was later joined by the Armenian king Tigranes) under the command of Lucullus, but after a major victory, the Roman troops again began to fail. It was in this situation that the tribune of the people, Gaius Manilius, made a proposal to transfer the supreme command in the protracted war to Gnaeus Pompey. Under this bill, Pompey received unlimited power over the entire army and fleet in the East and the rights of the governor in all Asian provinces and regions up to Armenia. This speech had sufficient persuasiveness and, no doubt, the law of Manilius was approved.

In 63 BC Cicero was elected consul. It was his first real victory. His main rival Catiline advocated revolutionary change if he was elected consul, but the Romans opposed this and cast their votes for Cicero. However, after the defeat in the elections, Catiline began to plot a conspiracy to seize power, which Cicero managed to uncover. He made the famous Four Senate Orations against Catiline, which are still famous as a model of oratory, and this forced Catiline to flee Rome. His accomplices, by decision of Cicero, were executed. After this, the flowering of Cicero's career began. They began to revere him, and Cato even called him "the father of the fatherland." However, not everything was so smooth. Here is what Plutarch writes: “Many were imbued with hostility and even hatred for him - not for any bad deed, but only because he endlessly praised himself. Neither the Senate, nor the people, nor the judges were able to gather and disperse without once again listening to the old song about Catiline ... he flooded his books and writings with boasts, and his speeches, always so harmonious and charming, became torment for the listeners.

Hard times for Cicero came after the formation of the First Triumvirate, which included Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus. Each of them tried to attract Cicero to his side, seeing him as a good ally. However, Cicero, after hesitating, finally refused to support any of them, citing his preference to remain true to the ideal of the Republic. Cicero failed to ensure his own safety. His uncertain position left him open to attack by opponents, including the tribune.<#"justify">1.A people is a special community of people;

2.The people are considered as a spiritual and social community of people united by common ideas about law and common interests;

.Law is considered as the basis for the unification of the people, whose “property” is the state.

Cicero considered the best form of government, as already mentioned, a mixed system. The strength of the state depends on the inviolability of laws. “The law is a decision that distinguishes the just from the unjust and is expressed in accordance with the most ancient principle of all things - nature, with which human laws are consistent, punishing bad people with execution and protecting and protecting the honest.” Cicero defined justice as the absence of injustice.

Cicero had a great influence on the development of the norms of natural law. He called on philosophy to become an assistant, a pilot of all the legal activities of the Roman state. The world is ruled by a higher mind. He must fulfill the role of universal law. This law is based on four types of virtue leading to perfection - wisdom, courage, moderation and justice. Here Cicero, as we see, was very close to the attitudes of the philosopher Epicurus.

Cicero believed that statesmen should be educated and give a lot of strength to the state. Cicero himself, preparing himself for state activity, wanted to become "the best person, useful to his state." It was he who was one of the first to declare the need to carefully prepare and train the elite of the state so that it could fulfill its mission. He wrote: “Personally, I gave everything that I gave to the state (if I gave it anything at all), I gave, having started the state activity prepared and instructed ... by teachers and their teachings.”

Cicero also said that only the most honest, wisest and strong-willed people should be at the head of the state. Otherwise, the government will collapse. And, besides, according to Cicero, the viciousness of the rulers makes the state power bad.

Oratory of Cicero

I think it would not be superfluous to say about the oratorical talent of Cicero. Perhaps if he had not become famous as an orator, his political career would not have taken place or would not have been so successful.

In general, Galba (II century BC) was considered the first speaker in Rome. He was the first, according to Cicero, “began to use in his speech special techniques characteristic of orators: he retreated from the main theme for the sake of beauty, enchanted listeners, excited them, went into distribution, aroused compassion, used common places.” But Cicero developed all these qualities, and it was thanks to him that they were elevated to the ideal of eloquence. Cicero wrote the work "The Orator", in which the characteristics of the best orator were just given. This work talked about the techniques that are necessary for the development of eloquence and what a speaker should do during speeches. In particular, Cicero argued that it is not enough just to speak beautifully, you also need to have knowledge in many areas, for example, in law, history, philosophy, literature, politics, military affairs and many others. He believed that philosophy in this series of sciences comes first, since it is "the mother of everything that is well done and said." Philosophy provides the orator with the raw material for eloquence.

In addition, eloquence is the art of not only speaking, but also thinking. The power of eloquence lies in the fact that it "comprehends the beginning, essence and development of all things, virtues, duties, all laws of nature that governs human morals, thinking and life." With its help, customs, laws, rights are determined and specified. Thanks to him, the rulers can attract the attention of the people. With his speech, the speaker must "convince, delight, captivate."

Cicero, thanks to his speeches, not only earned enduring fame, but also became a model of an ideal orator. They provide an excellent example of the varied use of the rules and techniques of eloquence. But Cicero could not but pay attention to the language, to the verbal formulation of his thoughts. Therefore, all speeches published by Cicero himself were subjected to careful literary processing and editing (only five speeches against Verres and the second Philippic belong to speeches written but not delivered). In some cases, the processing of speeches was so thorough that they differed significantly from the original version in form, content and the impression they made.

The literary language of Cicero ("rich and ornamented") can be defined as the "Rhodian style", that is, a style that represented a cross between the two main trends in rhetoric: Asianism and Atticism. In any case, using the example of the work of Cicero “The Orator” discussed above, one can be convinced of the negative attitude of Cicero to the “dry and lifeless” type of eloquence of the Neo-Atticians. At the same time, in the later period of his oratorical activity (especially during the years of Caesar's dictatorship), Cicero tends to a more strict and moderate type of eloquence.

As an orator, Cicero makes wide and versatile use of compositional and purely stylistic devices, such as digressions, characterizations, historical examples, quotations from Latin and Greek authors, witticisms and wordplay, rhythm, alternation of short and long syllables, euphonious endings, etc. By the way, in the final part of the treatise "Orator" Cicero writes quite sharply about the issues of rhythmic periodization of speech, criticizing the Atticists.

Cicero is also known as a lover of wit and apt, often even offensive and caustic words. Sometimes he said things that in this or that situation should not have been said. By doing this, he made himself more than one mortal enemy. Plutarch has many examples of this. He even complained that Cicero, reveling in the power of his own word, "violated all decorum."

Cicero could not refrain from caustic remarks and witticisms, not only in court or at the Forum, but also in such an environment where it was by no means safe for him. For example, once in Pompey's camp, he did not hide his skepticism about all his plans and preparations and, according to Plutarch, "always walked around the camp gloomy, without a shadow of a smile on his lips, but causing unnecessary, even inappropriate laughter with his witticisms."

Cicero published more than a hundred speeches, political and judicial, of which 58 have been preserved in full or in significant fragments. We also have 19 treatises on rhetoric, politics and philosophy, from which many generations of lawyers who studied many of Cicero's techniques have learned the art of oratory. More than 800 of his letters have also been preserved, containing a lot of biographical information and a lot of valuable information about Roman society at the end of the republic period.

Summing up, we can say that Cicero, as an orator, possessed all the qualities that, in accordance with the requirements of ancient theory, were necessary for a master of the word. These are, firstly, natural talents, the practice and art of eloquence as such, that is, that sum of general knowledge and special techniques, the mastery of which comes as a result of special training. Cicero himself spoke of this as follows: “There is not a single positive feature or feature in any kind of oratory, which we would not try to identify, if not perfectly, then at least approximately, in our speeches.”

Conclusion

In this essay, I tried to reveal not only the essence of Cicero's political activity, but also his personality. There are many conflicting opinions about Cicero. Each era has contributed to the idea of him. Usually, some individual characteristic features of his character or activity were singled out and emphasized, which, for one reason or another, turned out to be most consonant with the mentality of the era; this trait was then predominantly developed. Cicero's contemporaries did not show as much interest in him as subsequent generations. It is known that they began to revere Cicero from the Renaissance, when antiquity was elevated to a cult. His work has had a strong influence on religious thinkers of all times, in particular St. Augustine, representatives of the revival<#"justify">Bibliography:

)

) "World History", vol. 2 - M., 1956

)F. Zelinsky "Cicero in the history of European culture", essay - 1896

)BUT. Losev "History of ancient aesthetics", v. 5

)AT. Mironov "Ancient Rome"

)WITH. Utchenko "Cicero and his time" - M., publishing house Thought, 1972

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Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine

Mariupol State University

Faculty of Philology

abstract

By subject"Communicative Strategies and Tactics of Speech"

On the topic"The Oratory of Cicero"

Voloshchuk A.A.

Teacher

Karpilenko V.A.

Mariupol, 2011

Oratory of Cicero

The greatest classic of ancient eloquence and the theoretician of oratory was the ancient Roman orator and politician Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC).

Cicero was born into a family of equestrian class in the small town of Arpine. When the future orator turned 15, his father moved to Rome to give his sons a good education.

One of his first speeches that have survived to this day, “In Defense of Roscius,” Cicero delivered in censure of the freedman and favorite of the dictator Sulla, which was a risky step at a time when Sulla widely used proscriptional executions in order to get rid of objectionable people. Fearing the revenge of the dictator, Cicero, who won the process, went to Athens, where he continued to study philosophy and rhetoric.

After the death of Sulla, he returned to Rome, where he began to act as a defender in court.

In 75 BC. e. Cicero was elected quaestor and was assigned to Sicily, where he supervised the export of grain during a shortage of bread in Rome. With his justice and honesty, he earned the respect of the Sicilians, but in Rome his successes were practically not noticed.

Cicero became more widely known after the case of Verres, the former governor of Sicily. In 70 BC. e., filing a lawsuit against Verres for extortion, the Sicilians turned to Cicero for help, remembering his oratorical talents. The praetors, bribed by Verres, dragged out the proceedings so much that they did not leave Cicero time to deliver an accusatory speech before the start of the holidays, but he so skillfully presented to the judges evidence and testimonies of witnesses who accused the governor of bribery, extortion, outright robbery and murder of Sicilians and even Roman citizens, that his speech decided the matter, and Verres was forced into exile. In 69 BC. e. Cicero is elected curule aedile, and in 66 BC. e. - praetor.

In 63 BC. e. Cicero was elected to the position of consul, being the first "new man" in the previous 30 years to reach this post. His election was facilitated by the fact that his rival, Catiline, spoke openly about his readiness for revolutionary changes if he received the post of consul. This greatly disturbed the Romans, and preference was eventually given to Cicero.

After the defeat in the elections, Catiline began to plot a conspiracy to seize power, which Cicero managed to uncover. “How long, Catiline, will you abuse our patience? How long will you, in your fury, mock us? To what extent will you boast of your insolence, not knowing the bridle? Have you not been alarmed by the night guards on the Palatine, or by the guards that go around the city, or by the fear that seized the people, or by the presence of all honest people, or by the choice of this so securely protected place for the senate, or by the faces and eyes of all those present? Don't you realize that your intentions are revealed?" Thus began Cicero's first speech against Catiline. With four speeches, considered examples of oratory, Cicero forced Catiline to flee from Rome to Etruria. In the subsequent meeting of the Senate, which he presided over, it was decided to arrest and execute without trial those conspirators who remained in Rome, since they posed too great a threat to the state, and the usual measures in such cases - house arrest or exile - would not be effective enough. . Julius Caesar, who was present at the meeting, opposed the execution, but Cato, with his speech, not only denouncing the guilt of the conspirators, but also listing the suspicions that fell on Caesar himself, convinced the senators of the need for a death sentence.

During this period, the fame and influence of Cicero reached their peak; praising his resolute actions, Cato called him the "father of the fatherland".

In 60 BC. e. Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus joined forces to seize power, forming the First Triumvirate. Recognizing the talents and popularity of Cicero, they made several attempts to win him over to their side. Cicero, after hesitating, refused, preferring to remain loyal to the Senate and the ideals of the Republic. However, this left him open to the attacks of his opponents, among them the tribune Clodius, who had taken a dislike to Cicero ever since the orator testified against him at his trial.

Clodius sought the adoption of a law condemning Cicero to exile, as a man who executed Roman citizens without trial or investigation. Cicero turned to Pompey and other influential people for support, but did not receive it; in addition, he was subjected to physical persecution by the followers of Clodius. April 58 B.C. e. he was forced to go into voluntary exile. In his absence, the law was passed, his property was confiscated, and his houses were burned.

September 57 B.C. e. Pompey took a tougher stance towards Clodius (the reason for this was the attacks of the tribune). Pompey expelled him from the forum and achieved the return of Cicero from exile with the help of the popular tribune Titus Annius Milo.

In 51 B.C. e. he was appointed by lot the governor of Cilicia, where he successfully ruled, stopped the rebellion of the Cappadocians without resorting to weapons, and also defeated the robber tribes of Aman, for which he received the title of "emperor".

After the battle of Pharsalus (48 BC), Cicero refused the command of Pompey's army offered to him, and after a skirmish with Pompey the Younger and other military leaders who accused him of betrayal, he moved to Brundisium. There he met with Caesar and was forgiven by him. During the reign of Caesar, he left the political scene of Rome, unable to come to terms with the dictatorship, and took up writing and translating philosophical treatises.

After the assassination of Caesar in 44 BC. e. Cicero returned to politics, deciding that with the death of the dictator, the republic could be restored.

In the struggle for power between Mark Antony and the young Octavian, Caesar's heir, he took the side of the latter, believing that he could manipulate the young man and use him to gain power. In order to weaken the position of Antony, he delivered 14 speeches directed against him, which he called "Philippics" by analogy with the speeches of Demosthenes, in which he denounced Philip of Macedon. However, when Octavian, thanks to the support provided to him by Cicero, came to power, he entered into an alliance with Antony and Lepidus, forming the Second Triumvirate. Antony ensured that the name of Cicero was included in the proscription lists of "enemies of the people", which the triumvirs made public immediately after the formation of the alliance.

Cicero was killed while trying to escape on December 7, 43 BC. e. When Cicero noticed the killers chasing him, he ordered the slaves carrying him: “Put the palanquin right there,” and then, sticking his head out from behind the curtain, put his neck under the killer’s knife. His severed head and right hand were delivered to Antony and then placed on the forum's oratory.

During his lifetime, Marcus Tullius Cicero published more than a hundred speeches, political and judicial, of which 58 have been preserved in full or in significant fragments. We also have 19 treatises on rhetoric, politics and philosophy, from which many generations of lawyers studied oratory, who studied, in particular, , and such tricks of Cicero as lamentation. Also preserved are more than 800 letters of Cicero, containing a lot of biographical information and a lot of valuable information about Roman society at the end of the republic period.

What are the views of Cicero on oratory? Cicero's theory of eloquence occupies a middle position between Asianism and moderate classical Atticism. In the treatise On the Orator, Cicero complains that eloquence among all the sciences and arts has the least representatives. And this is no coincidence. In his opinion, there are few truly good speakers, because eloquence is something that is more difficult than it seems. Eloquence is born from many knowledge and skills. " In fact, - he writes, - after all, here it is necessary to acquire the most diverse knowledge, without which fluency in words is meaningless and ridiculous; it is necessary to give beauty to speech itself, and not only by selection, but also by the arrangement of words; and all the movements of the soul with which nature has endowed the human race must be studied to the subtlety, because all the power and art of eloquence must be manifested in this, either to calm or excite the souls of listeners. To all this must be added humor and wit, education worthy of a free man, speed and brevity, both in reflection and in attack, imbued with subtle grace and good manners. Besides, it is necessary to know the whole history of antiquity in order to draw examples from it; one should also not miss acquaintance with the laws and civil rights. Do I still need to expand on the performance itself, which requires monitoring body movements, and gesticulation, and facial expressions, and sounds and shades of voice? .. Finally, what can I say about the treasury of all knowledge - memory? After all, it goes without saying that if our thoughts and words, found and considered, are not entrusted to her for safekeeping, then all the virtues of the orator, no matter how brilliant they are, will be wasted.

Cicero believes that the basis of oratory, first of all, is a deep knowledge of the subject; if there is no deep content behind the speech, assimilated and known by the speaker, then the verbal expression is empty and childish chatter. Eloquence is an art, but the most difficult of the arts.

Here is how, according to Cicero, the formation of the orator takes place: “So, we can say: to a gifted person who deserves support and help, we will pass on only what experience has taught us, so that under our leadership he will achieve everything that we ourselves have achieved without a leader; and we can’t teach it better.” The main thing is the gift of the word, which must be constantly developed.

Cicero analyzes the construction of a judicial speech, which should prove the correctness of what we defend; win over those before whom we speak; direct their thoughts in the right direction for the cause. He dwells on the types of evidence and their application.

The speaker's duty is to find something to say; put the found in order; give it a verbal form; affirm all this in memory; pronounce. As you can see, Cicero adheres to the established classical scheme, according to the canon, which gives a five-part division of the rhetorical process, that is, the whole path "from thought to sounding public word." In addition, it is the speaker's task to win over the audience; state the essence of the matter; establish a controversial issue; reinforce your position refute the opinion of the enemy; in conclusion, to give shine to their positions and finally overthrow the position of the enemy.

The philosophical reasoning of Cicero about morality and eloquence is interesting: “ A true orator must explore, re-listen, re-read, discuss, parse, try everything that a person encounters in life, since the speaker rotates in it, and it serves as material for him. For eloquence is one of the highest manifestations of the moral strength of man; and although all manifestations of moral force are homogeneous and of equal value, yet some types of it surpass others in beauty and brilliance. Such is eloquence: relying on knowledge of the subject, it expresses in words our mind and will with such force that its pressure moves listeners in any direction. But the greater this power, the more absolutely must we combine it with honesty and high wisdom; and if we gave abundant means of expression to people deprived of these virtues, then they would not be made orators, but madmen would be given weapons. Here Cicero, perhaps for the first time, raises the question of the image of the orator so broadly. The word, the art of eloquence is associated with the personality of the speaker, through them the mind, erudition of the speaker, his knowledge, experience, as well as the will that acts on the listeners through speech are expressed. Eloquence is the highest manifestation of the moral strength of man. Therefore, the more moral a person is, the more eloquent, according to Cicero. In this case, eloquence is a boon that the speaker uses for people. The power of oratory, according to Cicero, is necessarily combined with honesty and high wisdom. Only then can speech bring satisfaction to people. If dishonest people use the power of the word, then this powerful weapon will fall into the hands of madmen who can direct it to evil. The philosophical approach to the word as good and hell, as a tool of honest and dishonest people, makes it possible to look at Cicero's theoretical research from the angle of the humanistic direction of rhetorical art, its highest purpose as an exponent of general humanitarian ideas. It is no coincidence that Cicero connects the power of the word with wisdom, noting that the ancients called this science of thinking and speaking, this power of the word wisdom. “After all, in the old days, science,” he remarks, “apparently taught both the red word and the right deed in the same way; and not special teachers, but the same mentors taught people both to live and to speak.

Cicero repeatedly emphasizes that speech should be as exciting as possible, impress listeners as much as possible, and be supported by as many arguments as possible, because arguments are really huge and important material.

Treatises of Cicero

Treatises "Brutus" and "Orator", written in 46 BC. e., he turns to Brutus, a representative of a new, Attic current, defending his point of view. The purpose of these writings is to substantiate the legitimacy and superiority of that oratorical ideal, the path to which Cicero indicated in the dialogue “On the Orator”. He substantiates this trend both from the historical point of view (in Brutus) and from the theoretical point of view (in The Orator). In the dialogue "Brutus, or On Famous Orators," Cicero lists almost all the famous speakers - over two hundred - in chronological order, with brief characteristics of each. For Cicero, Roman eloquence is a matter of national pride, and he is happy to be its first historian. This work is a critical and polemical work, whose purpose is not only to characterize the orators, but mainly to defend and develop those ideas that were expressed in the previous treatise.

In his history of eloquence, he paints a thoughtful picture of historical progress and the gradual ascent of eloquence from insignificance to perfection. Eloquence for Cicero is still not an end in itself, but only a form of political activity, and the fate of eloquence is inextricably linked with the fate of the state. The development of Roman eloquence, according to Cicero, is determined primarily by internal reasons, the breadth and depth of assimilation of Greek culture and the development of Roman culture. On the examples of a critical analysis of the speeches of Greek and Roman orators, he once again affirms the ideas that he expressed in the treatise "On the Orator".

The Orator is the final work of Cicero's rhetorical trilogy. At first, he draws the image of a perfect orator, but makes a reservation: “ Creating the image of a perfect speaker, I will describe him in such a way that, perhaps, no one has ever been.

In this treatise, Cicero speaks most of all about verbal expression and about rhythm, which is dictated by his desire to prove to the atticists - namely, on these issues there was a dispute - that he was right: he sought to defend his right to a majestic and magnificent style, averting accusations of Asianism and denouncing the insufficiency and the weakness of the simplicity preached by the Atticists. He puts forward as an argument the Hellenistic doctrine of three styles of eloquence: high, medium and simple. The simple style is designed to convince, the medium style is to please, the high style is to excite and captivate the listener.

Selected quotes from Cicero

- “Paper does not blush, paper endures everything”

In the letters "To friends" there is an expression "the letter does not blush"

- "Sword of Damocles"

From the ancient Greek myth about the Syracusan tyrant Dionysius the Elder, retold by Cicero in the essay “Tusculan Conversations”

Damocles was jealous of Dionysius, although he flattered him. Wishing to teach a lesson to the flatterer who called him the happiest of people, Dionysius ordered during the feast to put Damocles in his place, after attaching a sharp sword hanging on a horsehair to the ceiling above the throne. This sword was a symbol of the dangers that constantly threatened the ruler.

- "When weapons rattle, the muses are silent"

This proverb is known from Cicero's speech in defense of Milo.

- "Father of History"

Such an honorary title of the Greek historian Herodotus was first given to him by Cicero in his essay On the Laws.

- "Oh times! Oh manners!

Cicero often used in speeches, for example, in the first speech against Catiline. Quoted in Latin: “O tempora! Oh more!”

Cicero in the work “On ...: M. A. Nevskaya “Rhetoric”, M., “Eksmo”, 2005 2. Apresyan G.Z. " Oratory art", M., Moscow State University, 1986 3. Aleksandrov D.N. "Rhetoric", M., "UNITI" ...

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Art as an aesthetic phenomenon

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Dionysius of Halicarnassus, several treatises on oratory art Cicero and etc.). Since the Pythagoreans a lot of attention... and fun. Here Batyo refers oratory art and architecture. Since that time in European culture ...

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Private educational institution

higher professional education

"South Ural Institute of Management and Economics"

Subject: Cicero's Orator. Cicero's contribution to rhetoric

discipline: Rhetoric

Completed by a student

Tamgina Daria Olegovna

Chelyabinsk 2013

Introduction

2. Cicero's rhetoric

3. Treatise Cicero "Orator"

Conclusion

Introduction

There are two arts that can put a person on the highest level of honor: one is the art of a general, the other is the art of a good orator.

Oratory in ancient Rome had a huge driving force. Republican Rome decided its state affairs by debates in the popular assembly, senate and court, where practically every free citizen could speak. Therefore, the possession of the word was a necessary condition for a Roman citizen who wanted to participate in government.

Oratory, nurtured by Roman political life, which formed the basis of the education of a Roman citizen, connected both with law and literature, most fully embodied the Roman national character. Intense public life in Rome during the republic most contributed to the development of oratory, and the relative freedom of speech - to its wide distribution, so that eloquence in this era had a form accessible to the majority, and was, to a certain extent, folk character.

Along with the socio-political reasons that stimulated the development of eloquence in republican Rome and determined its character, another important circumstance that influenced its development was Greek influence, which especially intensified after the establishment of Rome's dominance over the Hellenistic world. The process of assimilation and processing of Greek culture in Rome took place in the struggle between Hellenistic and Roman tendencies within Roman society, by overcoming tendencies alien to Rome in Greek culture.

Having arisen on national Roman soil (the language of laws, debates in the court, the senate, the national assembly), Roman eloquence finally developed and took shape under the influence of Greek oratory, with the help of Greek rhetorical science. Roman oratory reached its highest development in the last century of the republic. Its brilliant representative was Marcus Tullius Cicero. Cicero was the largest and at the same time the last representative of Roman classical eloquence, which reached perfection in his person, as well as a lively connection with the interests of Roman society.

1. Biography of Mark Tullius Cicero

Cicero Marcus Tullius (Cicero Marcus Tullius) - Roman politician, orator, philosopher and writer. Supporter of the republican system. Of his writings, 58 judicial and political speeches, 19 treatises on rhetoric, politics, philosophy, and more than 800 letters have survived. The writings of Cicero are a source of information about the era of civil wars in Rome.

Cicero was born on January 3, 106 AD, in Arpin (Italy), 120 km southeast of Rome, in a family of horsemen. From the age of 90 he lived in Rome, learning eloquence from the jurist Mucius Scaevola Augur. In 76 he was elected quaestor and served as a magistrate in the province of Sicily. As a quaestor, having completed his magistracy, he became a member of the Senate and went through all the stages of his Senate career: at 69 - aedile, 66 - praetor, 63 - consul. As consul, Cicero suppressed Catiline's anti-Senate conspiracy, receiving the honorary title of Father of the Fatherland in recognition of his merits (for the first time in the history of Rome, it was awarded not for military exploits). In 50-51 - governor of the province of Cilicia in Asia Minor. The world, by its very nature, is not only the work of an artist, but the artist himself. Starting in 81 and throughout his life, Cicero delivered political and legal speeches with unfailing success, gaining a reputation as the greatest orator of his time. As the most famous speeches: "In defense of Roscius of Ameria" (80), speeches against Verres (70), "In defense of the poet Archia" (62), four speeches against Catiline (63), "On the answer of the haruspices", "On the Consular Provinces", in defense of Sestius (all three - 56), thirteen speeches against Mark Antony (the so-called Philippics) - 44 and 43.

From the mid-50s, Cicero became more and more immersed in studies of the theory of state and law and the theory of eloquence: "On the State" (53), "On the Orator" (52), "On the Laws" (52). After the civil war of 49-47 (Cicero joined the Senate party of Gnaeus Pompey) and the establishment of the dictatorship of Caesar, Cicero until the end of 44 lived mainly outside of Rome in his rural villas. These years were characterized by a special rise in the creative activity of Cicero. In addition to continuing work on the theory and history of eloquence ("Brutus", "Orator", "On the best form of orators", all three - 46), he created the main works on philosophy, among which the most important and famous are "Hortensius" (45 g .; preserved in numerous extracts and fragments), "Teachings of Academicians" and "Tusculan Conversations" (all - 45); two works of a special genre belong to 44 - “Cato, or On Old Age” and “Lelius, or On Friendship”, where Cicero created idealized and borderline images of the great Romans of the previous century spiritually close to him - Cato Censorius , Scipio Aemilian, Gaius Lelia.

In March 44, Caesar was killed; in December, Cicero returned to Rome to try to convince the senate to defend the republican system from the heirs of Caesar's dictatorship - the triumvirs of Octavian, Antony and Lepidus. His speeches and actions were unsuccessful. At the insistence of Antony, his name was included in the proscription lists, and on December 7, 43, Cicero was killed.

2. Cicero's rhetoric

In the theory of knowledge, Cicero tends to skepticism, believing that there is no criterion for distinguishing real ideas from unreal ones. He considers questions about the highest good, about virtues as the only source of happiness, strives for perfection. Four virtues correspond to such aspiration: wisdom, justice, courage, moderation. His philosophical views formed the basis of his views on oratory.

What are the views of Cicero on oratory? Cicero's theory of eloquence occupies a middle position between Asianism and moderate classical Atticism. In the treatise "On the Orator" he chooses a free form of philosophical dialogue, which allowed him to present the material in a problematic, debatable way, citing and weighing all the arguments for and against. Cicero complains that eloquence among all the sciences and arts has the least representatives. And this is no coincidence. In his opinion, there are few truly good speakers, because eloquence is something that is more difficult than it seems. Eloquence is born from many knowledge and skills. “Indeed,” he writes, “after all, here it is necessary to acquire the most diverse knowledge, without which fluency in words is meaningless and ridiculous; it is necessary to give beauty to speech itself, and not only by selection, but also by the arrangement of words; and all the movements of the soul with which nature has endowed the human race must be studied to the subtlety, because all the power and art of eloquence must be manifested in this, either to calm or excite the souls of listeners. To all this must be added humor and wit, education worthy of a free man, speed and brevity both in reflection and in attack, imbued with subtle grace and good manners. Besides, it is necessary to know the whole history of antiquity in order to draw examples from it; one should also not miss acquaintance with the laws and civil rights. Do I still need to expand on the performance itself, which requires monitoring body movements, and gesticulation, and facial expressions, and sounds and shades of voice? .. Finally, what can I say about the treasury of all knowledge - memory? After all, it goes without saying that if our thoughts and words, found and considered, are not entrusted to her for safekeeping, then all the virtues of the orator, no matter how brilliant they are, will be wasted.

Cicero believes that the basis of oratory is, first of all, a deep knowledge of the subject; if there is no deep content behind the speech, assimilated and known by the speaker, then the verbal expression is empty and childish chatter. Eloquence is an art, but the most difficult of the arts.

The protagonists of his dialogue, whose authority Cicero supported his opinion, were the teachers of his youth, the best orators of the previous generation, Licinius Krase and Mark Antony, as well as their students Sulpicius and Cott and less significant persons.

He supports Plato and Aristotle in that an impressive speech, corresponding to the feelings and thoughts of the listeners, is an inalienable property of the speaker. In these judgments, the psychological direction of the study of oratorical speech was affected: “Who, for example, does not know that the highest power of a speaker is to inflame the hearts of people with anger, or hatred, or sorrow, and from these impulses again turn to meekness and pity? But this eloquence can only be achieved by one who deeply knows human nature, the human soul and the causes that make it flare up and calm down.

What are the most important conditions for a speaker? Firstly, natural talent, liveliness of mind and feelings, development and memorization; secondly, the study of oratory (theory); thirdly, exercises (practice). Actually, there is nothing new in these statements, since Aristotle wrote about this. Nevertheless, Cicero tries to synthesize previous theories, comprehend them and, on their basis, create a generalized theory of oratory.

In the first part of the work "On the Orator", Cicero tries to create the ideal of an educated orator, an orator-politician, who would be both a philosopher and a historian, and would know the law. History, philosophy and law were general subjects at that time. “If we are talking about what is truly excellent,” writes Cicero, “then the palm belongs to the one who is both learned and eloquent. If we agree to call him both an orator and a philosopher, then there is nothing to argue about, but if these two concepts are separated, then philosophers will be lower than orators, because a perfect orator has all the knowledge of philosophers, and a philosopher does not always have the eloquence of an orator; and it is a great pity that philosophers neglect this, for, it seems, it could serve as the completion of their education. This is how the image of an ideal speaker arises, educated and thereby rising above ordinary consciousness, above the crowd, capable of leading it along.

And in other treatises, Cicero constantly raises the question of the relationship between rhetoric and other sciences, in particular philosophy. Each time he steadily comes to the principle of subordinating all sciences to the main oratorical goal. In his rhetorical treatises, one can clearly trace the attitude towards philosophy and law as part of oratorical education and upbringing. One question divided philosophers and rhetoricians: is rhetoric a science? Philosophers have argued that rhetoric is not a science, rhetoricians have argued the opposite. Krase, the protagonist of the dialogue, offers a compromise solution: rhetoric is not a true, that is, speculative science, but it is a practically useful systematization of oratorical experience.

Cicero notes that all other sciences are each closed in itself, and eloquence, that is, the art of speaking sensibly, smoothly and beautifully, has no specific area, the boundaries of which would fetter it. A person who takes up the art of oratory must be able to say decisively about everything that can be encountered in a dispute between people, otherwise he cannot infringe on the title of orator.

Cicero, according to the tradition adopted in Greece, distinguishes three types of speeches: speeches at the forum, speeches in court in civil cases and proceedings, eulogies. However, Antony, the hero of the dialogue, speaking about the types of eloquence, points out that it is inappropriate to equate laudatory eloquence with little practical laudatory eloquence to judicial and political eloquence. As you can see, Cicero in some cases raises debatable questions and does not give clear answers to them. This opinion can be expressed by one actor, while others may agree or disagree with him.

Here is how, according to Cicero, the speaker is formed: “So, we can say: to a gifted person who deserves support and help, we will pass on only what experience has taught us, so that under our leadership he will achieve everything that we ourselves have achieved without a leader; and we can’t teach it better.” The main thing is the gift of the word, which must be constantly developed.

The author discusses the passions aroused by speech. The section on the arousal of passions is set out by him in detail, because in practice most of the speeches of the speakers, and in particular himself, were built taking into account the impact on the psyche of the listeners, but theoretically the ideas of influence were not generalized. Cicero shows the superiority of the psychological approach to eloquence.

He writes about humor and wit, which do not fit well into the rhetorical scheme. The classification of humour, which is not always consistent, is illustrated by examples from Roman oratorical practice and incidental practical comments by Cicero. Thus, he tries to fit the theory of humor into the framework of classical rhetoric, although he himself is convinced that humor is a natural property and cannot be taught.

According to Cicero, the most important thing for an orator is the verbal expression of thought and speech.

The first requirement for speech is the purity and clarity of the language (expression of thought). Purity and clarity are developed by study and perfected through the reading of exemplary orators and poets. For the purity of speech, it is necessary to choose words flawlessly, to use morphological forms correctly. Clarity of speech is associated with correct, normative pronunciation: the speaker needs to properly control the organs of speech, breathing, and the sounds of speech themselves. “It is not good when sounds are pronounced too strongly; it is also not good when they are obscured by excessive negligence; it is not good when the word is pronounced in a weak, dying voice; it is also not good when they are pronounced, puffing, as if in shortness of breath, there are, on the one hand, such shortcomings that everyone tries to avoid, for example, the voice is weak, feminine or, as it were, unmusical, dissonant and deaf. On the other hand, there is such a drawback that others deliberately seek: for example, some people like the rude peasant pronunciation, because it seems to them that it rather gives their speech a touch of antiquity.

The concept of the purity of the language included the normativity of speech (“It is clear that for this you need to speak in pure Latin…”), that is, the use of normative pronunciation and normative morphological forms and constructions. But this is not enough. Cicero remarks: “After all, no one has ever admired an orator just because he speaks Latin correctly. If he does not know how to do this, they simply ridicule him, and not only for an orator, but they do not consider him a person. Further, Cicero summarizes the requirements that are placed on the speaker's speech, believing that if his speech satisfies them, then he approaches the ideal speaker, acting in the right direction for the audience: “Who is admired? Who is considered almost a god among people? The one who speaks harmoniously, deployed, in detail, shining with bright words and vivid images, introducing a certain poetic meter even into the very prose - in a word, beautifully. And the one who speaks as well as the importance of objects and persons requires, he deserves a lot of praise for what can be called relevance and correspondence with the subject.

3. Treatise Cicero "Orator"

Having finished Brutus, Cicero hastened to send the book to its hero, Mark Junius Brutus, who at that time was the governor of Cisalpine Gaul, and he himself set about writing a laudatory word to Cato, the news of whose death had just been heard from Africa. Brutus responded vividly to Cicero's writing. The correspondence of Cicero with Brutus on questions of eloquence was read by Quintilian; if it had come down to us, much would have become clearer to us both in the composition and in terms of the next rhetorical work of Cicero. However, it is clear that Brutus did not agree with all the assessments of old and new speakers proposed by Cicero. Refusing to accept them, he asked Cicero to explain the criteria on which he bases his judgments - mainly, of course, in the field of verbal expression and, in particular, on the issue of oratorical rhythm ("Orator").

In response to this request, Cicero, immediately after the end of the word about Cato, takes up the composition of the treatise "Orator", the final work of his rhetorical trilogy. The treatise was begun, apparently, in the summer of 46 and completed before the end of the year. To clarify the criteria for artistic assessments meant for Cicero to outline an ideal image that combines the highest degree of all virtues and serves as a measure of perfection for all specific works of art. “Since we have to talk about the speaker, it is necessary to say about the ideal speaker, because it is impossible to understand the essence and nature of the subject without presenting it to the eyes in all its perfection, both quantitative and qualitative,” Cicero wrote in his essay “On the Orator "(III, 85).

There, this image of an ideal orator appeared only fleetingly in the speech of the philosophizing Crassus; here he became the center of the whole work. Cicero endlessly emphasizes the ideal perfection of the drawn image, explains it as the Platonic idea of eloquence, imperfect similarities of which are all earthly speakers (8-10, 101), recalls Antony's maxim: "I saw many orators eloquent, but not a single eloquent one": that's about such an embodiment of true eloquence will be discussed. This ideal is unattainable, therefore, all didactic instructions are completely excluded from the treatise: "we will not give any instructions, but we will try to outline the form and appearance of perfect eloquence and tell not about what means it is achieved, but about how it appears to us" let it will be clear that I am speaking not as a teacher, but as a connoisseur." It is this unattainable ideal that is the goal and stimulus for the development of eloquence.

The books "On the Orator" drew an individual path to this goal - the formation of an orator, "Brutus" showed the general path to this goal - the formation of national eloquence, "The Orator" was finally to reveal the very essence of this goal, thereby completing the picture of Cicero's rhetorical system . In the "Orator" Cicero finally abandons the dialogic form. The entire essay is written in the first person, and the author accepts full responsibility for all opinions expressed. The repeated references to Brutus give the work the appearance of a lengthy letter. Out of respect for the atticistic sympathies of Brutus, Cicero does not attempt to construct his work as a consistently polemical pamphlet against the "Young Atticians" and bases the book on the compositional scheme of a rhetorical treatise.

However, the content of the Orator does not fully correspond to this scheme: some sections are of little importance for Cicero's purposes, and he touches on them only in passing, while others, on the contrary, are extremely important in his dispute with the atticists, and he develops them with disproportionate detail. This forces him to make many adjustments to the traditional plan, and as a result, a completely original composition arises that does not find correspondence in any other work of Cicero.

After the books "On the Orator", which clearly break up into large independent pieces - the speeches of the characters, after "Brutus" with its simple stringing of material on a chronological thread, the skillful complexity of the composition of "The Orator" especially attracts attention. Since this issue is still insufficiently covered in the scientific literature, we will dwell on it in a little more detail.

Cicero's "Orator" is clearly divided into five parts. These five parts represent five steps, five levels of successive deepening into the subject.

First stage- introductory: introduction, the concept of the ideal image of the speaker, the most general requirements for it: from the side of content - philosophical education, from the side of form - possession of all three styles. Second step- specially rhetorical: limiting the topic to judicial eloquence, considering "location", "location" and - in violation of the usual order - "pronunciation"; the verbal expression is temporarily set aside for a more detailed analysis. This more detailed analysis of the verbal expression is third stage: again there is a separation of oratorical from non-oratorical syllable, again three styles of eloquence are analyzed, again it is said about the philosophical and scientific preparation of the orator, and some particular questions of the syllable are additionally considered. Of the three sections of the doctrine of verbal expression, one is selected for further development - the section on the combination of words; This - fourth step l recesses in the subject.

Finally, of the questions that make up the section on word combinations, one stands out and is studied with the greatest care and detail - this is the question of rhythm and its consideration under four headings (origin, cause, essence, use) is fifth and last stage, the limit of deepening the treatise. After that, a short conclusion closes the treatise. The transitions between these five levels are carefully marked by Cicero. The first movement opens with an introductory dedication to Brutus, after which Cicero warns of the difficulties of the subject. Exactly the same dedication and reminder of the difficulties of the topic is repeated at the beginning of the second part.

The third part, on verbal expression, has its own little introduction. At the junction of the third and fourth parts, a digression is introduced: is it appropriate for a statesman to talk about rhetoric, delving into such small technical details? And, finally, the fifth part, on rhythm, is again introduced with a special introduction, a kind of apologia for rhythm, which is even followed by a separate plan for the subsequent presentation. Thus, in five stages, a gradual disclosure of the theme of the treatise is made: the author quickly deals with questions that are of little interest to him in order to move on to more and more important questions and, finally, delve into the theme of oratorical rhythm, a detailed analysis of which serves as the crown of the work. At the same time, questions that occupy the author relentlessly arise, repeating themselves, at several levels of research: for example, philosophical education and the three styles of eloquence are discussed in detail twice: in the introductory section and in the section on verbal expression.

It is easy to see that two of the five sections of the Orator stand out in volume and thoroughness: the third is about verbal expression, the fifth is about rhythm; taken together, they occupy almost two-thirds of the entire composition. This is explained by the fact that it was on these issues that the dispute between Cicero and the Atticists reached its greatest acuteness. We saw this from the reports of Tacitus and Quintilian cited above: when the atticists reproached Cicero for pomposity, vagueness and verbosity, they were talking about verbal expression, and when they talked about brokenness and looseness, it was precisely the rhythm that was meant. Quintilian also mentions another accusation against Cicero - in strained and cold jokes; but Cicero hardly stops there.

In the question of verbal expression, the main thing for Cicero was to defend his right to a majestic and magnificent style, averting accusations of Asianism and exposing the insufficiency and weakness of the simplicity preached by the Atticists. As his weapon in this struggle, Cicero chooses the Hellenistic doctrine of three styles of eloquence: high, medium and simple. In the dialogues "On the Orator" and "Brutus" he hardly touched on this theory, the more he talks about it here. The doctrine of the three styles of eloquence Cicero puts in direct connection with the doctrine of the three tasks of eloquence: a simple style is designed to convince, an average style to please, a high style to excite and captivate the listener. Such a dependence of form on content was determined in ancient aesthetics by the concept of relevance; Cicero accepts Theophrastus concept of relevance, but from a narrow rhetorical meaning he elevates it to a general philosophical one, related to all areas of life.

In fact, for him it is the key to the entire aesthetics of The Orator: just as an intelligible ideal is united in its abstraction from everything earthly, so relevance determines its real appearance in specific earthly circumstances. Such a philosophical understanding of the concept of relevance was the work of the Stoics, especially Panetius; together with stoicism, it was part of the practical philosophy of Cicero and found its fullest expression in his later treatise On Duties. In the ancient rhetorical literature that has come down to us, the convergence of the three tasks and three styles of eloquence is found here for the first time: perhaps it was introduced by Cicero himself, perhaps gleaned from some undistributed theory of Hellenistic rhetoricians.

In any case, for Cicero this move was winning. Since speech, admittedly, must meet all three tasks facing eloquence, the ideal speaker must master all three styles, using one or the other, depending on the content. Cicero gives examples of this use of all three styles from Demosthenes' speech about the wreath and from his own speeches. The name of Demosthenes serves for him as a pledge of "atticism", and he does not tire of repeating that only this dominance over all oratory means is real atticism. The Roman orators, who claim this name, limit themselves to one simple style, instead of the omnipotent Demosthenes, they take the one-sided Lysius as a model, and thereby endlessly narrow their concept of Attic eloquence. Moreover, Cicero denies even perfect mastery of this simple style to the atticists.

In his classification of the three styles, he singles out both the simple and the high style, two types each: one natural, rough and unfinished, the other skillful, calculated and rounded. This division also does not occur anywhere else and is clearly invented by Cicero. Cicero attributes the eloquence of the Roman atticists to a lower form, the eloquence of their Greek models to a higher form: the simplicity of Lysias and Thucydides was the result of thoughtful and subtle art (Cicero gives a detailed description of this art, describing the ideal simple style, and the simplicity of their Roman imitators is the result of thoughtlessness and Not in strength, but in weakness, Roman orators imitate Greek models: "After all, with us now everyone praises only what he himself is able to imitate."

Condemning the Roman atticists, Cicero also takes care to dissociate himself from the extremes of the traditional pompous style, branded with the nickname "Asianism". Indeed, much in the speeches of Cicero, especially in the early ones, could easily attract accusations of Asian pretentiousness and pretentiousness. To avoid this, Cicero, already in Brutus, renounced his early stylistic manner, describing how, in his studies in Rhodes, he got rid of all youthful excesses and returned to Rome "not only more experienced, but almost reborn." In the Orator he repeats this renunciation, which, however, does not prevent him from citing examples from his earlier speeches as examples. Moreover, speaking of the difference between Attic and Asian eloquence, he carefully limits the term "Asiatic" to its geographical meaning, denying the applicability of this term even to Rhodian eloquence: he does not want the exact term to become an irresponsible nickname.

In parallel with the theme of verbal expression, another theme develops in the Orator, not directly related to the dispute about atticism, but inevitable for Cicero when characterizing the ideal orator: the theme of philosophical education. He lists the philosophical problems that the speaker needs to know, again requires the speaker to have knowledge in the field of history and law, again refers to the legend that Pericles studied with Anaxagoras, and Demosthenes from Plato, and, finally, appeals to his own experience: " if I am an orator, then it was not rhetorical schools that made me an orator, but the expanses of the Academy. In the work addressed to Brutus, these considerations play a special role: they should remind Brutus of the philosophical interests that make him related to Cicero (Brutus diligently studied the academic philosophy that Cicero considered himself an adherent of), and thereby draw him to Cicero from the atticists.

It should be noted that throughout the entire treatise, Cicero talks to Brutus about the atticists as if Brutus obviously had nothing to do with them and was a complete adherent of Cicero. With these two cross-cutting themes - verbal expression and philosophical education - two digressions are closely related, located in the very middle of the treatise and, at first glance, weakly connected with the surrounding sections. The first of them is devoted to the general question and amplification - this is, as it were, an illustration of the usefulness of philosophical knowledge for eloquence. The second of them speaks of ethos and pathos, i.e. about the art of arousing passions - this is, as it were, a description of the effectiveness of that high style that Cicero requires from a true orator and which atticists refuse. Here Cicero speaks most directly on his own behalf and most frankly glorifies his own successes in eloquence, unequivocally hinting that his own speeches represent the closest approximation to the unattainable ideal of the Orator.

This place was prepared by another, not long before him, where Cicero quotes examples from his speeches and declares: “In no way is there such oratorical dignity that would not be in our speeches, if not in a perfect form, but at least in the form of an attempt or outline." In our place, Cicero praises himself almost without reservation: "There is no such means to excite or calm the soul of the listener, no matter what I have tried; I would say that I have achieved perfection in this if I were not afraid to seem arrogant ...".

A special place in the treatise is occupied by a discussion on grammatical topics, which occupies almost the entire section on the connection of words: the author himself recognizes it as a digression, expanded more extensively than the main theme requires. This is Cicero's response to the dispute between "analogues" and "anomalists", which has occupied ancient philology for more than a century. It was about what is considered "correct", normative in the language: forms that follow theoretically established uniform rules, or forms that are practically used in colloquial and literary language? The analogists held the first glance, the anomalists the second. What was the attitude of the rhetoricians - atticists to this grammatical dispute?

In Greece, the Atticists were clearly on the positions of anomalism: the model for them was not the theoretical rules, but the practical usage of the Attic classics. Rome did not have its own ancient classics, and therefore the orators involved in the development of the norms of the Latin language could refer either to the practice of modern colloquial speech of an educated society, or to the theory of grammatical uniformity. The first path, the path of taste, as we know, was taken by Cicero; the second path, the path of science, was taken by the Atticists, sensitive, as always, to the scientific Hellenistic fashion. Here the ally of the Atticists turned out to be such a prominent writer and orator as Julius Caesar; the manifesto of Roman analogism was Caesar's essay "On Analogy", written in 53 and dedicated to Cicero, which has not come down to us.

In the Oratore, Cicero took the opportunity to object to the grammatical views of his literary opponents, the Atticists, and his political adversary, Caesar (of course, Caesar's name is not mentioned). He piles up a lot of examples, sometimes unrelated to each other, sometimes misinterpreted (but such was the general level of the then grammar: the learned Varro himself made such mistakes all the time); however, all of them are united again and again by the assertion of the primacy of taste over knowledge. "Check with the rules - they will condemn; turn to hearing - he will approve; ask why so - he will say that it is more pleasant." And taste is a concept that eludes scientific dogmatization and is based only on the ideas of the general public - the same public that atticists do not want to reckon with.

Actually, the discourse on rhythm, which occupies so much space in the Orator, looks like the same digression, almost "a treatise within a treatise". The fact is that of all the rhetorical innovations of Cicero, the most significant (or, in any case, the most noticeable for contemporaries) was precisely the rhythmization of phrases, concern for the euphony of intonational cadences. The ascetic taste of the Atticists must have resented this most of all; and, indeed, Brutus, in his letters to Cicero, asked him about the rhythm of special explanations. Cicero readily responded: he was proud of his innovation and felt safe, because he could here refer to Aristotle, and Theophrastus, and Isocrates. True, the theory of rhythm in the presentation of Cicero turned out to be not very harmonious and clear.

Introducing rhythm into Latin speech, Cicero was guided rather by his own hearing than by Greek instructions, and therefore the theoretical understanding of his own practice was not easy for him. Researchers who put a lot of work into the study of rhythm in Cicero's speeches testify that the statements of the "Orator" do not always coincide with Cicero's real preferences. This is especially evident where Cicero gives examples of rhythmic speech and is forced to go to great lengths to connect them with his theory. The order of presentation is also inconsistent: the plan of the entire section on rhythm, outlined by Cicero, turns out to be insufficient, and the plan of the main subsection on the essence of rhythm turns out to be inconsistent.

It is even more difficult for the modern reader to understand Cicero's reasoning about rhythm, because our ear no longer has the direct sensation of the rhythm of long and short Latin syllables, and the real expressiveness of Cicero's rhythms remains hidden to us. However, the general meaning of the section is not in doubt. The rhythm in human speech is laid down by nature, felt by the ear, differs in taste, and since speech is a work of art addressed to all listeners, and not a work of science, designed only for connoisseurs, it must also use this means of expression. This is the main thesis of Cicero. The theme of rhythm becomes an exemplary argument in the polemic against the atticists, and in this function successfully completes the treatise with a victorious attack: "I, the champion of rhythm, can speak non-rhythmically without difficulty at the first request; and my opponents, the subverters of rhythm, can they also is it easy to speak rhythmically? Hardly, and if this is so, then their whole theory, their whole atticism is not the self-consciousness of talent, but a cover for mediocrity.

Such is the content of the Orator, the most sublimely philosophical and the most narrowly technical of Cicero's three rhetorical works. One circumstance draws attention to itself. That feeling of the tragedy of modernity, which is permeated with "Brut", is not in the "Orator". Only twice do mentions of "time hostile to virtue" and "sorrow, which I oppose" slip through. One might think that the civil grief that filled Cicero at the sight of Caesar's triumph resulted in the work that preceded the "Orator" - in a laudatory word to Cato. This little book gained an easily understandable noisy fame, aroused imitation (Brutus, its addressee, also wrote a similar panegyric to Cato) and, of course, could not please Caesar and his supporters: Caesar himself took up his pen to compose an answer to Cicero called "Anticatone" .

The cautious Cicero must have been very alarmed; with his usual suspiciousness, he became worried that he had gone too far, and in the "Orator" he hastens to mention that he wrote "Cato" only to please Brutus. Next to the ardent praise of Brutus's administrative wisdom and learning, this looks like a request for intercession addressed to Caesar's favorite and viceroy. And so it was understood by contemporaries. Understandably, under such circumstances, Cicero did not want to irritate Caesar with any political allusions in his treatise and focused only on rhetorical topics.

Having finished The Orator, Cicero actively takes care of its publication and distribution, sends a letter to Atticus asking him to correct an error in the copies he has in correspondence, sends his book to friends and asks them for a response. “I am very glad that you approve of my Orator,” he writes to one of them. I convince myself that I have expressed in this book all my opinion about eloquence, which I had. it seemed to you, then I, therefore, am worth something; if this is not so, then let my book and my critical abilities equally suffer in the general opinion.

eloquence orator rhetoric cicero

Conclusion

The ideal orator, according to Cicero, is a person who combines in his personality the subtlety of a dialectician, the thought of a philosopher, the language of a poet, the memory of a lawyer, the voice of a tragic poet, and, finally, the gestures, facial expressions and grace of great actors. The contribution of Cicero to the treasury of world culture is inexhaustible. It is inexhaustible, if only because modern (usually called European) civilization is the direct heir of Roman antiquity. This is known quite widely, it is generally recognized, but for us now it is important to emphasize something else: in the connecting chain, Cicero himself was one of the important links - his personality, his activities, his legacy.

Oddly enough, one of his contemporaries was able to foresee this special character of posthumous glory, who said about Cicero this way: “His triumph and laurels are more worthy than the triumph and laurels of a commander, for he who expanded the limits of the Roman spirit is preferable to the one who expanded the limits of Roman domination.” The contemporary who said these words was Julius Caesar. The most important is the contribution of Cicero to the development and improvement of rhetorical text processing techniques.

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Rhetoric (4)

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