SEMANTIC SPACE - proposed by the American physicist D. Bohm, the model of the integrity of the world as a comprehensive movement (Holomovement). He set the task of constructing a concept that, within the framework of a single methodological approach, would unite the material Universe and consciousness. The fundamental distinguishing feature of Bohm's cosmology is the recognition of the inseparable unity of reality, its indivisible integrity. From this point of view, we are part of a whole that has the ability to generate ideas about itself and register them within itself. This paradigm of united being is reminiscent of the Indian concept of akasha.
In Russia, a similar approach was developed by the mathematician and philosopher V.V. Nalimov. However, in his concept, meanings and matter are not different manifestations of a single reality, as in Bohm, but two autonomous realities - the physical world and the semantic world, which are directly interconnected through the geometry of the world. According to Nalimov, this approach has the advantage that it creates the preconditions for constructing a super-unified field theory that will unite both layers of reality. Giving meanings an independent existence as a special reality, Nalimov formulates the basic axiomatics of his concept. The whole world we perceive is interpreted as a multitude of texts. With regard to the biosphere, here individual individuals, species, populations should be considered texts; in the noosphere, various aspects of conscious activity should be taken as texts.
The key concept of the thesaurus is the concept of S.p. is the concept of meaning. According to J. Kohler, meaning is a network of meanings in certain states and an algorithm for solving problems. The nature of meaning is revealed through the simultaneous analysis of the semantic triad - meaning, text, language (code). “The meaning of meaning,” writes the Austro-American psychologist W. Frankl, “is that it directs the course of being.” The evolution of the text is associated with the spontaneous appearance of a filter interacting with the original function. To describe this interaction, Nalimov suggests using the Bayes formula, which is used in solving statistical problems of minimizing risk. The Bayes formula allows you to calculate the posterior probability of each of the possible events. According to Nalimov, initially all possible meanings of the world are compressed along the semantic axis, just as numbers are compressed on the real axis (Cantor's linear continuum). Since the compaction of meanings in a one-dimensional S.p. should be understood as their non-manifestation, their initial state should be interpreted as a semantic vacuum. The unpacking of meanings, or the emergence of texts, is carried out by the Bayesian formalism, which carries out probabilistic weighting along the semantic axis. The appearance along this axis of the distribution function of statistical weights (probability density) means the appearance of the text. In the general case, Nalimov believes, one can speak of texts defined by a distribution function not only along the axis, but also in a multidimensional S.p. If the physical world and the world of semantics are two autonomous layers of reality, then their interconnection must be provided by information flows. Within the framework of the analyzed concept, information should be considered as a complex process consisting of elementary acts occurring in the multidimensional world of self-organizing systems. Such an understanding of information corresponds to the philosophy of A. Bergson and A. Whitehead, which is oriented towards the systemic approach of post-non-classical science. Information that provides a connection between the material and semantic layers of reality can only be an irreversible process that develops in a multidimensional and non-linear world.
The disadvantage of the concept of V.V. Nalimov is that, postulating the independent existence of S.p., he does not see the need to determine the corresponding physical referent. Avoiding the search for such a referent is tantamount to refusing to study the problem using the methods of theoretical and experimental physics.
An independent attempt to discover such a physical referent in the 1960s undertaken by the Russian physical chemist N.A. Kobozev. In his opinion, in order for the human brain to be able to think without entropy, there must be an external source of antientropy, or an entropic vacuum. The connection between this source and the atomic and molecular structures of the cerebral cortex, according to Kobozev's hypothesis, is provided by a quantum ensemble of ultralight particles with spin S. However, these particles were not detected experimentally.
Another solution to the problem was proposed by L.V. Leskov, who formulated the meonic paradigm. Using as a starting point the concept of S.p. Nalimov, Leskov supplemented it with two postulates: a) the physical referent S.p. is meon - a kind of physical, or quantum, vacuum; b) all objects of the material world, starting from elementary particles and ending with the human brain, have the property of consistency - the ability of information interaction with the semantic potential of the meon (conscientia in Latin means awareness of something, joint knowledge). The advantage of this approach is obvious: it opens the way to using the achievements of modern theories of the physical vacuum, as well as to conducting special experimental studies on this basis.
The properties of the meon are paradoxical. Not being an object of the material world included in the Einstein-Minkowski metric, the meon does not obey the laws of thermodynamics and the theory of relativity. If the transfer of information is carried out with the participation of the meon, then the speed of this process can significantly exceed the speed of light. Not obeying the law of entropy growth, the meon is not characterized by the arrow of time: the past, present and future are, as it were, synchronous for it. These properties of the meon do not fit into the Cartesian-Newtonian paradigm, but there is no contradiction here, since we are talking about a quantum-mechanical phenomenon corresponding to the post-nonclassical picture of the world. The processes of informational interaction of the semantic potential of the meon with material objects can be described in the language of modern theories of physical vacuum (torsion waves in the model of A.E. Akimov - G.I. Shilov, the interaction of byons according to Yu.A. Baurov).
The question of the mechanism of encoding the semantic potential in the quantum structures of the meon remains open. There is, however, one radical way to get around this difficulty: it suffices to assume that the meon functions not as a bank, but as a transport agent of meanings, and their generation in this case can be associated with individual and "collective" consciousness. This hypothesis corresponds to a semantic principle that can be given either a weak or a strong form. In the first case, this will mean that there is a planetary semantic field, and in the second case, this corresponds to a cosmic field.
Literature:
Nalimov V.V. Spontaneity of consciousness. M., 1989; Leskov L.V. Semantic Universe // Bulletin of Moscow University. Series 7. Philosophy. 1994. No. 2.
Dictionary of philosophical terms. Scientific edition of Professor V.G. Kuznetsova. M., INFRA-M, 2007, p. 487-489.
(from Latin subjectum - subject + Greek semantikos - denoting)- a model of the categorical structure of individual consciousness, on the basis of which, by analyzing the meanings of objects (concepts, etc.), their subjective “classification” is revealed. Accommodation in S. with. n. of certain values allows us to analyze them, to judge their similarities and differences. Mathematically, the subjective semantic space is expressed using coordinate axes, points and the calculation of the distance between them.
S.'s construction with. as a method of research and as a model representation of categorical structures has become widespread in the field of the psychology of memory (semantic models of long-term memory), the psychology of thinking and the theory of decision making. This method also finds application in differential psychology, in the study of cognitive (cognitive) aspects of consciousness and self-consciousness (individual and group). Cm . Semantics, psychosemantics. (V.F. Petrenko)
Adding ed.: Obviously, the study of S. s. p. refers to studies that L.S. Vygotsky called it "the internal, or semantic, structure of consciousness."
Psychological dictionary. I. Kondakov
Subjective semantic space
- Word formation - comes from lat. subjectum - subject and Greek. semantikos - denoting.
- Category - a system of categories of individual consciousness, with the help of which there is an assessment and classification of various objects, concepts.
- Specificity - if certain assumptions are made, in particular, about the independence of these categories, then it becomes possible to place certain values in a multidimensional semantic space, which receives its characteristic in the system of coordinate axes, on the basis of which the distance between values is calculated.
Glossary of psychological terms. N. Gubina
Subjective semantic space (from Latin subjectum - subject and Greek semantikos - denoting)- a system of categories of individual consciousness, with the help of which there is an assessment and classification of various objects, concepts. If certain assumptions are made, in particular, about the independence of these categories, then it becomes possible to place certain values in a multidimensional semantic space, which gets its characteristic in the system of coordinate axes, on the basis of which the distance between values is calculated.
In modern linguistics, the concepts of the concept sphere and the semantic space of the language are distinguished.
The conceptosphere is a purely mental sphere, consisting of concepts that exist in the form of mental pictures, schemes, concepts, frames, scenarios, abstract entities that generalize various features of the external world.
The semantic space of a language is that part of the concept sphere that has been expressed with the help of linguistic signs. The whole set of meanings transmitted by the linguistic signs of a given language forms semantic space given language.
In the semantic space, lexico-phraseological and syntactic concepts are distinguished, i.e., concepts that are objectified, respectively, by words, phrase combinations or syntactic structures.
The concept of "concept", introduced into linguistics by D.S. Likhachev, means "a clot of culture in the mind of a person", a "bundle" of ideas, knowledge, associations, experiences that accompany a word. concepts, understood as the main cells of culture in the mental world of a person, can be used as supporting elements for comparing mentalities, as well as cultural and value dominants.
Acting as the basic supporting elements of the language, concepts unite representatives of a certain linguistic culture, providing a basis for mutual understanding between them through "clumps of meaning" in which the spirit of the people is embodied. The conceptual space of a separate linguistic personality and linguistic culture as a whole is organized into a concept sphere, the main characteristic of which are the possibilities of joint "creation of meanings" that it opens up for a native speaker. The totality of personal meanings and associative contexts of a linguistic personality forms its ideosphere . The area of intersection of the ideospheres of all members of the language community is concept sphere of this culture.
Concepts are mental pictures that represent cognitive structures that represent the external characteristics of objects in the surrounding reality - their color palette, specific configuration, and other external features. (“chamomile” is a herbaceous plant with white feathery flowers at the end of a branched stem, a yellow receptacle of a conical shape, with a characteristic smell). Under concept diagram spatial-graphic (volumetric and contour) parameters of realities are understood in abstraction from their species characteristics (“tree” is a perennial plant with a solid trunk and branches extending from it, forming a crown); concept frame is a mental "holography" concept - situational-volumetric representation of a fragment of reality ("city" - a large settlement, administrative, commercial, industrial and cultural center); concept scenario represents the step-by-step dynamics of actions fixed in the collective memory of native speakers (“fight” is a quarrel accompanied by mutual beatings).
The types of concepts are universal and do not depend on the language of their verbalization. If the types of concepts belong to mental processes that are universal for all mankind, then, in fact, the picture of the world correlates with the content of concepts, which differs from language to language. It is in the content of concepts that discrepancies in the cultural experience of certain peoples are fixed. Therefore, one can speak about national pictures of the world only at the level of the content side of the concept sphere of the language, and not at the level of its formal (according to the types of concepts) organization.
concept and word. The concept as a unit of the concept sphere can have verbal expression, or maybe not have. Thus, in the first case, concepts are verbalized, that is, they have a linguistic representation, linguistic objectification. However, the same word can represent in different communicative conditions, present in speech different features of the concept and even different concepts - depending on the communicative needs, the volume, quantity and quality of this or that information that the speaker wants to convey in this communicative act and, naturally, depending on the semantic structure of the word used, its semantic possibilities.
When a concept receives a linguistic expression, then those linguistic means that are used for this act as means of verbalization, linguistic representation, linguistic representation, linguistic objectification of the concept .
The concept is represented in the language:
- ready-made lexemes and phrase combinations from the lexico-phraseological system of the language;
- free phrases;
- structural and positional schemes of sentences that carry typical propositions (syntactic concepts);
- texts and sets of texts.
language sign is concept in language, in communication. The word does not represent the concept completely - it only conveys with its meaning a few basic conceptual features relevant to the message, i.e., the transmission of which is the task of the speaker, is included in the intention. The whole concept in all the richness of its content can theoretically be expressed only by a set of language means, each of which reveals only a part of it.
Thus, linguistic means are necessary not for existence, but for the communication of the concept. Words, other ready-made language means in the language system, are for those concepts that have communicative relevance, that is, they are necessary for communication and are often used in information exchange.
Concept and meaning. For modern research in linguistics and cognitive linguistics, it is very important to distinguish between concept and linguistic meaning ( seven) . The psychophysiological basis of the concept is a certain sensual image, to which the knowledge about the world is “attached”, which make up the content of the concept. In the word we distinguish the sound component - the signifier ( lexeme), and the semantic component - the signified ( seven). One lexeme can mean several semes.
Each seed is made up of semes, semantic features- components of its meaning, which are components of concepts, represented one seme or another. However, even the entire set of features obtained from the semantic analysis of many linguistic signs that objectify the concept will not fully present the content of the concept to us, because the world of thoughts never finds full expression in the language system.
The sign of the universal subject code, as the most vivid image that encodes the concept, is included in the core of the concept; he wears individual sensual character. An experimental study showed that the most vivid visual images among native speakers of the Russian language are associated with the names of astronomical bodies, vehicles, household items, seasons, months, time of day, names of human and animal body parts, names of persons by kinship, names of plants, devices and devices, printed publications, parts of the landscape. The brightest images were revealed for such units as sun, moon, blood, bus, table, night, tooth, coal, grandma, mother, grass, school desk, phone, key, book, forest, shop, rain, dog, apple, magazine, tea, glasses, street, newspaper, pigeon.
Thus, you cannot mix meaning and concept: concept - a unit of the concept sphere, the information base of a person; meaning is a unit of the semantic space of the language. Meaning with its system semes conveys certain features that form the concept, but this is always only a part of the information content of the concept. For a complete explication of a concept, usually numerous lexical units are needed, which means many meanings.
The dependence of concepts on the national, estate, class, professional, family and personal experience of the person using the concept leads to the fact that the level of mutual understanding will be better for people with similar experience. One and the same concept, one and the same piece of reality has different forms of linguistic expression in different languages - more complete or less complete. Words of different languages denoting the same concept may differ in semantic capacity. Differences in linguistic thinking are manifested in the feeling of redundancy or insufficiency of the forms of expression of the same concept, in comparison with the native language of the student of a foreign language.
The learner of a foreign language penetrates the culture of native speakers and is exposed to the culture embedded in it. The secondary picture of the world of the studied language is superimposed on the primary picture of the world of the native language and native culture.
The secondary picture of the world that arises in the study of FL and culture is not so much a picture, reflected language, how much picture created by language . The interaction of primary and secondary pictures of the world can be seen in the following example: Russian teachers of foreign languages acquire the features of the national culture of the languages they teach.
An extreme case of linguistic insufficiency is the absence of an equivalent for the expression of a particular concept, caused by the absence of the concept itself. This includes the so-called non-equivalent vocabulary, that is, words whose content plan cannot be compared with any foreign lexical concepts. The concepts or objects of thought they designate ( things meant) are unique and inherent only to this world and, accordingly, to the language.
If necessary, the language borrows a word to express concepts that are characteristic of someone else's linguistic thinking from someone else's language environment. If in the Russian-speaking world there are no such concepts as whiskey and ale, and in the English-speaking world there are no dishes like pancakes and borscht, then these concepts are expressed using words borrowed from the corresponding language. These can be words denoting objects of national culture ( balalaika, matryoshka, blini, vodka; football, whiskey, ale), political, economic or scientific terms (Bolshevik, perestroika, sputnik; impeachment, leasing, dealer, file, computer, bit).
Non-equivalent vocabulary most vividly and clearly illustrates the idea of reflecting reality in the language., however, its share in the lexical composition is small (up to 6-7% in Russian).
The ability of concepts to grow and be enriched due to the individual emotional and cultural experience of native speakers determines their elasticity, instability and mobility. On the one hand, the dynamic nature of concepts makes it difficult for them to “join” between different cultures. On the other hand, the fact that they "flow" into each other, forming a single space of culture, creates an opportunity to search for a "compromise" between the mismatched concepts of different linguistic cultures.
1. National picture of the world
Recently, the expression "picture of the world" has been widely used in various fields of the humanities.
The concept of a picture of the world is really important for modern science, but it requires a clear definition, since the laxity of this concept and free handling of it does not allow representatives of different disciplines to understand each other, to achieve consistency in describing the picture of the world by means of different sciences. It is especially important to define this concept for linguistics and cultural studies, which, to a greater extent than other sciences, use it recently.
We believe that the problem of a general definition of the concept of a picture of the world should be approached from a general scientific, epistemological point of view, which will make it possible to distinguish between fundamentally different types of picture of the world.
Under the picture of the world in the most general form, it is proposed to understand an ordered body of knowledge about reality, formed in the public (as well as group, individual) consciousness.
It is fundamental to distinguish between two pictures of the world - direct and indirect.
^ Immediate picture of the world - this is a picture obtained as a result of direct knowledge of people around reality. Cognition is carried out both with the help of the sense organs and with the help of abstract thinking, which a person has, however, in any case, this picture of the world does not have “intermediaries” in the mind and is formed as a result of direct perception of the world and its comprehension.
The immediate picture of the world that arises in the national consciousness depends on the way, the general method by which it was obtained. In this sense, the picture of one and the same reality, one and the same world can be different - it can be rational and sensual; dialectical and metaphysical; materialistic and idealistic; theoretical and empirical, scientific and "naive", natural-scientific and religious; physical and chemical, etc.
Such pictures of the world are historically conditioned - they depend in their content on the level of knowledge achieved by this or that historical stage; they change with changes in historical conditions, with the achievements of science, with the development of methods of cognition. In individual societies or strata of society, any one picture of the world, determined by the dominant method of cognition, can dominate for a long time.
The direct picture of the world is closely related to the worldview, but differs from the worldview in that it is a meaningful knowledge, while the worldview refers more to the system of methods of knowing the world. The worldview determines the method of cognition, and the picture of the world is already the result of cognition.
The immediate picture of the world includes both meaningful, conceptual knowledge about reality, and a set of mental stereotypes that determine the understanding and interpretation of certain phenomena of reality. We call this picture of the world cognitive.
The cognitive picture of the world in the mind of the individual is systemic and affects the perception of the surrounding world by the individual:
offers a classification of the elements of reality;
offers techniques for analyzing reality (explains the causes of phenomena and events, predicts the development of phenomena and events, predicts the consequences of events);
organizes the sensual and rational experience of the individual for its storage in consciousness, memory.
A direct, direct picture of the world is the result of the reflection of the world by the human senses and thinking, the result of the knowledge and study of the world by public or individual consciousness. It can be defined exactly as cognitive, because it is the result cognitions(cognition) of reality and acts as a set of ordered knowledge - the concept sphere. NM Lebedeva writes: “Our own culture sets us a cognitive matrix for understanding the world, the so-called “picture of the world” (Lebedeva 1999, p. 21). Thus, cognitive picture of the world is a set of concepts and stereotypes of consciousness that are set by culture.
^ Mediated picture of the world - this is the result of fixing the concept sphere by secondary sign systems that materialize, externalize the immediate cognitive picture of the world that exists in the mind. Such are the linguistic and artistic pictures of the world.
^ Language picture of the world - this is a set of ideas of the people about reality fixed in the units of the language at a certain stage of the development of the people,
The thinking of the people is not mediated by its language, which can be considered an established fact in modern science, but it is expressed, fixed, nominated, externalized by the language, and the study of ideas about reality, fixed in the language of a certain period, allows us to indirectly judge what the people's thinking was, what was his cognitive picture of the world during this period.
However, we emphasize once again with all certainty that the linguistic picture of the world is not equal to the cognitive one, the latter is immeasurably wider, since far from all the content of the concept sphere is named in the language, far from all concepts have a linguistic expression and become the subject of communication. Therefore, it is possible to judge the cognitive picture of the world according to the linguistic picture of the world only on a limited scale, constantly keeping in mind that only what was or is now for the people is named in the language. communicative significance- people talk about it or talked about it. The communicative significance of a language unit is apparently associated with value the concept she expresses for the culture of the people (Karasik, Slyshkin 2001, p. 77).
The cognitive picture of the world exists in the form of concepts that form the concept sphere of the people, the linguistic picture of the world exists in the form of meanings of linguistic signs that form the total semantic space language.
The description of the linguistic picture of the world as a picture of the world mediated by linguistic signs provides essential information about the cognitive picture of the world, but the researcher needs to extract this information from the language using special techniques. The most important feature of the secondary, mediated picture of the world is that it does not affect a person directly in the act of behavioral and mental activity. The cognitive picture of the world influences the direct thinking and behavior of a person in a given situation.
The so-called "division of the world", which is often spoken of in connection with the linguistic picture of the world, is actually carried out not by the language, but by cognitive classifiers and belongs to the cognitive picture of the world. Language does not divide reality at all - it reflects, fixes the cognitive division carried out by the concept sphere - a direct, primary picture of the world; language only signals such articulation.
The linguistic picture of the world is created:
nominative means of the language - lexemes, stable nominations, phraseological units that fix this or that division and classification of objects of national reality, as well as a significant absence of nominative units (lacunarity of different types);
functional means of the language - the selection of vocabulary and phraseology for communication, the composition of the most frequent, that is, communicatively relevant language means of the people against the background of the entire corpus of linguistic units of the language system;
figurative means of language - national-specific figurativeness, metaphors, directions for the development of figurative meanings, the internal form of language units;
phonosemantics of the language;
discursive means (mechanisms) of the language - specific means and strategies of text construction, argumentation, arguing, dialogue, construction of monologue texts, features of the strategies and tactics of the communicative behavior of the people in standard communicative situations, methods of constructing texts of different genres (for example, aphorisms, anecdotes, advertising and etc.);
strategies for evaluating and interpreting language statements, discourses, texts of different genres, criteria for evaluating them as exemplary or not exemplary, convincing and unconvincing, successful or unsuccessful, etc.
The study of the language picture of the world in itself has a purely linguistic meaning - to describe the language as a system, to identify what there is in the language and how the elements that make up the language are ordered in it; but if the researcher interprets the results obtained to identify the cognitive features, classifiers and structures of consciousness indicated by the language, the description of the linguistic picture of the world goes beyond the purely linguistic research and becomes part of the linguocognitive research - it is used to model and describe the concept sphere, the conceptual picture of the world. In this case, linguistic signs, words act as a means of access to a single information base of a person (A.A. Zalevskaya) - his concept sphere, they are a method for identifying cognitive structures.
Thus, the study of systemic relations in a language, as well as the study of its national semantic space, is the modeling of a secondary, mediated, linguistic picture of the world. An important element in identifying the linguistic picture of the world is the comparison of the language with other languages.
Description of the language picture of the world includes:
description of the “division of reality” reflected by the language in language paradigms (lexical-semantic and lexical-phraseological groups and fields);
a description of the national specifics of the meanings of language units (what semantic differences are revealed in similar meanings in different languages);
identification of missing units (lacunae) in the language system;
identification of endemic (existing in only one language) units.
Cognitive interpretation of the results of the study of the linguistic picture of the world to describe the primary, cognitive picture - a linguo-cognitive method for studying the concept sphere of the people.
Thus, the study of the linguistic picture of the world can remain within the framework of descriptive systemic linguistics, and in the case of a cognitive interpretation of the results, it can act as a tool for studying the primary picture of the world, the concept sphere of the people. We emphasize once again: these two directions in the description of the linguistic picture of the world cannot be confused, and even more so, put an equal sign between them: the linguistic picture of the world only partially reflects the concept sphere and only fragmentarily allows us to judge the concept sphere, although there is apparently more convenient access to the concept sphere than through language. no.
Thus, the cognitive picture of the world and the linguistic picture of the world are interconnected as primary and secondary, as a mental phenomenon and its verbal externalization, as the content of consciousness and a means of access for the researcher to this content.
^ Artistic picture of the world - this is a secondary picture of the world, similar to the linguistic one. It arises in the mind of the reader when he perceives a work of art (or in the mind of the viewer, listener - when he perceives other works of art).
The picture of the world in a literary text is created by linguistic means, while it reflects the individual picture of the world in the mind of the writer and is embodied:
in the selection of elements of the content of a work of art;
in the selection of language means used: the use of certain thematic groups of language units, an increase or decrease in the frequency of individual units and their groups, individual author's language tools, etc.;
in the individual use of figurative means (a system of trails).
In the artistic picture of the world, concepts inherent only in this author's perception of the world can be found - the individual concepts of the writer.
Thus, language acts as a means of creating a secondary, artistic picture of the world, which reflects the picture of the world of the creator of a work of art.
The artistic picture of the world may reflect the features of the national picture of the world - for example, national symbols, national-specific concepts. At the same time, one should always remember that the artistic picture of the world is a secondary, mediated picture of the world, and it is mediated twice - by language and by the individual author's conceptual picture of the world.
When discussing the concept of a national picture of the world, one cannot ignore the question of the relationship between the national mentality, the concept sphere and the picture of the world.
Term mentality has recently become very popular in scientific research and journalism, but the content of this term still cannot be considered sufficiently clearly defined.
There are various, very contradictory definitions of this concept. Mentality is understood as a way of thinking, a psychological mindset, features of thinking, character, and many others. etc. The word has become fashionable, and it is often used just for fashion, outside of a strict definition. Wed a phrase from the book of P.S. Taranova: “Paper” replaces, replaces and replaces a person… You can play on this mentality” (Taranov 1997, p.17).
mentality we define as specific way of perceiving and understanding reality, determined by a set of cognitive stereotypes of consciousness, characteristic of a particular individual, social or ethnic group of people.
Perception and understanding reality- similar, but not identical things. Perception is the first stage and the main condition of understanding.
You can talk about the mentality of the individual, group and people (ethnos). The mentality of a particular person is determined by the national, group mentality, as well as factors of a person's personal development - his individual education, culture, experience of perception and interpretation of the phenomena of reality. These are personal mental mechanisms of perception and understanding of reality.
Group mentality is the peculiarities of perception and understanding of reality by certain social, age, professional, gender, etc. groups of people. It is well known that the same facts of reality, the same events can be perceived differently in different groups of people. Men and women, children and adults, humanitarians and "techies", rich and poor, etc. can perceive and interpret the same facts in very different ways. This is due to the so-called mechanism of causal attribution, that is, cognitive stereotypes, which dictate the attribution of causes to one or another consequence, event. The mentality of the group is formed in close connection with the group attitudes, the mechanisms of apperception operating in the group.
Thus, it is known that the players of the losing team tend to attribute the defeat to the influence of objective factors (bad field, biased refereeing, etc.), while observers tend to explain the defeat by subjective factors (didn’t show will, didn’t try, didn’t have enough speed, etc.). ). Winners usually attribute success to their own efforts. Compare: “victory has a lot of fathers, defeat is always an orphan.” There is children's, male, female "logic", etc. There is a mentality of certain psychological types of people - cf., for example, the mentality of an optimist and a pessimist: the first one says "half a bottle is left", and the pessimist says "half a bottle is already gone." It can be said that the mentality has an “automated” character, it operates practically without the control of consciousness, and therefore in many cases it is “not objective” - if a person wants to be objective, he must consciously overcome the “instructions” of his mentality, his attitudes, his apperception. At the same time, one must overcome one's own mental stereotypes, both group and national.
Different national mentality can perceive the same subject situations differently. The national mentality, as it were, makes a person see one thing and not notice the other.
The Russian mentality, for example, invariably fixes the submissiveness of Asian women and does not notice the increased activity of their own, while Asians primarily fix the activity and even aggressiveness of Russian women, not noticing the submissiveness and passivity of their own.
Understanding the perceived is also largely determined by the mentality.
An American at the sight of a person who has become rich thinks: “rich means smart,” while a Russian in this case usually thinks: “rich means a thief.” The concept of “new” is perceived by Americans as “improved, better”, by Russians as “untested”. A caricature in a Chinese newspaper - a girl and a young man kissing on a bench - is interpreted by the European mentality as an image of the promiscuity of young people, and the Chinese - as a criticism of the lack of living space among the Chinese.
Japanese films of the Second World War period, captured by the Americans, were very different from the battle films of Hollywood, which depicted the victories of the American army - in Japanese films, the death of people, the suffering of soldiers, the crying of mothers at the funeral were depicted. From the point of view of European perception, these were films about the horrors of war, and not at all militaristic films designed to raise the spirit of the Japanese army and people. But the Japanese mentality perceived them according to a different mental scheme, incomprehensible to Europeans: "You see, under what conditions the Japanese soldier continues to do his duty."
Russians consider a slight delay to the appointed time to visit as a manifestation of respect for the hosts, and the Germans consider it as disrespect.
Russian students understand the repeated explanation of the same material by the teacher as a desire to achieve a better understanding of this material, as a desire to help the student, and the Finns often think of such a teacher: “He considers us for fools, he tells the same thing.”
If the Finns believe that it is fair to report a violation of the law by any person, then the Russians believe that this is exactly what is dishonest when applied to colleagues, acquaintances, and friends. Informing about one's comrades, colleagues, friends, neighbors is condemned. The Finns, speaking of honesty, mean the need to comply with the law in behavior, which is the same for everyone. Russians consider dishonest such behavior that leads to the punishment of people - their friends, acquaintances - by the state or the leadership.
The mentality is mainly associated with the evaluative sphere, the value aspect of consciousness. He evaluates what is perceived as good or bad, as being of value, in line with values or not in line with them. For example, the concept White crow is assessed negatively by the Russian mentality, since there is a value - conciliarity, collectivism.
mentality, thus, acts as a set of principles for the implementation of judgments and assessments. The mentality, like the concept sphere, is a mental phenomenon and complements the national picture of the world formed by the concept sphere.
The mentality and the concept sphere are closely connected and interact in the processes of thinking. Concepts as mental units in their interpretive field store cognitive stereotypes - standard judgments about standard situations that form the basis of mentality. For example, the presence in the Russian concept sphere of the concept "maybe" determines a number of mental stereotypes of the Russian consciousness, "permitting" hindsight in behavior.
On the other hand, the national mentality directs the dynamics of the formation and development of concepts - the existing stereotypes affect the content of emerging concepts, dictate some assessments of phenomena and events fixed in concepts.
It is necessary to distinguish between national mentality and national character. Distinction of the national mentality from national character consists, in our understanding, in the following: the mentality is associated mainly with the logical, conceptual, cognitive activity of consciousness, and the national character - with the emotional and psychological sphere of a person. national character- these are the established emotional and psychological norms of human behavior in society.
National behavior people, thus - it is a manifestation of the mentality and national character in standard situations. Naturally, behavior is always mediated by both the logical and emotional-psychological spheres of a person, so such a distinction between mentality and character is largely arbitrary, but in many cases it turns out to be necessary.
The national picture of the world is a national concept sphere in conjunction with the national mentality. Nevertheless, despite the close connection, the mentality and the concept sphere are different entities, and their study requires different methods and approaches. In principle, the mentality, apparently, is not the sphere of linguistics, not psycholinguistics, not cognitive linguistics, but social and national psychology.
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2. Semantic space of the language
Conceptosphere and semantic space
Fundamental for modern linguistics is the distinction between the concept sphere and the semantic space of the language.
Conceptosphere is a purely mental sphere, consisting of concepts that exist in the form of mental pictures, schemes, concepts, frames, scenarios, gestalts (more or less complex complex images of the external world), abstract entities that generalize various features of the external world. The conceptosphere also includes cognitive classifiers that contribute to a certain, albeit non-rigid, organization of the conceptosphere.
^ Semantic space of the language - this is that part of the concept sphere, which was expressed with the help of linguistic signs. The whole set of meanings transmitted by the linguistic signs of a given language forms semantic space given language.
In the semantic space, we distinguish between lexico-phraseological and syntactic concepts, that is, concepts that are objectified by words, phrase combinations or syntactic structures, respectively.
By studying the semantic space of a language, we obtain reliable knowledge about that part of the concept sphere that is represented in it. In the semantic space, cognitive classifiers are represented by integral semantic features - classemes and archisemes of different volume and content.
However, it is impossible to obtain knowledge about the entire concept sphere of a people, a group of people or an individual only by studying the semantic space, since the concept sphere is much larger and wider than the semantic space of a language.
At the same time, the dynamics of development and change in the concept sphere is primarily found in the speech activity of people - the emergence of new nominations signals about the emergence of new concepts. However, only over time, individual innovations that have arisen in the concept sphere can find their expression in stable, standard language means, and then only if there is a communicative need for this.
A significant part of the concept sphere of the people is represented in the semantic space of their language, which makes the semantic space of the language the subject of study of cognitive linguistics.
Semasiology (a department of linguistic science that studies the meanings of linguistic units) has established that the semantics of a language (the semantic space of a language) is not a set, not an inventory of semes, but a complex system of them, formed by intersections and interweaving of numerous and diverse structural associations and groups that are “packed » into chains, cycles, branch like trees, form fields with a center and periphery, etc. These relations reflect the relations of concepts in the concept sphere of the language. And by the relationship between meanings in the semantic space of the language, one can judge the relationship of concepts in the national concept sphere.
Establishing the structure of the semantic space of different languages, linguists receive information about some features of human cognitive activity, since it is possible to concretize the content and structures of knowledge located in the concept sphere of people.
There are connections between concepts as units of mental activity - according to conceptual features. They are viewed through linguistic meanings, through units that objectify concepts in the language, since these connections in the language are marked - by the commonality of morphemes, prosodemes, phonetic segments, phonosemantically, which means that they can be detected and described by a linguist.
The conceptospheres of different peoples, as the study of the semantic space of different languages shows, differ significantly both in the composition of concepts and in the principles of their structuring. Linguists have established these differences by dealing with the theory of translation, the typology of world languages, and the contrastive study of two languages in the process of teaching a foreign language.
In linguistics, the thesis has become an elementary truth that it is impossible to study the structure of another by the structure of one language, just as it is impossible to examine another city according to the plan of one city. The national specificity of the concept sphere is also reflected in the national specificity of the semantic spaces of languages. Similar concepts in different peoples can be grouped according to different criteria.
Comparison of the semantic spaces of different languages allows us to see universal universals in the reflection of the world around people, and at the same time makes it possible to see the specific, national, and then group and individual in a set of concepts and their structuring.
Both the semantic space of the language and the concept sphere are homogeneous in nature, they are mental entities. The difference between the linguistic meaning and the concept is only that the linguistic meaning - the quantum of the semantic space - is attached to the linguistic sign, and the concept as an element of the concept sphere is not associated with a specific linguistic sign. It may be expressed by many linguistic signs, their totality, or may not be represented in the language system; the concept can be externalized on the basis of alternative sign systems, such as gestures and facial expressions, music and painting, sculpture and dance, etc.
So, the concept sphere is the area of mental images, units of the universal subject code (V.I. Zhinkin, I.N. Gorelov), which are the structured knowledge of people, their information base, and the semantic space of the language is a part of the concept sphere, which has received expression (verbalization, objectification ) in the system of linguistic signs - words, phrase combinations, syntactic structures and formed by the meanings of linguistic units.
By studying the semantic space of a language, the researcher receives certain knowledge about the concept sphere of the speakers of this language, objectified by the signs of the language and reflected in its semantic space; it is only necessary to remember that this knowledge about concepts obtained from the semantic space of the language does not give a complete picture of the concept sphere, since the concept sphere is always wider than the semantic space of the language.
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Types of concepts and national specifics of the picture of the world
The conceptosphere of a language is a set of concepts of different types: mental pictures, schemes, frames, and scenarios (Babushkin, 1996).
Concepts - mental pictures represent cognitive structures that represent the external characteristics of objects of the surrounding reality - their color palette, specific configuration, other external features ("chamomile" - a herbaceous plant with single white pinnate flowers at the end of a branched stem, a yellow conical receptacle, with a characteristic smell ); under the heading of the concept-scheme, spatial-graphic (volumetric and contour) parameters of realities are brought in abstraction from their species characteristics (“tree” is a perennial plant with a solid trunk and branches extending from it, forming a crown); the concept frame is a mental "holography", a situational-volumetric representation of a fragment of reality ("a city" is a large settlement, an administrative, commercial, industrial and cultural center); the concept scenario represents the stage-by-stage dynamics of actions fixed in the collective memory of native speakers ( fight- a quarrel accompanied by mutual beatings).
The types of concepts are universal and do not depend on the language of their verbalization.
If the types of concepts belong to mental processes that are universal for all mankind, then the actual picture of the world corresponds to the content of concepts, which differs from language to language.
^ Concept and word
The concept as a unit of the concept sphere may or may not have a verbal expression. Thus, the problem of verbalization (in other words, linguistic objectification, linguistic representation, linguistic externalization) of concepts arises.
Modern experimental studies show that the mechanism of thinking and the mechanism of verbalization are different mechanisms and are carried out on a different neurolinguistic basis.
A.R. Luria showed that the processes of thinking and verbalization are localized in different parts of the cerebral cortex, which indicates their autonomy (Luria 1998). He also showed that the individual stages and components of speech production correspond to the activity of quite specific areas of the brain, and a violation of the activity of one or another area leads to a breakdown in a separate mechanism of speech production, which indicates the multi-level and multi-component nature of the verbalization mechanism.
Verbalization can be carried out in the form of external speech in its varieties, as well as in the form of writing. The mechanisms of speech and writing turn out to be quite autonomous: you can be able to speak, but not be able to write, you can lose your speech, but keep writing, you can write well, but speak poorly, etc. Each separate mechanism of verbalization requires special training, a special system of exercises - this is well known foreign language teachers. Different mechanisms of verbalization are assimilated by a person with varying degrees of ease, stored with varying degrees of strength, and lost at different rates.
In the universal subject code, a person operates with some personal concepts. These concepts act as a kind of bricks, elements in his thought process, they form complex conceptual pictures in the process of thinking. These concepts may or may not have direct correlates in the natural language one uses.
When a person, in the course of thinking, combines individual concepts into bundles or conceptual complexes, the probability that there is an exact correlate for them in the language decreases even more. In this case, if there is a need to verbalize such a conceptual complex, most often it is necessary to use phrases or detailed descriptions, and sometimes entire texts, in order to convey the required meaning in the most complete, most adequate way. Thus, the form of verbalization of the speaker's personal meaning may be different; The effectiveness of the transfer of personal meaning to the interlocutor may also turn out to be very different.
The concept is a complex mental unit, which in the process of mental activity (in accordance with the holographic hypothesis of reading information by A.A. Zalevskaya) turns in different directions, actualizing its different features and layers in the process of mental activity; the corresponding features or layers of the concept may not have a language designation in the native language of a person.
We also note that the same word can represent in different communicative conditions, present in speech different signs of a concept and even different concepts - depending on the communicative needs, on the volume, quantity and quality of the information that the speaker wants to convey in this communicative act. and, of course, depending on the semantic structure of the word used, its semantic possibilities.
When a concept receives a linguistic expression, then those linguistic means that are used for this act as means verbalization, linguistic representation, linguistic representation, linguistic objectification of the concept.
The concept is represented in the language:
ready-made lexemes and phrase combinations from the lexico-phraseological system of the language, having semes “suitable for the occasion” or separate semes of different ranks (archisemes, differential semes, peripheral (potential, hidden);
proverbs;
free phrases;
structural and positional schemes of sentences that carry typical propositions (syntactic concepts);
texts and sets of texts (if necessary, explication or discussion of the content of complex, abstract or individual author's concepts).
language sign is concept in language, in communication. The word does not represent the concept completely - it conveys by its meaning only a few basic conceptual features, relevant to the message, that is, those whose transmission is the task of the speaker, is part of his intention. The whole concept in all the richness of its content can theoretically be expressed only by a set of language means, each of which reveals only a part of it.
The spoken or written word is a means of access to conceptual knowledge, and having received this access through the word, we can connect to mental activity other conceptual features that are not directly named by this word. Thus, the word, like any nomination, is the key that “opens” the concept for a person as a unit of mental activity and makes it possible to use it in mental activity. A linguistic sign can also be likened to a switch - it turns on the concept in our mind, activating it as a whole and "launching" it into the process of thinking.
concepts can be sustainable- relevant for thinking and communication, regularly verbalized, having language means of verbalization assigned to them, and unstable- unstable, still developing, deeply personal, rarely or practically not verbalized at all, not having systemic means of verbalization assigned to them.
The presence of a linguistic expression for the concept, its regular verbalization maintain the concept in a stable, stable state, make it well known (since the meanings of the words with which it is transmitted are well known, they are interpreted by native speakers, reflected in dictionaries).
So, language means are needed not for existence, and for messages concept. Words, other ready-made language means in the language system are for those concepts that have communicative relevance, that is, are necessary for communication, are often used in information exchange.
Very many, if not most concepts, apparently, do not have systemic language means of expression, since they serve the sphere of individual thinking, where it is impossible to think without them, but not all of them are intended for discussion.
^ Concept and meaningFor modern research in linguistics and cognitive linguistics, it is very important to distinguish between concept and linguistic meaning(seven).
The psychophysiological basis of the concept is a certain sensual image, to which the knowledge about the world is “attached”, which make up the content of the concept.
In the word we distinguish the sound component - the signifier ( lexeme), and the semantic component - the signified ( seven). One lexeme can mean several semes; the whole set of semes, signified by one lexeme, we call semanteme.
Each seed is made up of semes, semantic features- components of its value. All these terms and their definitions are described in detail in the book (Popova, Sternin, 1984).
Isolating and describing sememes, and in their composition - semes, establishing systemic (paradigmatic) relationships between sememes by semes within the semanteme (a set of sememes of one word), the linguist must understand that these are not the concepts themselves, units of the concept sphere, these are only their separate components, represented one seme or another. And even the entire set of features obtained from the semantic analysis of many linguistic signs that objectify the concept will not fully present the content of the concept to us, because the world of thoughts never finds full expression in the language system.
Modern semasiology presents the semantic content of a word as a system of semes and semes (semantic features) that have a field structure - with a core, near, far and extreme periphery. There are reasons to think that the concept also has a field organization. At least, the presence of a core in it (a prototype image of a universal subject code and several of the most striking cognitive features), as well as peripheral cognitive features that make up its interpretive field (see Popova and Sternin 2006) seems obvious.
The sign of the universal subject code, as the most vivid image that encodes the concept, is apparently included in the core of the concept; he wears individual sensual character and as such can be identified and described exclusively by psycholinguistic methods. This image can be identified during a psycholinguistic interview: “Describe the most vivid image that you have associated with the concept (word) X”, “X - what does it look like?”, “X - what does it do?” etc.
An experimental study showed that the most vivid visual images among native speakers of the Russian language are associated with the names of astronomical bodies, vehicles, household items, seasons, months, time of day, names of human and animal body parts, names of persons by kinship, names of plants, devices and devices, printed publications, parts of the landscape. The brightest images were revealed for such units as sun, moon, blood, bus, table, night, tooth, coal, grandma, mother, grass, school desk, phone, key, book, forest, shop, rain, dog, apple, magazine, tea, glasses, street, newspaper, pigeon.
It is interesting that certain images were also found for abstract vocabulary - they also have a sensual character, but are more subjective, they differ more sharply in different subjects: religion - church, monks, praying people, icons, bible, candles; silence - people with tight lips and expressive eyes, empty room, silence; life - washing dishes in the kitchen, TV in the house, cleaning the apartment; mathematics - numbers, formulas, graphs, examples in a textbook, in a notebook or on a board, a board covered with formulas etc. (Bebchuk 1991).
If a specific visual image is revealed as a group one, coinciding in a group of subjects (compare, for example, the images revealed by some frequency associative reactions in the course of a free associative experiment: birch - white, desert - sand etc.), then this image can already be considered as a fact of the concept sphere people, as a relatively standardized image, processed and "recognized" by the national consciousness.
It should be noted that there may not be a processed, standard image in the mind of an individual, or it will have a bright personal component, since the image of the Criminal Procedure Code is formed primarily from the experience of a person’s personal perceptual activity.
The concept in the mind of an individual can be generally completely personal in content. In this case, they say - "he has his own concept of ...", "he has his own idea of \u200b\u200b...". This can also be found in the word usage of such a person - he will use well-known words for the explication of his concept, but in a sense that is not generally accepted, either he will need a significant explicative text, or such a person will be generally unable to verbally verbalize his individual concept.
The problem of language teaching and the development of thinking in the process of education and upbringing is, first of all, the problem of the formation in the minds of those whom we teach, standard concepts accepted in a given society as a model of concepts. In this case, the language is used in its main function - communicative, to explain the meanings of words and through them - to form the corresponding concepts in the minds of students. However, the concept as a unit of thinking, being formed, acquires a subjective-personal character and its content is verbalized in the meanings of the words used for its nomination in an incomplete volume limited by these systemic meanings.
From all that has been said, it follows that one cannot mix meaning and concept: a concept is a unit of the concept sphere, a person's information base, a meaning is a unit of the semantic space of a language. Meaning with its system semes conveys certain features that form the concept, but this is always only a part of the information content of the concept. For a complete explication of a concept, usually numerous lexical units are needed, which means many meanings.
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Cognitive classifiers and the picture of the world
The concept of classifiers was one of the first to develop in detail J. Lakoff. In his article “Thinking in the Mirror of Classifiers,” he wrote that different peoples of the world classify, it would seem, the same realities quite unexpectedly. In each culture, there are specific areas of experience (fishing, hunting, and others), which determine the connections in categorical chains of concepts; ideal models of the world, incl. myths and various beliefs, which can also set connections in categorical chains; specific knowledge, which receives an advantage over general knowledge during categorization, and so on.
J. Lakoff notes that the main principle of classification is the principle of the sphere of experience. In conclusion, J. Lakoff comes to the conclusion that cognitive models are used in understanding the world. They help to comprehend that part of a person's experience that is limited by a person and is perceived by him (Lakoff 1988, pp. 12-51).
J. Lakoff's study convincingly shows that classifiers are an exclusively mental category, generated by human thinking. Being represented in linguistic semantics, classifiers play an important role in organizing the semantic space of each language, organizing it into certain structures. Therefore, the semantic space of each language exists as a set of meanings tending to infinity, connected by classifying semantic features into various groups, classes, series and fields, which ultimately constitute the defining beginning of the structure of the system of any language.
From the experience of analyzing reality, a person derives classification categories, which he then applies to perceived and comprehended reality. These classification categories are elements of the concept sphere (that is, certain concepts), and they streamline both reality and language for a person: in accordance with these classifiers, both objects of reality and language units are combined and differentiated.
These semantic features (categories) are called cognitive classifiers because they classify experience in the process of its cognition (cognition). Being revealed in the semantics of classes of units, classifiers act as integral or differential semes.
It is important to emphasize that all of them at the same time remain generalizing features in the concept sphere, being only presented in the semantic space of the language by the corresponding semes.
The set of cognitive classifiers often turns out to be deeply national, which is especially noticeable in the example of the category of nominal class (gender) – the number of genders varies in different languages from zero (English) to 40 (Vietnamese) or more.
The variety of cognitive classifiers depends on the way of life of people, their practical needs. If primitive tribes have dozens of designations for various types of flora and fauna, then in this segment of their consciousness more cognitive classifiers are “involved” than in the corresponding area in the brain of a European who simply does not need such a detailed division of this area of reality. In this case, in the semantics of the language of those who speak Russian or English, gaps will be revealed that testify to the originality and uniqueness of the "alien" picture of the world for them.
2.1. The concept of semantic space.
As already mentioned, a fairy tale as a tool for the work of a psychologist is convenient for many reasons. It suits clients because (1) it is accessible - “submissive to all ages”, suits people of different intellectual abilities, does not require long explanations, tasks are grasped on the fly; and (2) attractive - fairy tales have a stable positive attitude, stemming from the experiences of distant childhood. For a psychologist, a fairy tale is good because (3) it is allegorical - it is saturated with metaphors and images, thanks to the conventionality of the plot and the scene of action, it allows to reduce the client's natural resistance; and (4) multidimensional - not only filled with deep archetypal elements, but also correlates with real life events, that is, they are addressed to the individual integrity of a person. It should be especially emphasized that a fairy tale easily turns from a means of psychodiagnostics into a psychotechnical tool - it becomes an agent of corrective transformation, without losing at all rich diagnostic possibilities (3.72).
We should dwell in more detail on why we are sure that the subject projects his life problems onto the plot of the fairy tale, its characters, including identifying himself with one of the characters. This is explained by the existence of a semantic space - this is the spiritual world of a person, in which the world around is presented through the prism of the interests and experience of a person living in it. The spiritual worlds of different people can be arbitrarily different, but they are all similar to each other in that part in which they carry the features of the surrounding world. This semantic space contains many subspaces - fragments of the inner world of a person, corresponding to some fragments of the external world and the life experience of a person's interaction with it. For example: “my work”, “my family”, “circle of friends”, “the city in which I live”, etc. Each such space contains a lot of information about some fragment of the world, memories of one’s own and others’ actions, personal experiences in connection with with them, explanations of the structure of this world, as well as their own expectations from it or fears, life plans and much more. (5.74)
Everyday life of a person is a continuous journey from one semantic space to another - as a person relates (identifies) himself to a particular community of people with similar semantic characteristics: needs, interests, knowledge, habits, attitudes and spaces. Such a space is subjective in principle; in it, sometimes the most unexpected contents are intertwined in the most bizarre way and mutually condition each other. Moreover, semantic "transitions" are created in accordance with the characteristics of life events (3.75).
The semantic space of life can be reflected in any kind of human-produced products, such as drawings. In addition, the variables that exist in the living space also reveal themselves in fairy tales that a child or an adult composes. Of course, in a fairy tale, as in drawings, not all space is displayed, but only some part of it. The languages of both spaces, be it the space of a fairy tale or a drawing and the life semantic space, can be considered as metaphors in relation to each other - as an allegory, a hint, an allegory. In general, two semantic spaces are uniquely mutually mapped into each other if any content of one of them can be associated with some content of the other, so that the language of each of them can be used allegorically (metaphorically) to describe the content of the other (3.76 ).
When we interpret a fairy tale, we strive to restore the variables for which there is an isomorphism (similarity, similarity) between the client's life situation (its fragments) and the text of the fairy tale. Two semantic spaces are similar (similar, isomorphic) to each other if mutual mapping is possible between their elements. Some similarities between isomorphic spaces can be based on: structural similarity, dynamic similarity, a mosaic of experiences, patterns of relationships, and much more. When we interpret a fairy tale, we strive to restore the variables for which there is an isomorphism between the client's life situation (its fragments) and the text of the fairy tale. Ideally, we already know everything about our client, and in a fairy tale we only find a correspondence to certain features of his life situation: problems, attitudes, strategies, etc. But even in this case, we have to clarify which fragment of the client’s life corresponds to the alignment of characters, which the character corresponds to which real person, etc. In the most difficult “blind version”, we only have the text of a fairy tale, according to which it is necessary to compose something plausible about a person unknown to us - the probability of a “hit” will be lower. But most often we have something intermediate - something we already know, but something else needs to be known. Therefore, it is preferable to collect such information that would give a reliable basis for calibration - actual data. In a fairy tale, semantic features proper, that is, a person’s attitude to life realities, are better manifested. A fairy tale is good where we are preparing to outline a problem, cover the key circle of really working metaphors (deep images), draw up a “balance” of the client’s resources (missing and supporting ones), etc. The task of a psychologist is not to learn something about the facts of a person's life, but about what this life is like in his ideas. In addition, the fairy tale allows revealing meaningful and dynamic moments, especially typical difficulties and habitual interaction strategies, ways of solving emerging problems (3,77).
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