1. The sign character of the language
The language used by a person in everyday communication is not only a historically established form of culture that unites human society, but also a complex sign system. Understanding the sign properties of the language is necessary in order to better understand the structure of the language and the rules for its use.
Words of human language are signs of objects and concepts. Words are the most numerous and main characters in the language. Other units of the language are also signs.
A sign is a substitute for an object for the purposes of communication; a sign allows the speaker to evoke in the mind of the interlocutor the image of an object or concept.
The sign has the following properties:
o the sign must be material, accessible to perception;
o the sign is directed to the value;
o a sign is always a member of the system, and its content largely depends on the place of the given sign in the system.
· The above properties of the sign determine a number of requirements of the culture of speech.
o Firstly, the speaker (writer) must make sure that the signs of his speech (sounding words or signs of writing) are convenient for perception: they are quite clearly audible, visible.
o Secondly, it is necessary that speech signs express some content, convey meaning, and in such a way that the form of speech makes it easier to understand the content of speech.
o Thirdly, it must be borne in mind that the interlocutor may be less aware of the subject of the conversation, which means that it is necessary to provide him with the missing information, which only in the opinion of the speaker is already contained in the words spoken.
o Fourth, it is important to ensure that the sounds of spoken language and the letters of the letter are clearly distinguished from each other.
o Fifthly, it is important to remember the systemic connections of a word with other words, take into account polysemy, use synonymy, keep in mind the associative links of words.
Thus, knowledge from the field of semiotics (the science of signs) contributes to the improvement of speech culture.
· A language mark can be a code mark and a text mark.
o The signs of the code exist as a system of units opposed in the language, connected by a significance relation that determines the content of the signs specific to each language.
o Text characters exist as a formally and semantically linked sequence of units. The culture of speech implies the attentive attitude of the speaker to the coherence of the spoken or written text.
Meaning is the content of a linguistic sign, which is formed as a result of the reflection of extralinguistic reality in the minds of people. The value of a language unit in the language system is virtual, i.e. determined by what the unit can stand for. In a specific utterance, the meaning of a linguistic unit becomes relevant, since the unit is related to a specific object, to what it actually means in the utterance. From the point of view of the culture of speech, it is important for the speaker to clearly direct the interlocutor's attention to the actualization of the meaning of the statement, to help him correlate the statement with the situation, and for the listener it is important to show maximum attention to the speaker's communicative intentions.
Distinguish between subject and conceptual meaning.
o Objective meaning consists in correlating a word with an object, in designating an object.
o The conceptual meaning is used to express a concept that reflects an object, to specify a class of objects denoted by a sign.
2. Natural and artificial languages
Signs that are part of languages as means of communication in society are called signs of communication. Communication signs are divided into signs of natural languages and signs of artificial sign systems (artificial languages).
The signs of natural languages consist of both sound signs and the corresponding signs of writing (handwritten, typographic, typewritten, printer, screen).
In the natural languages of communication - national languages - there are rules of grammar in a more or less explicit form, and the rules of meaning and use are in an implicit form. For the written form of speech, there are also spelling and punctuation rules fixed in codes and reference books.
In artificial languages, both the rules of grammar and the rules of meaning and usage are specified explicitly in the corresponding descriptions of these languages.
Artificial languages arose in connection with the development of science and technology, they are used in the professional activities of specialists. Artificial languages include systems of mathematical and chemical symbols. They serve as a means of not only communication, but also the derivation of new knowledge.
Among artificial sign systems, one can single out code systems designed to encode ordinary speech. These include Morse code, marine flag signaling of letters of the alphabet, and various ciphers.
A special group is made up of artificial languages designed to control the operation of computer systems - programming languages. They have a strict system structure and formalized rules for correlating code signs and meaning, providing for the computer system to perform exactly those operations that are required.
Signs of artificial languages can themselves constitute texts or be included in written texts in natural language. Many artificial languages have international usage and are included in texts in various natural national languages. Of course, it is appropriate to include signs of artificial languages only in texts addressed to specialists familiar with these languages.
The natural spoken language of humans is the most complete and perfect of all communication systems. Other human-made sign systems embody only some of the properties of natural language. These systems can significantly enhance the language and surpass it in one or more respects, but at the same time be inferior to it in others (Yu. S. Stepanov. Language and method. - M .: 1998. P. 52).
So, for example, the system of mathematical symbols surpasses the natural language in the brevity of information recording, the minimality of code signs. Programming languages are characterized by clear rules and unambiguous correspondence between meaning and form.
In turn, natural language is much more flexible, open and dynamic.
Natural language is applicable to describe any situations, including those that have not yet been the object of description using this language.
Natural language allows the speaker to generate new signs that are understandable to the interlocutor, as well as to use existing signs in new meanings, which is impossible in artificial languages.
The natural language is known within the entire national society, and not only to a narrow circle of specialists.
Natural language quickly adapts to the diverse needs of interpersonal interaction between people and therefore is the main and generally indispensable means of human communication.
3. Basic functions of the language
"Being the most important means of communication, language unites people, regulates their interpersonal and social interaction, coordinates their practical activities, participates in the formation of worldview systems and national images of the world, ensures the accumulation and storage of information, including information related to the history and historical experience of the people and personal to the experience of the individual, dismembers, classifies and consolidates concepts, forms the consciousness and self-consciousness of a person, serves as a material and form of artistic creativity "(N.D. Arutyunova. Functions of language. // Russian language. Encyclopedia. - M .: 1997. P. 609) .
The main functions of the language are:
o Communicative (communication function);
o Thought-forming (function of embodiment and expression of thought);
o Expressive (the function of expressing the internal state of the speaker);
o Aesthetic (the function of creating beauty by means of language).
The communicative function is the ability of language to serve as a means of communication between people. The language has the units necessary for constructing messages, the rules for their organization, and ensures the emergence of similar images in the minds of the participants in communication.
Language also has special means of establishing and maintaining contact between the participants in communication.
From the point of view of the culture of speech, the communicative function involves the installation of participants in speech communication on the fruitfulness and mutual usefulness of communication, as well as a general focus on the adequacy of speech understanding.
Achieving the functional effectiveness of communication is impossible without knowledge and compliance with the norms of the literary language.
The thought-forming function lies in the fact that language serves as a means of designing and expressing thoughts. The structure of the language is organically connected with the categories of thinking.
"The word, which alone is capable of making a concept an independent unit in the world of thoughts, adds to it a lot of itself," wrote the founder of linguistics W. von Humboldt (W. Humboldt. Selected Works on Linguistics. M .: 1984, p. 318).
This means that the word singles out and shapes the concept, and at the same time, a relationship is established between the units of thinking and the sign units of the language. That is why W. Humboldt believed that "language should accompany thought. Thought, keeping up with the language, should follow from one of its elements to another and find in the language a designation for everything that makes it coherent" (ibid., p. 345) . According to Humboldt, "in order to correspond to thinking, language, as far as possible, must correspond with its structure to the internal organization of thinking" (ibid.).
The speech of an educated person is distinguished by the clarity of the presentation of his own thoughts, the accuracy of retelling other people's thoughts, consistency and informativeness.
familiar yavl. objects, actions and phenomena, i.e. any material objects, cat. may substitute for one reality or another. Sign is a bilateral unit, a carrier of social information. A linguistic sign - a chain of phonemically dissected sounds - also means a concept attached to it - a signified.
Language signs are distributed in three groups:
1. natural languages (phonetic);
2. artificial languages (graphically written language, manual speech of the deaf and dumb);
3. signs associated with the phonetic language (intonation, gestures, facial expressions, pauses).
The peculiarity of the linguistic sign zakl. in that it is a primary non-conventional sign, objectively formed in the process of evolution of human and human society in general. Among other types of signs used in human society, the linguistic sign occupies a special place:
1. its material and ideal nature;
2. the originality of its genesis, i.e. origin, evolution and functioning;
3. functions performed;
4. the form of its existence or expression;
5. their role in the life of society and many others. other signs.
Main. sign properties in general and linguistic sign in particular.
1. substitution function (any sign means something);
2. communication (any sign is a medium of communication);
3. sociality (any signs arise and exist in society);
4. systemic (any Z. is an element of some system);
5. materiality (any sign must be accessible to sensory perception - to feel, see, feel).
The peculiarity of language as a sign system zakl. in universality (linguistic Z. use in all areas of human activity); primacy in relation to other sign systems; in constant development and perfection; in polysemy.
Types of sign systems
Signs are usually distinguished from signs (symptoms). The latter are not means of purposeful transmission of information by someone. In them, the plane of expression (signifier, exponent) and the plane of content (signified) are in a causal relationship (for example, puddles of water on the ground as evidence of recent rain). In the actual signs used for the purposeful transmission of information, the connection between the two parties is not due to natural, cause-and-effect relationships, but is often subject to the principle of convention (conventionality) or the principle of arbitrariness (arbitrarity). However, as already noted, numerous cases of one or another motivation of signs are possible, which are allowed by this system.
People use a wide variety of sign systems, which can be classified primarily based on the communication channel (the environment in which they are transmitted). So, we can talk about signs of sound (vocal, auditory), visual, tactile, etc. People have, in addition to the sound language as the main communication system, gesticulation, facial expressions, phonation means, which are a special use of the voice, etc. They have at their disposal both natural (spontaneously occurring) and artificial, created by them communicative systems (writing; signaling with the help of technical devices and other means: traffic lights, ways of designating military differences, etc., systems of symbols in logic, mathematics , physics, chemistry, engineering, languages like Esperanto, programming languages, etc.). In some communication situations, there is a simultaneous transmission of signs of various kinds, the use of different media (multimedia communication).
Question
linguosemiotics
Semiotics is the science of sign systems in nature and in society. ground floor-com yavl. Pier. Directions in S-ke:
1. biosemiotics (studies natural signs that function in the animal world).
2. ethnosemiotics (studies the signs associated with a certain ethnos - habits, customs, traditions).
3. linguosemiotics(focused on the study of natural language with its style and associated sign systems).
Sign yavl. objects, actions and phenomena, i.e. any material objects, cat. can replace this or that reality. A sign is a 2-sided unit, a carrier of social information. A linguistic sign - a chain of phonemically dissected sounds - also means a concept attached to it - a signified.
1 type of signs, copies or images (iconic). This type of signs retains the similarity with the designated objects. Type 2 - signs, signs or symptoms (index) - carry information about the subject, a consequence of the natural and causal relationship with it. Type 3 - signs of signals - carry information by agreement. Type 4 - signs-symbols - carry information about the subject in abstraction from the subject of any properties (eg Dove - a symbol of peace).
The originality of the language sign in the fact that it is a primary non-conventional sign, objectively formed in the process of evolution of human and human society in general. Among other types of signs used in human society, the tongue sign occupies a special place. The originality of the language as a sign system zakl. in universality (language sign is used in all areas of human activity); primacy in relation to other sign systems; in constant development and perfection; in polysemy.
linguosemiotics- the science of the communicative function of language. The essence of this function is that the language is a means of conveying the speaker's thoughts and feelings to the listener. This function is carried out due to the sign nature of the language.
The identification of the sign nature of a language becomes possible when the language begins to be studied along with other sign systems - the alphabet for the deaf and dumb, the system of road signs, etc. These systems are studied by semiotics - the science of signs. Semiotics occupies an intermediate position between internal linguistics and semiotics. Hence its two-root name. The founder of modern linguistic semiotics is F. de Saussure.
The main goal of linguosemiotics is to reveal the sign nature of language. This goal can be achieved if the language system is compared with other sign systems. Such a comparison makes it possible to characterize the language as a special system of signs.
The identification of the originality of a language in comparison with other sign systems can be carried out at different levels:
physical level. From the point of view of the physical characteristics of the sign, and consequently, from the point of view of their perception by the senses, all systems are divided into four groups: tactile, visual, auditory and olfactory. A person uses visual signs extremely actively. Visual signs also include human language in its written form. In its oral form, human language belongs to auditory sign systems.
biological level. The physiological mechanisms of speech activity in humans are special. This is especially evident in the absence of symmetry between the left and right hemispheres of the brain. It has been noted that in right-handed people (in left-handed people, on the contrary), the left hemisphere is specialized as speech (verbal), and the right hemisphere is specialized as non-verbal (non-verbal). Brain asymmetry is absent in animals. It is an anatomical and physiological result of human speech evolution.
Psychological level. The mental foundations of human speech activity are undoubtedly much more complex than similar mechanisms of any other sign activity in humans or animals. The explanation is simple: human language is a much more complex entity than any other sign system. If a system of hierarchically organized levels of various units is distinguished in a language, then the composition of sign units included in non-linguistic sign systems is limited.
cultural level. The peculiarity of the language system of signs lies in the fact that it is used in all spheres of culture, while other signs have narrow, special areas of application. The universal use of language testifies to the much greater communicative possibilities of human language in comparison with other sign systems.
language sign
According to F. de Saussure, a linguistic sign is not a connection between a thing and its name, but a combination of a concept and an acoustic image.
A concept is a generalized, schematic image of an object in our minds, the most important and characteristic features of this object, like a definition of an object. For example, a chair is a seat with a support (legs or leg) and a back.
The acoustic image is the sound ideal equivalent of the sound in our mind. When we say a word to ourselves without moving our lips or tongue, we reproduce an acoustic image of a real sound.
Both of these sides of the sign have a psychic essence, i.e. ideal and exist only in our minds.
The acoustic image in relation to the concept is to some extent material, since it is associated with real sound.
The argument in favor of the ideality of the sign is that we can talk to ourselves without moving our lips or tongue, make sounds to ourselves.
Thus, the sign is a two-sided psychic entity, consisting of the signified and the signifier.
concept- signified (fr. signifié)
acoustic image- signifier (fr. signifiant).
The sign theory assumes 4 components of the designation process.
In the following example, the following components are involved:
The real, material, real tree itself, which we want to designate with a sign;
An ideal (mental) concept as part of a sign (denoted);
Ideal (mental) acoustic image as part of a sign (denoting);
The material embodiment of the ideal sign: the sounds of the spoken word tree, the letters denoting the word tree.1. Denotation (referent) 2. Concept 3. Acoustic 4. Embodiments
[´djεrеve] Tree, Tree
Trees can be different, there are no two absolutely identical birches, we also pronounce the word tree in different ways (in different tones, with different timbres, loudly, in a whisper, etc.), we also write differently (with a pen, pencil, chalk, different handwriting , on a typewriter, computer), but the two-sided sign in our minds is the same for everyone, since it is ideal.
English linguists Charles Ogden (1889-1957), Ivor Richards (1893-1979) in 1923 in the book "The Meaning of Meaning" visually presented the sign relation in the form of a semantic triangle (triangle of reference):
Sign (Symbol), i.e. a word in a natural language;
Referent (Referent), i.e. the subject to which the sign refers;
Attitude, or reference (Reference), i.e. thought as an intermediary between a symbol and a referent, between a word and an object.
The base of the triangle is shown with a dashed line. This means that the connection between the word and the subject is not obligatory, conditional, and it is impossible without a connection with thought and concept.
However, the sign relationship can also be expressed in the form of a square, if we take into account that the second member of the triangle - thought - can consist of a concept and a connotation. The concept is common to all native speakers of a given language, and connotation, or connotation (Latin connotatio - “meaning”) is an associative meaning, individual for each person.
For example, a “brick” for a bricklayer may be associated with his work, and for an injured passerby, with an injury.
Signs of a language sign:
1. Conditional connection between the signified and the signifier. In the word itself there is no indication of the subject.
2. Linear character. (Speech has duration in time and space - we pronounce words sequentially, linearly, letter by letter.)
3. Variability / non-variability. (Changeability (variance):
b) The signifier remains the same, but the signified changes. A change in the signified can lead to either an improvement or a deterioration in the meaning. For example, the word "girl" in the XVIII-XIX centuries. did not have a negative connotation, but today we use it in expressions like "walking girl". The word "guy" possessed in the XVIII-XIX centuries. negative derogatory connotation; in the 20th century, the word "young man" almost fell into disuse, and the word "guy" took its place.)
4. Agreement.
5. Asymmetry: one signifier can have several signifieds (as, for example, in homonymy). Also, one signifier can have several signifiers. This phenomenon is called synonymy.
Properties (principles) of a linguistic sign. The difference between a linguistic sign and other types of signs
Properties of a linguistic sign: 1. A linguistic sign is material and ideal at the same time; represents the unity of the sound shell - the signifier (form), and what it denotes - the signified (content). The signifier is material (sound, letters), the signified is ideal (what is embedded in our metaconsciousness). 2. The linguistic sign is primary, the signs of other sign systems are secondary. 3. Arbitrariness. 4. Motivation - the presence of logical connections between the signifier and the signified. 5. Changeability (variance):
a) The signifier changes, but the signified remains unchanged; for example, earlier the month "February" was called "February", over time this name was transformed into the familiar "February"; also "brow" - "forehead".
b) The signifier remains the same, but the signified changes. A change in the signified can lead to either an improvement or a deterioration in the meaning. For example, the word "girl" in the XVIII-XIX centuries. did not have a negative connotation, but today we use it in expressions like "walking girl". The word "guy" possessed in the XVIII-XIX centuries. negative derogatory connotation; in the 20th century, the word "young man" almost fell into disuse, and the word "guy" took its place.
6. Asymmetry: one signifier can have several signifieds (as, for example, in homonymy). Also, one signifier can have several signifiers. This phenomenon is called synonymy.
7. The linear nature of the signifier. Speech has a duration in time and space - we pronounce words sequentially, linearly, letter by letter.
8. Significance. Significance can only be revealed in the system by comparing a linguistic sign with other linguistic signs.
Several types of signs are used in society. The most famous signs-signs, signs-signals, signs-symbols and linguistic signs. Signs-signs carry some information about the object (phenomenon) due to a natural connection with them: smoke in the forest can inform about a fire, a splash on the river - about fish playing in it, a frosty pattern on the window glass - about the temperature outside. Signs-signals carry information according to the condition, by agreement and have no natural connection with the objects (phenomena) they inform about: a green rocket can mean the beginning of an attack or the beginning of some kind of festival, two stones on the shore show the place of the ford, a blow to gong means end of work. Signs-symbols carry information about an object or phenomenon based on the abstraction from it of some properties and signs, perceived as representatives of the entire phenomenon, its essence; these properties and signs can be recognized in signs-symbols (a drawing of hands joined in a mutual shake is a symbol of friendship, a dove is a symbol of peace).
Language signs occupy a very special place in the typology of signs.
A linguistic sign connects not a thing and not a name, but a concept and an acoustic image. Only meaningful units can be considered linguistic signs: a word (lexeme) and a morpheme.
Language is a universal sign system. It serves a person in all areas of his life and activity and therefore must be able to express any new content that needs to be expressed. Artificial systems are special systems with narrow tasks that serve a person only in certain areas, in certain types of situations.
In addition, language is a system that is much more complex in its internal structure than artificial systems. The complexity of the structure of the language is manifested in the fact that the language has not only a tier that lies "above" the sign, a tier of sentences and free (variable) phrases, but also a tier that lies "below" the sign, the tier of "non-signs", or "figures". ”, from which the exponents of signs are built (and with the help of which they are distinguished).
Coding information using sign systems
Signs: form and meaning
Since ancient times, signs have been used by man for long-term storage of information and its transmission over long distances.
The shape of the signs. In accordance with the way of perception, signs can be divided into visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory, and the signs of the first three types are used in human communication.
Visual signs perceived with the help of vision include letters and numbers that are used in written speech, signs of chemical elements, musical notes, road signs, etc.
Auditory signs perceived with the help of hearing include sounds that are used in oral speech, as well as sound signals that are produced using a bell, bell, whistle, beep, siren, etc.
For the blind, the Braille alphabet has been developed, which uses a tactile way of perceiving textual information.
Olfactory signs play a special role in the communication of many animal species. For example, bears and other wild animals mark their habitat with patches of scent-retaining fur to scare away intruders and show that the area is already occupied.
For long-term storage, signs are recorded on information media.
For the transmission of information over long distances, signs in the form signals. Everyone knows the light signals of a traffic light, the sound signals of a school bell announce the beginning or end of a lesson, electrical signals transmit information over telephone and computer networks, electromagnetic waves transmit radio and television signals.
The meaning of the signs. Signs display objects of the surrounding world or concepts, that is, they have a certain meaning (meaning).
Signs differ in the way in which their form and meaning are related. Iconic signs allow you to guess their meaning, since they have a shape similar to the displayed object. An example of such signs are icons on Desktop computer operating system, such as an icon My computer.
Symbols are called signs for which the connection between form and meaning is established by generally accepted agreement. An example of such signs are the symbols of chemical elements that represent the atoms of chemicals (Table 2.1).
If the agreement on the connection between the form and meaning of symbols is unknown, then nothing can be said about the meaning of the information recorded by such signs. There are texts found by archaeologists and still undeciphered in ancient languages, since the meaning of the signs with which they are written is unknown.
In the modern world, encryption is widely used, which uses a secret key as an agreement to associate the form of characters with their meanings. If the secret key is unknown, then the content of the transmitted text cannot be understood.
The same character can have different meanings in different sign systems. For example, the "O" sign is used as:
- - the letters "O" in the Russian alphabet;
- the letters "O" in the English alphabet;
- digits 0 in number systems;
- the symbol of the chemical element "O" (oxygen) in the table of D. I. Mendeleev.
test questions
1. Give examples of visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory signs. What types of signs are used in human communication?
2. Give examples of signs in the form of signals.
3. What is the difference between iconic signs and symbols?
4. Give examples of characters that have different meanings in several sign systems.
Sign systems
Sign systems are sets of characters of a certain type. You are well acquainted with some sign systems and use them all the time (languages and number systems), you will get acquainted with others in this paragraph.
Each sign system is built on the basis of a certain alphabet (set of characters) and rules for performing operations on characters.
natural languages. A person widely uses sign systems to represent information, which are called languages. Natural languages began to form in ancient times in order to ensure the exchange of information between people. Currently, there are hundreds of natural languages (Russian, English, Chinese, etc.).
In oral speech, which is used as a means of communication in the direct communication of people, various sounds are used as signs of the language ( phonemes).
Written language is based on alphabet, i.e., a set of characters (letters) that a person distinguishes by their style. In most modern languages, letters correspond to certain sounds in spoken language. The Russian alphabet is called the Cyrillic alphabet and contains 33 characters, the English language uses the Latin alphabet and contains 26 characters.
Based on the alphabet according to the rules grammar the main objects of the language are formed - words. The rules according to which sentences are built from the words of a given language are called syntax. It should be noted that in natural languages, the grammar and syntax of the language are formulated using a large number of rules, of which there are exceptions, since such rules were formed historically.
formal languages. In the process of development of science, formal languages were developed (number systems, algebra, programming languages, etc.), the main difference of which from natural languages is the existence of strict rules of grammar and syntax.
For example, the decimal number system can be considered as a formal language that has an alphabet (numbers) and allows not only to name and write objects (numbers), but also to perform arithmetic operations on them according to strictly defined rules.
There are formal languages that do not use letters and numbers as signs, but other symbols, such as musical notes, images of elements of electrical or logical circuits, road signs, dots and dashes (Morse code).
The physical realization of signs in natural and formal languages can be different. For example, text and numbers can be printed on paper, displayed on a computer monitor screen, recorded on a magnetic or optical disk.
Genetic alphabet. The genetic alphabet is the "alphabet" on which a single system of storage and transmission of hereditary information by living organisms is built.
Just as words in languages are made up of letters, so genes are made up of characters in the genetic alphabet. In the process of evolution from the simplest organisms to humans, the number of genes has constantly increased, since it was necessary to encode an increasingly complex structure and functionality of living organisms.
Genetic information is stored in the cells of living organisms in special molecules. These molecules consist of two long chains twisted together in a spiral, built from four different molecular fragments (Fig. 1.6). Fragments form the genetic alphabet and are usually denoted by Latin capital letters (A, G, C, T).
Binary sign system. In the processes of storing, processing and transmitting information in a computer, a binary sign system is used, the alphabet of which consists of only two characters (0, 1). Physically, the signs are realized in the form of electrical impulses (there is no impulse - 0, there is an impulse - 1), as well as the states of RAM cells and sections of information carrier surfaces (one state - 0, another state - 1).
It is the binary sign system that is used in the computer, since existing technical devices can reliably store and recognize only two different states (signs).
In the 60s of the XX century in the USSR, scientists from Moscow State University developed and put into production the computer "Setun" (a total of 50 copies were produced) (Fig. 1.7). "Setun" used ternary coding of information and, accordingly, consisted of devices capable of being in one of three possible states.
 |
| Rice. 1.7. Computer "Setun" |
test questions
1. Give examples of sign systems. What could be the physical nature of signs?
2. What is the difference between natural and formal languages?
3. Do plants have a genetic code? Animals? Man?
4. Why do computers use a binary character system to encode information?
1.1. Question with a detailed answer. Fill in the table below: enter the alphabet and list the possible physical nature of signs for various sign systems.
Information encoding
In the processes of perception, transmission and storage of information by living organisms, humans and technical devices, it is encoded.
The code. Code length. In the process of presenting information using a sign system, it is encoded. The result of encoding is a sequence of symbols of a given sign system, that is, an information code. Examples of codes are sequences of letters in text, numbers in a number, genetic code, binary computer code, etc.
The code consists of a certain number of characters (for example, a text message consists of a certain number of letters, a number - of a certain number of digits, etc.), that is, it has a certain length.
The number of characters in the code is called code length.
Thus, the length of the text code of this textbook is about 300 thousand characters, and the human genetic code is 10 thousand times longer, since it consists of 3 billion characters of the genetic alphabet.
Recoding information from one sign system to another. Information presented using natural and formal languages can be expressed in the form of oral speech or in writing. Each form of representation uses a special sign system, oriented to the way it is perceived. Oral speech uses a set of sounds (phonemes) as signs and is designed for auditory perception. The basis of written speech is the alphabet, that is, a set of signs (letters) that a person perceives with the help of vision.
In the process of exchanging information between people, it is often necessary to move from one form of information presentation to another. So, in the process of reading aloud, a transition is made from the written form of presenting information to oral, and, conversely, in the process of dictation or recording the teacher's explanation, there is a transition from oral to written. In the process of converting information from one form of representation (sign system) to another, information is recoded.
transcoding is the operation of converting characters or groups of characters of one sign system into characters or groups of characters of another sign system.
The recoding tool is the sign system correspondence table (transcoding table), which establishes a one-to-one correspondence between signs or groups of signs of two different sign systems. Table below. 2.2, which establishes a correspondence between the vowels of the Russian alphabet and phonemes.
| Table 2.2 Correspondence of letters and sounds | ||||||||||||||||||||||
|
In written Russian, only six vowels can be voiced in oral speech with the corresponding sounds. To voice the remaining four vowels, compound sounds are used that begin with the sound [j].
test questions
1. Give examples of codes and determine their lengths.
2. Give examples of recoding information from one sign system to another. What conversion tables are used in these cases?
Tasks for self-fulfillment
1.2. Short answer question. Transcode from Russian written language into Russian spoken name Yulia.
All the variety of symbolic means used in culture constitutes its semiotic field. As part of this field, the following main types of characters can be distinguished:
natural;
functional;
conventional (conditional);
iconic.
Under natural signs are understood things and phenomena of nature. Of course, not all of them act as signs. An object cannot be a sign of itself; it becomes a sign when it points to some other objects and is considered as a carrier of information about them. Most often, a natural sign is an accessory, a property, a part of some whole, and therefore provides information about this whole. Natural signs are signs-signs . The simplest example: smoke as a sign of fire.
To understand natural signs, one must know what they are signs of and be able to extract the information contained in them. Signs of the weather, traces of animals, the location of heavenly bodies - all these are signs that can tell a lot to someone who is able to "decipher" them.
Any object becomes functional sign if the connection between it and what it points to arises in the process of human activity and is based on the way it is used by a person. For example, a weapon found by an archaeologist in a burial mound is a functional sign indicating that a warrior was buried in it. The decor of the apartment is a complex of functional signs (text) that carries information about the degree of wealth of the owners, and the selection of books on the bookshelf speaks of their tastes and interests. Glasses - a sign of weakness of vision; a shovel on the shoulder indicates that the person was engaged or is about to engage in earthworks.
Functional signs are also sign-signs. But unlike natural signs, the connection of functional signs with what they point to is not due to their objective properties and not to the laws of nature, but to the functions that they perform in people's activities. After all, these signs are objects that have some pragmatic purpose. They are created by a person for practical use, and not with the aim of endowing them with a symbolic function, and can act as signs only because they are included in human activity and, as a result, carry some information about it. Of course, in order to extract this information from them, it is required to have some prior knowledge about the conditions of their application in human activity.
Not only objects, but also the actions of people can act as functional signs. Every student knows that when a teacher starts running his finger over a class magazine, this is a sign that he will now call someone to answer. Making involuntary and unconscious body movements, a person, as a rule, does not even suspect that he gives these signs signaling his feelings, emotions, intentions, thoughts.
Functional signs, along with primary meanings associated with their pragmatic functions, can also take on secondary meanings, which are assigned to them more or less arbitrarily (most often on the basis of some analogies). They acquire such secondary meanings, for example, in many superstition signs (a horseshoe nailed at the door; empty buckets from a woman walking towards; a spoon or knife that has fallen from the table - a woman or a man will come, etc.).
Iconic(from the Greek eicon - image) signs are signs-images. Their defining feature is the similarity to what they stand for. This similarity can be greater or lesser - from similarity only in some respect to isomorphism (one-to-one correspondence of all elements and relations).
Iconic signs are signs in the full sense of the word. If for objects acting as natural and functional signs, the sign function is secondary and is performed by them, as it were, in combination with their main functions, then for iconic signs this function is the main and main one. They are, as a rule, artificially created so that their appearance reflects the appearance of the things they denote, although occasionally it is possible to use a naturally formed object as an iconic sign if it is very similar (accidentally or not accidentally) to what we would like to designate them. .
An iconic sign may be similar to the designated object in terms of the "material" of which they both consist. So, in music, the roar of waves, thunder, car horn, etc. are sometimes imitated. Here, musical instruments reproduce the sounds that we hear in life, in the same “sound material” (in air vibrations). However, images similar to the designated object can also be created in a completely different material than the one of which the object consists. Sculpture or portrait on canvas gives us the image of a person, although they are made in stone or paint. Poets and writers, with the help of words, evoke in the reader vivid images of the people, phenomena, and events described.
Conventional (conditional) signs are artificially created signs. Usually they have little to do with what they indicate, and giving them a certain meaning is the result of an agreement, an agreement (the word "conventional" comes from the Latin conventionio - agreement, contract, condition). A conventional sign designates a certain object, not because it is somehow related to it, like natural or functional signs, and not because it is similar to it, as is typical of iconic signs. It serves as a designation of the subject "by condition" - because people have agreed to consider it a sign of this subject. Conventional signs are created specifically to perform a sign function, and are not needed for any other purpose.
The simplest examples of conventional signs: a school bell; a red cross on an ambulance; "zebra" on a pedestrian crossing; stars and stripes on shoulder straps.
There are two main types of conventional signs - signals and indices.
Signals- Signs of notice or warning. The meaning that is given to the most common and accepted signals in a given culture is learned by people from childhood (for example, the meaning of the colors of a traffic light). The meaning of many special signals becomes known only as a result of training (such, for example, flag signaling in the fleet and navigational signals).
Indices- conventional designations of objects or situations that have a compact, easily visible form and are used in order to distinguish these objects and situations from a number of others. Sometimes (but not necessarily) they try to select them so that their appearance suggests what they mean. Examples of index signs: instrument readings, cartographic signs, various kinds of conventional icons in diagrams, graphs, professional business texts.
You can also specify the main types of sign systems. These include verbal sign systems and sign systems of notation.
Verbal sign systems- the most important sign systems of the sign systems created by people: they form semiotic basis of culture. They are called "natural" to distinguish from artificial (formalized) languages.
There are between 2,500 and 5,000 natural languages in the world (their exact number cannot be established, since there are no unambiguous criteria for distinguishing different languages from different dialects of the same language). Any natural language is a historically established sign system that forms the basis of the entire culture of the people speaking it. No other sign system can be compared with it in terms of its cultural significance.
You can point to a number of advantages of the language over other sign systems.
The language is economical and easy to use. The pronunciation of the sounds of articulate speech does not require any noticeable expenditure of energy from a person, does not require preliminary preparation of any material means, leaves hands free and, at the same time, allows you to transmit a fairly large amount of information in a relatively short time.
An important advantage of the language is its reliability as a means of storing and transmitting information. This is achieved due to the fact that, despite its economy, it is “redundant”, that is, it encodes information in more characters than is necessary for its perception. Redundancy makes it possible to correctly establish the content of language messages and avoid errors even when the message contains omissions and distortions.
The most important feature of the language, which distinguishes it from all other sign systems, lies in its specific structural organization. Although it is so easy and simple for us to explain ourselves in our native language that we usually speak without thinking about how we do it, the language is actually far from being so simple. It is a polystructural, branched, hierarchical, multi-level system of signs. The basic structural unit is the word. Like atoms, words have an internal structure (root, suffixes, prefixes, etc.) and are built from "elementary particles": they are sounds - phonemes (which, strictly speaking, are not signs, because they themselves have no meaning) . "Atoms" - words are combined into "molecules" - phrases, sentences, statements. And from the latter texts are formed - large and more or less integral "pieces" of speech. Thus, four main structural levels of the language can be distinguished.
Phonetics- sound, acoustic side of the language. Each language has its own phonetic features - phonemes characteristic of it, forms and methods of their combination, intonation options, etc. The number of phonemes is relatively small: in different languages it ranges from 10 to 80. If the language was built at the level of phonemes (i.e. only phonemes would be its signs), then it would obviously be very poor. But from a small number of phonemes, an infinite number of combinations can be made. That is why the main structural components of the language are not phonemes, but their combinations - words. It is only at the level of words that the virtues of the language that make it the main sign system of culture begin to appear.
Vocabulary- the vocabulary of the language. It has up to 400-500 thousand words in developed languages. However, in everyday life, only a small part of them is practically used. The complete collection of Pushkin's works consists of 600,000 words. At the same time, it contains 21 thousand different words. The lexical structure of the language is very complex. It adds a lot of complexity polysemy- polysemy of words.
In modern languages, about 80% of words have multiple meanings. Even such a simple word as “table” has several meanings in Russian: it is both a piece of furniture (there is a table in this room), food, food (there is a wonderful table in this sanatorium), and a department in an institution (reference desk), and a negotiating table (you can sit at the negotiating table without a table!). Of course, polysemy makes language learning difficult. But at the same time, it enriches our speech, saturates it with additional, clearly not formulated content (“subtext”).
Grammar- the structure of the language, i.e. a system of forms and methods of formation, change and use of words. One vocabulary without grammar does not yet constitute a language. Single words alone provide little opportunity for expressing thoughts. Any complex thoughts require an orderly combination of many words into coherent statements. The meaning of sentences depends not only on the words of which they are composed, it is largely determined by grammar. Moreover, the grammatical structures themselves already express the essential features of the content of the sentence, so that by understanding them, one can understand what is being said even if one does not know the words. The Russian linguist L.V. Shcherba demonstrated this ability of grammatical structures to carry information in themselves with the famous phrase: “The glistening kuzdra shteko boked the bokra and curls the bokrenka.” The words here seem to be completely empty of content, but nevertheless the grammar tells us the general meaning of the phrase: a certain female creature did something on some male creature, and then began to do something with its cub.
Stylistics- the manner of speech design, characterized by the principles of selection and combination of language means used. Modern literature is characterized by a variety of styles. The language acquires various stylistic forms in the practice of people's communication. Style can also be considered as speech, which to a greater or lesser extent reflects the level of education, occupation, range of interests, attitude of the individual.
The most important of the sign recording systems is writing, a system for recording signs of natural language, oral speech. This type of sign systems also includes musical notation, ways of recording dance, etc. Their peculiarity is that they arise on the basis of other sign systems - spoken language, music, dance - and are secondary to them.
The invention of sign systems of notation is one of the greatest achievements of human thought. The appearance and development of writing played a particularly important role in the history of culture. It can be said without any exaggeration that only its creation allowed human culture to emerge from its initial, primitive state. Without writing, the development of science, technology, art, law, etc. would be impossible.
Writing was preceded by the so-called "subject writing" - the use of objects to convey messages that arose back in primitive society (for example, an olive branch as a sign of peace). Such methods of communication were sometimes resorted to in later times. However, this was still only the prehistory of writing. The first stage of its history was writing in drawings (pictography). Then ideographic writing arose, in the process of its development, the drawings in it acquired an increasingly simplified and schematic character. And finally, at the third stage, an alphabetic script was created, which uses a relatively small set of written signs that do not mean words, but the sounds of oral speech that make them up.
The emergence and development of written language gives rise to fundamentally new opportunities for cultural progress. The basic sign of writing is not the word, as in spoken language, but a smaller and more abstract unit, the letter. The number of basic signs of the system decreases and becomes visible. This leads to fundamental changes in the logic of using the sign system. Qualitatively new ways of processing, perception and transmission of information become possible.
Recording creates the opportunity to significantly increase the vocabulary of the language. In tribal unwritten languages, rarely used words simply disappeared from social memory, and new ones replaced them. The dictionary of such languages contained no more than 10-15 thousand words. In modern languages, over the course of the centuries-old history of the use of writing, there is an accumulation of words, and their number reaches half a million.
With the development of sign recording systems, the amount of information circulating in society increases immeasurably. Non-written languages could provide the transfer of only the amount of knowledge that was stored in folklore - myths, oral epic, proverbs. This volume was limited by the memory capacity of the individual who acted as a priest or storyteller. Writing allows society to transmit information, the amount of which far exceeds the memory capacity of an individual. Libraries are emerging that act as repositories of knowledge and make it available to future generations. The temporal and spatial boundaries of communication are removed: communication becomes possible between people living at great distances from each other and at different historical times. This made it possible, for example, to learn a lot about the life of long-vanished peoples - the ancient Egyptians, Hittites, Incas, to restore the Roman system of law several centuries after the death of the Roman Empire and put it at the basis of European jurisprudence.
One of the important directions in the development of recording systems was the creation artificial formalized languages that play an important role in modern logic and mathematics, and, consequently, in all sciences that use the logico-mathematical apparatus. Artificial languages are created on the basis of natural ones. They are distinguished by a strict formalization of the rules for constructing language expressions and algorithms for the transition from one expression to another.
Sign systems have been formed throughout the history of mankind. This was necessary not only so that the accumulated buildings could be passed down from generation to generation - according to many anthropologists, the science of signs originally originated as a means of communication between people.
What is semiotics?
Semiotics is a branch of knowledge that studies signs and sign systems. It arose at the intersection of several disciplines - psychology, biology, cybernetics, literature, and sociology. Semiotics is divided into three broad areas: syntactics, semantics, and pragmatics. Syntactics studies the laws according to which various types of sign systems are arranged, the ways of arrangement, with the help of which various elements of a language are correlated. The subject of study of semantics is the meaning - the relationship between the sign itself and its meaning. Pragmatics studies the relationship between the user of language and the sign system itself. A sign is a certain material object (as well as an event or phenomenon) that is objectively used to replace another object, its properties or the relationship between objects.
Secondary simulation systems
In addition to the main classes of sign systems, there are also secondary modeling systems. Otherwise they are called "codes of culture". This category includes all types of cultural texts (excluding natural language), social activities, various models of behavior, traditions, myths, religious beliefs. Cultural codes are formed in the same way as natural language. They function on the principle of agreement between members of society. Agreements, or codes, are known to every member of the group.
Development of the psyche and mastery of the sign system
Mastering various types of sign systems is also a critical factor for the development of higher mental functions. Semiotic systems allow an individual to master social culture, historically established acceptable ways of behavior, and social experience. At the same time, self-awareness develops. Starting with elementary sensations, over time it is formed into a number of skills of self-perception, making a certain opinion about oneself, personal logic.
Encoding and decoding information
In psychology, various examples of sign systems are most often studied in the context of their correlation with cognitive processes. Much attention is paid to neurophysiological features. But often speech as a way of transmitting information, exchanging knowledge is left aside by scientists. Until now, the process of coding with the help of sign systems of visual images is a mystery for researchers. The mental image is encoded in the speaker's brain into words. In the brain of the listener, it is decoded. The transformations that take place in this case remain unexplored.
Language sign systems: examples
Currently, linguistics is a dynamically developing branch of knowledge. The linguistic method is used in many sciences - for example, in ethnography and psychoanalysis. There are six types of sign systems in total. These are natural systems, recording systems, verbal systems. Let's look at each type in more detail.
Iconic systems
Examples of iconic sign systems are architecture, ballet, music, non-verbal form of communication. They usually have a fairly strong emotional saturation, are full of figurative components that are part of the sign. The study of various examples of sign systems shows that a scientist must not only use objective methods, but also independently model various examples of emotions and communicative situations.
natural signs
Found in nature and in everyday life. Usually these are certain things or natural phenomena that point to other objects. Otherwise, they are also called signs-signs. An example of sign systems related to natural ones can be signs about the weather, traces of animals. A classic illustration of this semiotic system is the sign of smoke, which indicates a fire.
Functional signs
This type of signs also applies to signs-signs. However, unlike natural ones, the connection of a functional sign with the object that it denotes is due to a certain function, the activity of people. For example, a home interior within the framework of semiotics is a text that indicates the level of well-being of the owners of the house. A set of books on a bookshelf provides the viewer with information about the tastes of the owner of the library, the level of his mental and moral development. Also, actions can often act as a functional sign. For example, a classroom teacher runs his finger over a list of students in a journal. This action is also a functional sign - it indicates that someone will be called to the board soon.
Convention signs
This one is otherwise called conditional. The name "conventional" comes from the Latin conventionio - "agreement". Conventional signs serve to designate objects and phenomena of the surrounding world "by condition". They themselves, as a rule, have very little in common with what they stand for. Examples of sign systems related to conventional ones: traffic signal, indices, cartographic signs, symbols (coats of arms, emblems).
Verbal (speech) sign systems
All human languages belong to this category. Each language has a historical basis (the so-called "semiotic basis"). The main feature of human languages is that each of them is a polystructural and multilevel system. This system is capable of almost unlimited development. The sign system of speech is the richest means for storing, processing and further transmitting information.
Sign systems
This semiotic category includes sign systems that arise on the basis of previous groups - verbal, dance, music. Sign systems of notation are secondary to these groups. They arose with the advent of writing. Without recording systems, human cognitive evolution would be impossible.
Semiotic experiences in history
The ancient Greek scientist Plato divided all sounds into the categories of fast, huge, thin and rounded. M. V. Lomonosov was of the opinion that the frequent repetition of the letter “A” in written or oral speech contributes to the image of grandeur, depth and height. The letters "E" and "U" help to depict affection, small objects, tenderness. These views were expounded in his work A Concise Guide to Eloquence.
Researcher I. N. Gorelov conducted a curious experiment. The subjects were asked to characterize the named "mamlyn" and "zhavarug". All of the participants in the experiment considered the “mamlyna” to be a kind, meek and rounded creature. "Zhavaruga" was categorized as wild, prickly and evil.
Volapuk language
There are a huge number of languages on the planet, and there are many dead languages - those that have gone out of use. Despite this, there are still those who enthusiastically invent new ones. Examples of artificial sign systems are the well-known Esperanto language, its predecessor Volapuk, Universalglot, Catholic lingua, Solresol, and many others. One of the most complex is Ithkuil, created on the basis of ancient symbols. Artificial languages were created by personalities employed in various fields. These were not always those who worked in the professions of the sign system.
One of the strangest artificial languages is Volapuk. The idea for his invention first came up with a German priest named Martin Schleyer. The clergyman claimed that the idea of creating an artificial language was proposed to him by the Lord himself in a dream. The purpose of creating Volapuk was to simplify communication - Schleyer tried to create a simple and universal language. He took European languages as a basis - Latin, English and German. The priest tried to create words from just one syllable.
At first, the public showed little interest in this artificial language. However, a community was soon formed and began spreading the word about the new language. As a result, at the peak of its popularity, it had more than a hundred thousand speakers.
The Volapuk language seemed rather strange to many Europeans. The roots of words from different European dialects contained in it made it recognizable, but quite funny. Until today, the word "volapyuk" means nonsense, gibberish. Despite being popular until the time when the Nazis came to power in Germany.
Esperanto and other languages
However, when people talk about artificial languages, the first thing they think of is a language called Esperanto. It was created at the end of the 19th century and flourishes to the present day - hundreds of thousands of people all over the world are its carriers.
Esperanto has gained popularity not by chance - it is a very simple language, which contains only 16 grammar rules. It is noteworthy that they do not have a single exception. Esperanto words contain roots from various European languages, as well as Slavic ones. It is especially clear to the Americans.
Over time, in order for the phrase "artificial languages" not to have a negative connotation, they began to be called "planned". Directly the status of languages is received only by those that have a sufficient number of speakers. If only its creator and a couple of friends speak an artificial language, then it is called a "linguo project".
By the way, Esperanto, despite its widespread use, was not the first of the planned languages. The first was created by an abbess named Lingua Ignota ("unknown speech"). The abbess claimed that he was sent down to her from heaven. This language had its own script and vocabulary, in which thousands of concepts were deciphered. Artificial languages were also created in the countries of the East. For example, "bala-ibalan". It was invented by Sheikh Muhieddin, using Persian, Arabic and Turkish as the basis.
Binary system
Most artificial languages were created on the basis of existing ones, so the binary sign system using numbers does not apply to a means of communication. In it, as you know, information is recorded using two numbers - 0 and 1. Once there were computers with a more complex system - ternary. But binary is the most convenient for digital technology. In the binary sign system, 1 and 0 denote the presence or absence of a signal.
Solresol: an unusual idea of a musician
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the musician François Sudre from France shared an unusual idea with the public: he invented an artificial language called solresol. His words, of which there were more than two and a half thousand, were recorded using notes. It's hard to believe, but the idea, which at first was just a musical intellectual game, has become popular. Solresol language gained fame among contemporaries, because notes are international symbols.