The group is one of the fundamental forms of social interaction. People, like many of the representatives of our smaller brothers, unite in groups to meet a variety of needs. This process occurs through the interaction of the members of the association with each other.
Differences in behavior
How a person manifests himself in a group can be represented using the simplest example. Imagine that there is an ordinary person in the room. He can rest, he can go to dinner, and if he pleases, he will pack his bag and go for a walk. But a completely different picture can be seen in the case when the said individual is a member of the group. Free behavior is possible only if he is in the company of close friends or relatives. In other cases, a person alone and one who is part of a group are practically different people. Psychologists say: only after assessing how a person manifests himself in a group, one can judge his character and personal qualities. It is impossible to form an opinion about an individual without knowing how he behaves in a society of his own kind.
Group types
There are a huge number of groups. These are various social associations, a family circle, a school class, a student group. A person can get into some associations by chance, he becomes a part of others of his own free will. Some are easy to leave, while others are almost impossible. How a person manifests himself in a group, in short, largely depends on its type. Among all their diversity, large and small associations are distinguished. The large unions are based on professional interests, ethnic groups, social formations associated with geographical location. The life time of such associations is longer than the time of an individual person, it depends on historical events.
crowds
Crowds that arise spontaneously also belong to the category of groups. They manifest themselves in the form of political rallies, spontaneous actions. The existence of the crowd is short-lived. She disappears as suddenly as she appears. Crowds are often uncontrollable, one of their main properties is a high emotional charge. How does a person behave in a group of this kind?
The first property that determines its behavior is anonymity. A person is lost in the “faceless crowd” and practically ceases to be responsible for his actions. It is from here that the cruelty of the crowd, its aggressiveness, comes. In such a group, the individual creates a false feeling that he is free from other types of social ties - for example, he forgets that he is part of a work team, a family.
"Dissolving" in the crowd
The way a person manifests himself in a group of this type is largely determined by the mentioned anonymity and irresponsibility. The individual is completely given over to such instincts, which, in his right mind, he would never give free rein. He is unable to process information rationally. If an isolated individual retains the ability to criticize, observe, then in a person in a crowd it completely disappears.
In a crowd, the individual is subject to association with its other members. Such a group directly affects a person with its presence, he feels its power. This impact can be expressed in two ways - either by strengthening the behavior of the individual, or by suppressing it. A person feels irresistible which is due to its huge numbers. There is no such thing as impossibility here. That is why the individual surrenders himself to the power of instincts.
Man as part of a team
As has been pointed out, a person's behavior changes when he becomes part of a group. Communication of a person in a group significantly affects his motivation, the scope of assessments and other characteristics. His interests are becoming wider, because now he is not only busy with himself, but also focuses on the problems of other members of the association.
In addition, in the team a person is endowed with a certain “weight”. People can be in exactly the same positions, do the same work. However, they will have completely different "weight" within the team. For many, this characteristic is of particular value, because outside the group a person could never gain significance.
The group also affects the self-esteem of the individual, his self-perception. A member of the group gradually identifies with it, which leads to changes in this area. He begins to relate differently to his place under the sun, he develops a new type of worldview.
Role and status
How a person manifests himself in a group (social science or psychology are usually the subjects in the study of which schoolchildren analyze this issue) depends on the individual position of a member of a particular association, his status. Each group gives its member a certain status. He, in turn, assumes a particular role. The status of a person in a group is a position in relation to other members of the association. A role is a specific set of functions that are assigned to a group member by other group members. It also depends on the specifics of the activity that is characteristic of this group. There are a large number of typologies of roles in a social association. However, most of them are built according to the criteria of power and subordination or preference and rejection.
Types of social statuses
It is best to understand the various social statuses and roles in a group with a rigid social hierarchy. Usually it is characterized by a lack of resources, and within such associations there are problems with their fair distribution. Not the last role in groups of this kind is played by its low leader (or leader). He may have no concept of morality and values. A person's place in a group with a rigid social hierarchy is usually indicated by a letter of the Greek alphabet. It has the following roles:
- Alpha is the "leader of the pack". The leader enjoys priority in the distribution of wealth, he has the greatest authority.
- Beta is the second person in the group after the leader. Often beta is smarter than alpha. However, he is not as energetic. He occupies the second place in the hierarchy and therefore has a corresponding right to the distribution of goods. Often, beta is a kind of custodian of the accepted rules.
- Gamma-1. These are close associates of the leader of the group, his associates.
- Gamma-2. Group members with this status are usually the most. As a rule, they are inert and often become objects of manipulation by more "high-ranking" members of the association.
- Gamma-3. This subgroup is also forced to obey, but its representatives are often dissatisfied with the status assigned to them. To them, higher-ranking members apply a "carrot and stick" policy. The role of the “carrot” is usually the opportunity to become close to the upper strata of the group, and the “stick” is the deprivation of rights, a decrease in the amount of remuneration received, sometimes expulsion from the group, as well as physical violence.
- Gamma-4. This is a kind of "jester" who is allowed to make critical and caustic remarks about other members of the group. Naturally, such permission is given to him by representatives of higher ranks. Gamma-4 has a special role: it maintains the appearance of "free speech" and "democracy" in the group.
- Omega is an individual who takes on all the aggression of the association. The role of an omega is needed in order for the group to be cohesive. With the help of a person with this status, other members of the association gain a sense of "we". In the event that a person does not agree with this role and leaves the group, another candidate will soon be in this position.
Goals of group members
Usually the behavior of a group member is aimed at achieving one of two goals - solving practical problems or building relationships. It is difficult for one person to perform both functions at once, so each member of the association either solves practical problems or contributes to the development of harmonious relations in the team.
In social psychology, there are four main types of behavior of people in a small group.
Separating type. Well expressed individual orientation. The optimal solution of problems is possible only in conditions of relative isolation from the group, independently.
driven type. The tendency to conformity, imitation, voluntary submission is expressed. The optimal solution of a group task is possible in contact with more confident and competent members of the group.
leading type. The individual is oriented toward power in the group. The optimal solution of problems is possible under the condition of subordinating other members of the group to oneself.
collaborating type. The individual constantly strives to solve problems jointly with others and follows the group in cases of reasonable decisions.
Knowledge of the types of behavior of group members helps the psychotherapist in the distribution of roles, contributes to a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of psychological incompatibility of its individual members.
The coincidence of a formal and informal leader in one person simplifies the situation, a mismatch makes the group process more complicated.
Group process
The concept of a group process (group dynamics) was first introduced by Kurt Lewin in 1936. The central idea of this concept is that the laws of behavior of individuals in groups should be sought in the knowledge of the “social and psychological forces” that determine them.
In the future, this concept in relation to psycho-correctional groups was developed by Rogers, Shut-
Cem and others (see section: "Carl Rogers and Client-Centered Therapy").
Kelman (Kelman, 1963) considers group psychotherapy as a "situation of social influence", and identifies three stages in the group process: compliance; identification; assignment.
According to Kelman, members of a psychotherapeutic group are, firstly, subject to the influence of the psychotherapist and other members of the group; secondly, they identify with the psychotherapist and with each other; thirdly, they appropriate group experience. Kelman believes that in order to achieve a therapeutic effect, it is not enough to “compliance” with the norms and rules of the group - it is also necessary to assimilate what has been learned and master it. Group members must learn new feeling skills (pliability), respond to the group (identification), and apply them to specific real-life situations (appropriation).
From the moment of its creation to the completion of the treatment process, a psychocorrectional group goes through several stages (phases) of its development.
Most researchers of this issue come to the conclusion that the group process, starting from the stage of adaptation, through the resolution of intra-group conflicts (the second stage), eventually comes to cohesion and effective problem solving (Tuckman, 1965; Bennis, Shepard, 1974 and etc.).
This staging of group development stems from Schutz's theory of interpersonal relationships (Schutz, 1958). According to Schutz, in the early stages of the development of a group, its members tend to inclusion in the situation. At this stage, a sense of belonging to the group and a desire to establish adequate relationships with all its members begins to form. In the second stage, the need for situation control, negativism. There is rivalry and a desire for independence, a desire to stand out, to take a leading position. In the third stage begins to dominate need for affection Group members establish a close emotional bond with each other. To the fore
cohesion, a sense of openness, closeness, empathy.
Kratochvil (1978) distinguishes four phases of group development.
The first phase (orientation and dependence). There is an adaptation to new people and an orientation: “What kind of treatment is this?” "What do we do?" "How will this help me?" Group members are anxious, insecure, dependent. Some withdraw into themselves, others talk about their illnesses, but at the same time everyone is waiting for information and instructions from a psychotherapist.
The second phase (conflicts and protest). There is a tendency to self-affirmation, the distribution of roles begins: active and passive, leading and "oppressed", "favorites" and "unloved ones", etc. Dissatisfaction arises both with each other and with the psychotherapist, and as a result - disappointment in the method itself treatment.
If at the first stage of the formation of the group the psychotherapist was an idol for all members of the group, now he is being thrown off the pedestal, relegated to the level of a “loafer and charlatan”. Dissatisfaction with the psychotherapist is further enhanced if he refuses a leading, authoritarian role. Emotionally stressful intensity reaches its climax:
discussions of the patient turn into a "comradely court", a conversation with a psychotherapist - into a conflict. If the psychotherapist is not experienced enough, then the collapse of the group is possible at this phase.
Third phase (development and cooperation). Emotional tension decreases, the number and severity of conflicts decrease. There is a consolidation of group norms and values. The struggle for leadership recedes into the background. There is a need for belonging to a group, a sense of responsibility for common interests becomes relevant. Mutual understanding, sincerity, intimacy are born between members of the group. Dialogues become more frank and trusting. The individual develops a sense of security, the confidence that the group will protect him. There is a desire to open up, relations with a psychotherapist normalize.
The fourth phase (purposeful activity). The group becomes a working collective, a mature social system. Its members reflect, consult, make decisions. Positive feedback is being established, which is not violated even in cases where negative emotions and conflicts are deliberately allowed to be discussed.
In domestic psychotherapy, it is customary to single out the adaptive, frustrating, constructive and implementation phases of group dynamics (Slutsky, Tsapkin, 1985, etc.). In principle, this dynamic is no different from the dynamics described by Rogers, Kratochvil et al.
What are healing factors psychotherapy group? According to Jalom (1975), there are ten.
Cohesion. This is a characteristic of the degree of connectedness, the unity of interpersonal relations in a group. The increase in cohesion contributes to the strengthening of interaction between group members, intensifies the processes of social influence, and increases the satisfaction of everyone.
The suggestion of hope. Belief in the success of the group process already has a therapeutic effect in itself.
Generalization. People tend to see their life problems and illnesses as unique. In the process of group development, they become aware that others have similar problems and illnesses. This identification of one's own problems and experiences has a therapeutic effect.
Altruism. Behavior focused on the satisfaction of other people's interests without conscious consideration of their benefits for themselves. Behavior aimed at providing disinterested assistance to any member of the group, regardless of what social position he occupies outside the group.
Provision of information. This refers to the information and reasoning necessary for a member of the group for self-awareness and self-disclosure.
Multiple transfer. Any difficulties in the field of communication and social adaptation, being determined by the events of the present and the past, must
manifest themselves in group communication. The emotional attachment of the patient to the psychotherapist and to other members of the group is considered, investigated and, if necessary, subjected to a rational and realistic assessment.
Interpersonal learning. The group serves as a testing ground for exploring positive and negative emotional responses and trying out new behaviors. Group members are convinced that they can openly ask for help and support from others and selflessly help themselves.
Development of interpersonal skills. In a group, all its members explicitly or implicitly improve their ability to communicate. Various techniques are used to develop interpersonal skills, including feedback and role play.
imitating behavior. Teaching appropriate behavior through observation and imitation of the behavior of others. At the beginning of the group process, the behavior of the psychotherapist or other group members who have received his approval is imitated. Gradually, group members begin to experiment, using the many patterns of behavior offered in the group for support.
Catharsis. Discussing hidden or repressed (“unacceptable”) needs in a group, focusing on unanalyzed emotions such as guilt or hostility, leads to self-understanding, self-disclosure, and ultimately to relief.
Kratochvil (Kratochvil, 1978) gives a different list of therapeutic factors of the psychotherapeutic group:
participation in the work of the group;
· emotional support;
helping others;
· self-manifestation;
reaction;
· Feedback;
Insight (understanding of previously unrealized relationships);
· collective emotional experience;
Testing and training new ways of behaving;
obtaining new information and social skills.
In conclusion, it should be emphasized that none of the listed factors individually has a decisive therapeutic value. The therapeutic effect is exerted by the group process, the whole group as a whole.
group ethics
The most important in this problem are questions concerning the ethics of the group leader, the psychotherapist, and questions of intra-group ethics.
A reasonable requirement that should be presented to a psychotherapist is the level of his professional training. Many people believe that any certified doctor or psychologist can conduct group psychotherapy. This is a profound delusion, generated by ignorance, first of all, of the mechanisms of the therapeutic effect of group psychotherapy.
Training of competent specialists for group psychotherapy - a rather complicated, time-consuming task and must include at least three stages of training.
The first stage is teaching the therapeutic basics and techniques of group psychotherapy; the second is an internship in a group led by an experienced specialist, the third is personal participation in the group process.
The theoretical foundations and main forms of group psychotherapy are mastered during primary specialization. But experience shows that this is not enough.
The best option for the second stage of training is to work "in pairs" with an experienced psychotherapist. The role of leader is always played by a more trained doctor, but sometimes it is useful to transfer this role to a trainee in the process of training so that he can take responsibility for leadership, and most importantly, “feel” the group. Subsequently, the leadership of the group can be temporarily entrusted to the trainee, but subject to the presence, supervision and support of a professional.
It is very important for the psychotherapist to gain personal experience as a member of the group. A good testing ground for this is
there is a training group. Leaders in such a T-group can be appointed in turn, and the rest act as participants. Participants of the T-group in such conditions acquire an understanding not only of how the leader of the group feels, but also of how participants feel when they experience difficulties of frustration, interpersonal relationships, and self-disclosure.
In the West, for example, at the Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology in Warsaw, programs of 2-year and 4-year training courses for doctors for group psychotherapy have been developed (Kosevska, Chabala, 1990).
Intra-group ethics includes a range of issues, the most important of which are:
Consent or disagreement to participate in the group process;
Freedom of choice to participate in certain activities of the group;
Prevention of mental trauma.
Parloff (1970) emphasizes that professional team leaders should limit themselves to modest advertising and be open about the limits of their competence and capabilities. At the same time, information about the goals, methods, duration and principles of group psychotherapy, on the contrary, should be as complete as possible. This allows the patient to correctly decide whether to participate in this type of treatment or not.
The second question concerns the more intimate mechanisms of the group process. Therefore, each participant has the right not to participate in certain actions or situations during the work of the group. At the same time, neither the leader of the group, nor the group itself should exert excessive pressure on such a participant, and even more so force him to sincerity and self-disclosure.
The third question is closely related to the second. The thoughtful selection of individual members in the formation of the group is also important.
Finally, confidentiality is mandatory for the leader and the group as a whole. Everything that is discussed in the group should not go beyond it. Otherwise, the batch process may be interrupted.
TRAINING GROUPS
General provisions
The history of the creation of training groups is closely connected with the name of the sociologist and psychologist Kurt Lewin. Working first in the laboratory and then in the "field" conditions, Levin came to the conclusion that people in a group constantly influence each other. He argued: “In order to identify their inadequate attitudes and develop new forms of behavior, people must learn to see themselves as others see them” (Lewin, 1951). His "field theory" laid the foundation for "group dynamics" and became the cornerstone in the creation of group psychotherapy.
However, the first training group (T-group) arose by chance. Several natural scientists (Leland Bradford, Ronald Lippitt, Kurt Lewin) created a group of business people and businessmen in 1946, the purpose of which was to jointly study basic social laws (for example, the law of employment) and "play" various situations associated with their use. In addition to developing optimal solutions and behaviors related to the application of laws, this group carried the first experience of self-disclosure and self-awareness through feedback.
Groups quickly gained popularity as an effective new teaching method, and the following year a National Training Laboratory (NTL) was established in Bethel, Maine. The main tasks of T-groups, or, as they were then called, “basic skills training groups”, were to teach its participants the basic laws of interpersonal communication, the ability to lead and make the right decisions in difficult situations. Naturally, such groups were not therapeutically oriented at first.
Later, T-groups, according to their intended purpose, began to be divided into groups of skills (training of managers, business people), groups of interpersonal relations (problems of family, sex) and groups of "sensitivity" (groups focused on growth and self-improvement
personality, overcoming indecision, etc.). Nevertheless, the emphasis in T-groups for a long time was on teaching healthy people such role functions as communication with superiors and subordinates, developing optimal solutions in difficult situations, searching for methods to improve organizational performance, etc. (Shein, Bennis, 1965 ).
The founders of T-groups saw the following positive beginnings at the heart of their, as they believed, teaching method:
Application of social sciences (psychology, sociology) in practical life;
Focus on democratic (as opposed to authoritarian) teaching methods;
The ability in the learning process to establish relationships of mutual understanding and mutual assistance, the willingness to delve into the problems of any member of the group.
In the entire chain of interrelated activities in personnel management, from hiring an employee to leaving the organization, from 50 to 80% of managers' time is spent on group activities. The effectiveness of any leader is closely related to the understanding of the characteristics of group work and the ability to act correctly as a member of the management team and manage their own work group. Research in recent years has shed light on some of the forces at work in groups that affect performance.
Most HR courses provide guidance on how to make teams more effective. These include issues such as: leadership style; methods used to solve problems and develop solutions; processes that help the group focus on its task and smooth out conflicts between group members. These questions are the most important for understanding the topic introduced in the section title.
Before proceeding to consider the factors that affect the effectiveness of the work of management groups, let's try to list at least most of the ideas, provisions regarding groups in general, and not just groups created to solve any problems in organizations. And in order to really understand what a complex phenomenon we are talking about, let us recall the classic experiment of M. Sheriff, where the unconscious influence that a group can have on individual perception was demonstrated. He placed the group in a dark room and asked everyone to focus their eyes on a spot of light. Each member of the group was then asked in turn to say in which direction the light traveled and how far it traveled. Although the light did not actually move at all, there were many differences in individual responses to this question. However, when everyone individually gave their answers, the group very quickly came to an agreement on the direction and magnitude of the movement of the light, and a group decision was reached, although it differed in many cases from the specific opinions that people had expressed before.
The behavior of individuals may seem very strange, especially if there is no obvious explanation for this behavior, but the behavior of people in groups can be even more strange. So:
1. People live in groups in a state of constant interdependence.
2. Members of the same group have common norms and pursue common
goals.
3. Groups have different functions. All of them are more or less specialized. In fact, their specialization depends on the needs of people.
4. Individuals participate in many groups. The group is a natural and inevitable part of human life. There are permanent, temporary and occasional groups.
5. Some groups are free. They are entered by
desire. Others are obligatory (having been born,
we do not choose a family, an ethnic group or a nation).
6. Working groups can be formal or informal.
Formal groups are characterized by an organized structure.
Social relations here are impersonal and are carried out through predetermined roles. These roles are
a tendency to formalization in accordance with the norms determined by the external environment, culture. In an informal group, there are personal social relationships that are carried out in roles determined by the internal environment. The contents of these roles are
result of interaction within the group.
It is always difficult to influence group norms. This is easier to do from the inside and very difficult to do from the outside, unless the person
which carries out this influence from the outside, does not have confidence
and the respect of the group.
All groups put pressure on their members to conform to group norms (behaviour, speech,
productivity, attitude to management, production, over
lesson work, etc.).
Groups as a whole generate fewer ideas than individual members of the group, but the group produces better ideas: with better elaboration,
with a comprehensive assessment, with a greater degree of responsibility for
them.
Groups (oddly enough) accept more risky
decisions than individual group members. In all likelihood, a certain type of "groupthink" is developing, in which
the group feels invulnerable. This trend became known as
risk shift phenomenon.
The conflict between groups and within the group is a completely natural phenomenon (we and they, those who are in the group and outside the group). Can
be: personal conflicts, interpersonal, belonging conflicts, intergroup, social. Consequences of conflicts - the formation of subgroups, the removal of dissenting members, the choice of a "scapegoat", organizational changes in the group, the emergence
or change of leader, breakup of the group.
Understanding groups (and the forces that shape and influence them) is essential to effective governance.
It is known that the behavior of a person is a reaction aimed at changing the situation in order to meet their needs. The purpose of behavior is to change the situation. When the goal is not achieved and the situation cannot be changed, a new state sets in, which leads to new actions.
We note first that group goals, like the goals of each individual, are not necessarily clear and conscious. In addition, we emphasize that common goals are not purely formal goals imposed by the organization on its members. What we are trying to explain here is the fact that the members of a group do indeed share common goals, whether they are proposed by the organization or not. And thirdly, the similarity of personal goals is still not enough to give the group a common goal.
The following result of observations and experiments is important: the goal proposed in the group by some members affects others. In the presence of this goal, others are forced to act in the required direction. The inductive power of the proposed goal varies according to the attractiveness of the group to its members. The individual is involved in it to the extent that the given group satisfies, perhaps by chance, his own needs or aspirations.
The purposes that a group can serve in an organization range from distributing work, exercising direction and control over work to solve problems and make decisions, to raising a sense of responsibility and ownership. Some groups may also arise to perform other, less formal tasks.
Part 3 "Me and YOU"
Psychology of management
1. Basic concepts of social psychology
Social psychology is a science that studies human behavior in a group.
A group is people united by real relationships.
The class, the family, the production team, the queue, if it lasts long enough, are all groups.
If there is no relationship between people, they cannot be called a group. So, there are a lot of people walking down the street. We talk about the mass when we do not know to which category of people the person next to us belongs.
At the stadium, in the store, in the canteen, at the demonstration, there is no longer a mass, but a crowd. A crowd is a gathering of people where one can assume the presence of a common goal. Therefore, at the stadium, with a high degree of probability, I can assume that next to me is the same fan as me. There is already a topic for conversation if I want to talk to him. When a crowd gathers at a bus stop, it is easier to get to know a person by starting a conversation not about football, but about traffic problems.
One can talk about a group in the proper sense of the word when there is a common goal that unites all its members without exception. The queue is a typical example of such a group: the buyer wants to buy, and the seller wants to sell. Cadets come to our faculty for the improvement of doctors for two or three months: their goal is to receive a document, ours is to issue it. There is no typo here. If I want to successfully lead a group, I must define a common goal. If I think that all doctors came for new knowledge, then I will fall into a deep mistake, because some do not need them, others know (or think they know) no less than me. Others generally came in order to take a break from family troubles. That is why my task is to organize the pedagogical process in such a way that obtaining a diploma is possible only if knowledge is acquired.
Groups are formal and informal. A formal group is a group formed on the basis of any documents: staff list, wedding invitation list, etc. An informal group is a group formed on the basis of personal attachments, sympathies, common needs that cannot be satisfied in a formal group. A formal group is managed by a leader, an informal group by a leader. The power of the leader is determined by official instructions, preliminary verbal agreement, etc. The power of the leader is absolute, which follows from the voluntariness of participation. That is why, if the leader is not the leader at the same time, the group will always be torn apart by contradictions.
How many groups does a person need?
So much to satisfy your needs. If he satisfies all the needs in the family, he does not need more groups. This is possible only in such families where their own production is organized and all family members work in this production, and between family members there is advice and love.
Since there are few such families, in most cases each person is included in at least two groups: family and production. This, with the proper organization of the family and work, is enough for a person to satisfy his needs. But if a person has a third, fourth, etc. group, this indicates that he has trouble in two main ones.
If I earn little even at a very interesting job, then with the greatest love for it, I will earn extra money elsewhere. And this is fraught with a transition to another job. That is why an experienced leader closely monitors and does everything to ensure that his employee earns only on his production. Such a leader does not need to beg for an increase in the salary of an employee who, due to the growth of qualifications, has increased labor productivity. In addition, the salary should not be the same, but its criteria.
If the work is uninteresting and serves only as a source of income, a person has a hobby group. An experienced leader will try to make the work not only highly paid, but also interesting. And if this is not possible, he will create conditions for satisfying a hobby. I know leaders who pay great attention to the development of sports, amateur performances, etc., and consider a football team to be the workshop of their enterprise and a treatise on this a lot of money.
The second reason why a person is looking for another group is the lack of love between spouses. In this case, a new sexual group arises, or the spouse (less often the spouse) becomes an inveterate drunkard, falls ill. All this, of course, will affect labor productivity. It is surprising that in order to improve working conditions, huge investments are often required, and what is needed here is simply educational work, though qualified, therefore, expensive, but it would still be cheaper ... In the chapter "Psychological vampirism" we talked about the technique of establishing sexual relations between spouses. Here will be discussed in detail about the organization of the family and its management. By the way, family relations are immeasurably more complicated than in production, and a person who really manages to establish them can become a leader on a large scale.
Allocate in social psychology the concept of a reference group. The reference group is the group that is the standard for the individual. So, for a small landed nobleman, the reference group was the high society, in which he dreamed of getting into. If a person does not consider the group in which he is a reference group, he will try to leave it. Will he do something to strengthen this group? Naturally not! And what will he do? Trying to snatch a "piece" with which there is a chance to get into the reference group. Therefore, every experienced leader cares about the prestige of his group. Then it is easier and cheaper for him to hire a qualified specialist, it is easier and more expensive to sell his products or services.
2. Behavior of a person in a group (role and masks)
As we already know, human behavior is the result of the interaction of his personality and the personalities of communication partners. But it turns out that behavior also depends on the group in which this interaction occurs. The group influences the behavior of a person. Look at the behavior of two schoolchildren who came to watch a movie at the cinema. Quiet and peaceful. But here are some classes organizing a collective viewing of the film. Have you been to these sessions? Anyone who's been there knows what's going on! How are our two students behaving? They hoot, whistle, comment, etc. When they go out into the crowd, they will again become well-bred boys. But in the group they could not behave differently. They would be condemned, because in the group they had such a role.
What is a role?
A role is the behavior that a group expects from an individual in the process of performing social functions. During my lecture, I also play the role of a lecturer, and the students the role of listeners. What do students expect from me? Firstly, that I will tell new things for them, secondly, to tell them in an exciting and interesting way, and thirdly, not to offend them. If my behavior matches their expectations (expectations), they will behave quietly, listen carefully and write down the most important things (these are my expectations). Otherwise, they will impose sanctions on me, i.e. they will start reading, drawing, etc. At the same time, they will not meet my expectations. If they depend on me, I can reprimand them, but I still won’t force them to listen. I can just force them to sit still. Now it is clear why it is better to organize the work of the group in such a way that the leader depends on subordinates, the client on the customer, the doctor on the patient, the teacher on the student, and not vice versa, as, unfortunately, often happens with us. After all, if students could freely leave me, I would have no other choice but to learn how to lecture well. Why am I writing better? Because I was completely dependent on you, my dear reader! My first books turned out to be of no use to anyone. I should have either stopped writing or written better.
If I sincerely play my role, then by my performance one can judge what kind of person I am, what are my abilities, temperament, worldview. But quite often the communication is impersonal. It so happens that no one needs my personality. If I am sincere, I will receive “shots”. To prevent this from happening, I put on a mask. A mask is a behavior that a person uses to communicate safely. The masks are in contact. There are many examples of this when it is appropriate. For example, in transport: “Punch, please, a ticket!” - "Thanks!" - "You are welcome!". And sometimes it’s better that a person doesn’t appear here: “What am I, hired here to punch coupons!”
We have many masks, and we put them on automatically. A mask of joy at a wedding, a mask of sorrow at a funeral, a mask of good manners at dinner parties. Sometimes the mask grows so attached to a person that we forget what he was, and he himself does not know what his essence is. So, sometimes on the street from the summer you can recognize a teacher, a military man, a doctor ... A person begins to behave at home as at work. He is wearing a mask. Quite often it cannot be “pricked”, but it is also impossible to “stroke”! He's wearing a mask! Sometimes the person himself does not know what he really is - he knows only his mask!
And now, with a set of roles and a set of masks, not knowing himself and not knowing the laws of the group, he enters other groups or organizes new ones, that is, he gets a job or creates a family life. In order to drive a car, you need to take a course. Here I will try to briefly describe what is happening in the group of which you are a member.
Group device
(Fig. 3.1.)
The group has a large outer boundary. These are the walls of the class where classes are held, the premises where the clinic is located, the fence that does not allow outsiders to enter the factory or military unit.
Figure 3.1 (According to E. Bern)
1. Large outer border
2. Large inner border
3. Small internal boundaries
4. Guide
5. Subordinates
A small circle inside a large one is a large inner border. It separates the leadership of the group from its members. Group members are not always a homogeneous mass. You can successfully manage directly no more than 9-12 people. A group, like a drop of mercury, when a certain size is exceeded, begins to divide into smaller groups. Therefore, when the group begins to exceed the figure mentioned above, it is necessary to divide it so that there are 1-9 people in the primary group and a leader is at the head of it. Then the head of a larger scale will have about 10 people in submission. In this regard, the army is quite well arranged. There are 3-4 squads in a platoon. Each department has 10 people. Thus, the platoon commander has 4-5 subordinates at his disposal: his deputy and squad leaders. Where are the other three? This is what we are going to talk about in more detail now.
Further, talking about the management system, I will refer to examples of those groups that I had to manage. When I did not know the psychology of management, I had to be the senior doctor of the regiment, the deputy head of the hospital for the medical part. My God, if only I knew then and could do what I know and can do now! Today I manage to make a close-knit team out of 30-40 people who do not know each other in a few weeks. And when the group, having completed its task, ceases to exist, these people continue to communicate with each other, if circumstances permit, and the feeling that somewhere there lives a person who is always glad to you, and you to him, persists for life.
But before continuing, I have to introduce a few more concepts. Groups are divided into small, medium and large. Groups of up to 10 people should be classified as small, the average group has 11–25 people, and the large group has 25–35.
Groups are open and closed. Open groups are designed in such a way that some members leave, others come in their place. Not only the members of the group change, but also the leaders. Thus, production teams can be considered as open groups. Closed groups are formed at the same time to perform a specific task. After its execution, the group ceases to exist. An example is the training groups (20-25 people) who come to our Faculty of Improvement. Having existed for two or three months and having completed their task, our cadets immediately go home. We also create closed groups for psychological training. In large industries, it is necessary to form temporary labor collectives. A typical such team is a team of cosmonauts flying into space. To perform any tasks on the road, a temporary labor collective is also created.
As for psychological training, I see great advantages of an open group. This group has been around for about 8 years now. Some come, others go. But there always remains a core that visits the group for at least two or three years. It is this that contributes to the fact that a new member in two or three sessions acquires such a number of skills that it would take two or three months to master in a closed group. In this group, new methods can be tested. Free visits and a one-time payment keep the leader in good shape (here it is, dependence on the client!). The fall in attendance, and consequently in earnings, forces him to master new methods and improve old ones. And I had failures. But it is precisely the failures, correctly understood, that contribute to the growth of qualifications. An open group, thus, turns into a kind of club. Sometimes members of the group who have been without a psychologist for several years drop in to us “at the light”. They share their successes, and sometimes they come to solve one or two problems. The disadvantage of an open group is the inability to conduct planned theoretical classes, because everything revolves around solving momentary life problems.
A closed group is good because everyone goes at about the same pace, people and the group itself change before our eyes. Quite often, after the classes are over, interested persons visit open groups.
But back to our group. So, 20-25 people come to us at the same time. We divide them into three groups. Each has a responsible person. For the entire cycle, a headman is selected to communicate with the leadership of the cycle. The management consists of three teachers and a laboratory assistant. Thus, on the cycle, the leader has three teachers, a laboratory assistant and a headman of the cycle. These are four people. And where are the three or five others? These are the leaders of informal groups, which are sure to be in any team, whether it be a class at school, a student group or a production team. The family has the same device. There is a group of leaders - those who hold material wealth in their hands, and members of the group who are dependent on the leadership - children, sometimes quite old, aging parents (grandparents), grandchildren and great-grandchildren. But the family will be discussed later.
And now about informal groups. If the leader does not know about their existence and does not know who the leader is, he will make a number of organizational mistakes. In an effort, as before, to "reach every member of the collective," he can talk not with the leader of the informal group, but with its member. Then any of his request, any order will be carried out not directly, but after a conversation with the leader. And if contact with the leader is not established, then either disobedience or distorted performance can be observed.
I will mention here one common myth about the indiscipline of people. People are very disciplined, there are just very few leaders who can manage according to all the rules of science. The same thing is happening here as well. The leader does not talk with the leader of the informal group, but with its member. As a result, his order is distorted by the advice and prohibitions of the leader. Let us remember that the power of the leader is absolute, and the power of the leader is determined by official instructions.
In our cycle, we usually manage to identify three informal groups. Since this is repeated from year to year, this should be considered a pattern. The first group is educational and careerist, the second is cultural and entertainment, the third is alcohol-sexual.
I gave figurative names to the groups. Maybe this is not very scientific, but it is clear what I'm talking about. I want to emphasize that I have a very good attitude towards the representatives of this or that group. I have a bad attitude towards the cultural-entertainment and alcohol-sexual group. The task of the leader is to destroy these groups without violence, psychologically, or, in extreme cases, to be able to turn the members of the last two groups into careerists. But in the term "careerist" I put a positive content. This is very good if a person wants to make a career. But not through acquaintances, but through personal growth and the development of professional qualities. Unfortunately, we put negative content into many good words. Here are the words - "career", "adaptation" - we sometimes say, to put it mildly, not very ... I personally understand a career as personal growth. Positions in such cases usually come by themselves. After all, a career, in the true sense of the word, can only be made if you become a professional of the highest class, and occupying a position to which you have not matured is not a career, but a disaster. These are the leaders who get sick. They do not work so much as hold on to the chair, and when they sign papers with their right hand, they hold on to the left handrail of the chair with their left hand, which is more worn than the right one. Pay attention to this when you go into the office to some boss.
It is very easy to learn them in training groups. You just need to let them sit where they want. The cultural and entertainment group is located closer to the exit, and as soon as the end of the lecture is announced, its representatives run headlong out of the audience. Careerists usually sit in the front rows and near the window. The alcohol-sexual group is located in the back rows. But it is better to invite a qualified psychologist to the team. He will draw a psychological portrait of the group for you.
To the career training group includes physicians who seek professional growth and career advancement. These are young doctors who, during their student years, attended circles and prepared themselves for professional activities. Some of them dream of a scientific career and, of course, go out of their way not only to acquire knowledge, but also to leave a memory of themselves. They are also doctors in the age of Jesus Christ. Some have already become heads of departments, but want to go higher, some can already get qualification categories. This group actively attends all classes, including optional ones, asks a lot of questions. They are well-read, but often they do not have a school and at times they get carried away on bends. This group keeps the leaders on their toes. It is very inconvenient if the cadet is more knowledgeable than the teacher. Once or twice still nothing, but if more often ...
Are there analogues of such groups in production? Of course have. They are both simple and difficult. Just a leader who grows on his own. It is difficult for someone who has stopped growing. The fact is that the members of the educational and careerist group dream of taking the place of the leader. If the latter grows, there is no problem. The organization is expanding, and a growing worker in this group will always find a place corresponding to his increased qualifications. If it is not possible to get him a promotion here on the spot, he should be transferred to another organization with a promotion.
The representative of such a group is an enthusiast. He is interested in preserving the group and in some cases works for free (almost wrote "disinterestedly"). So, he can be instructed to make a report at the conference out of turn and thereby help out the leader, he can take on an extra patient. No, he has a plan. He understands that on occasion he will be sent on a scientific mission, and then it will be difficult to get around him. He works both for his authority and for the authority of the group, hoping that the growth of the group will be accompanied by his career growth. Naturally, a manager who has stopped growing will be in conflict with such an employee. In medical institutions, these are young medical residents who dream of becoming heads of departments, sisters who want to take the position of head nurse.
The higher the social status of a group, the more we find careerists in it. At school, there are few careerists among students, and, unfortunately, among teachers. Hence the conservatism of many of our schools. There are much more careerists among students at institutes, but still not as many as we would like. Among the teachers there are much more of them. But, unfortunately, here we see a not very cheerful picture. Many university teachers, having defended candidate and sometimes doctoral dissertations, becoming associate professors, professors, or even heads of departments, become representatives of a cultural and entertainment group, and sometimes they turn into a sexual one, without giving any scientific and pedagogical products, preventing those who are below them. Despite the fact that competitions are formally held every five years, it is almost impossible to fire a representative of a cultural and entertainment group, or even an alcohol-sexual group. When the head of the unit is a representative of such a group, stagnation begins in the team. I know institutes and departments headed by such people. The teams were slowly falling apart. And I saw how they were transformed when a careerist in the sense of the word, as I understand it, became the leader.
The disadvantage of a careerist group is their disunity, inability to organize themselves, to defend their opinion. After all, quite often the leaders give all the attention to the “losers”. They are called to offices, they talk, they promise and they are punished. They thereby acquire a great social experience. Learn to dodge, ask, beg. They rally with each other, provide support, share experiences. Careerists, starting from their school years, work on themselves alone and are actually divided. This is especially noticeable in schools, institutes, army teams among conscripts. After all, the “losers” rule the ball there. And when the years of study end, those who were the first (excellent students) become the last. Representatives of cultural and entertainment and alcohol-sexual groups seize power. It's not always bad. There are smart and brave people in these groups. After all, they are not afraid to enter into conflicts with their superiors. Some of them then learn on the go. But many, having learned to hold on to power, without suffering a flight of thought, crush careerists. They are especially annoyed by people with a "red" diploma. "Careerists" quite often fail to open up. It is with them that I work and teach them to achieve their goal, not by trickery, but by using their mind. Many, having received such training, began to occupy leadership positions at 45, defend dissertations at 50, make discoveries and write books at 60. And if they did everything on time! That is, they would defend dissertations at 25, hold leadership positions at 30, and write books at 40. How much have they lost? But society lost even more.
Is it possible to do something in the conditions of our imperfect legislation, when all the attention of school teachers is focused on poor students, and excellent students study without experiencing any difficulties? I think it's possible. I taught psychology at a high school for a year. I summarized this experience in two articles that appeared in the book Psychotherapeutic Etudes. Careerists should be prepared during their school years. My suggestions are the following. Pay attention only to excellent students. For them to organize sections and circles, to collect in separate groups, where their growth requirements would be satisfied. Do not lower the A students to the level of C students, but raise C students to the level of A students. This is practically how it was done. I dismissed those who were not interested in psychology from classes and gave them fours only because they did not go to classes. With the lagging behind, I conducted training in the psychology of communication and the ability to lead. The textbook was the book you are holding, in the first editions. They learned to repulse the losers, improved their relationship with their parents, and most importantly, they also became successful in relationships with the opposite sex, some learned to earn a little themselves. The joys of those who skipped, curiosity played out. Gradually, attendance began to grow. At the beginning of the experiment, out of 20 students in the class (I taught at the lyceum), seven attended psychology lessons. Gradually, from class to class, attendance increased. The slovenly (analogue of the alcoholic-sexual group of adults) and cultural and entertainment groups were splitting up, and the careerist group was rallying. Quite quickly (in 2 months), attendance reached 120%; students from other classes came to the lessons if the teachers were suddenly late. But now the ball was ruled by a careerist group, which itself dealt with slobs.
To the cultural and entertainment group includes doctors who have stopped in their professional growth and have main interests on the side. This is either a household, or commerce, or something else. They are good specialists who have gained a hand in routine work. They perform their duties well, but inside and out. They would not have gone to the courses if it had not been required for a number of reasons (one of them is recertification). For them, studying is just one way to relax. There is no trouble with the members of this group, if you do not involve them in active social work.
There are analogues of such groups in any collectives. In medical institutions, this is the majority of nurses and almost all orderlies and nurses. Duty once every four or five days creates good conditions for working on a personal plot, which is the main source of material wealth, and the realization of other interests. I have seen such faces in professional sports. These were the players who at one time were part of the national team. They still remained good professionals, but now they were playing in the teams of the major leagues, located at the lower levels of the standings, or in the teams of the lower leagues, claiming to enter the higher one. They have already recovered from the star disease and have remained in the sport only in order to earn money. It makes no sense to call such people to enthusiasm. The orderly, if overtime is needed, should be promised a double day off or some other compensation, the football player should be given a clearly defined task and determine the amount of the fee for a job well done. Members of this group can also be transferred to a careerist group, if not for the ridiculous age restrictions, official and unofficial. We, unfortunately, stun the growth of young people only because they are young, and then because they are “old”. I knew one professor who did not take to graduate school over 27 years old. Many of them are not hired to teach at the institute, because they are already over 40. Such and such people from careerists become representatives of cultural and entertainment, and even alcohol-sexual groups. They can be taken from there. Both national and sexual prejudices often interfere with growth. So, one head of the department selected only young men for employees and often got stuck. His logic was that women get married, give birth and stop doing science.
Alcoholic-sexual group represents the most uncomfortable part of the employees in any team, especially in its alcoholic part. This is discussed in detail in the chapter "Psychological vampirism". Here I would like to once again emphasize our position in working with alcoholics: a tough contract that excludes the possibility of further stay in the team if the violation is associated with the use of alcoholic beverages. The problem of sex should be solved on a scientific basis. The leader needs to understand the importance of solving this issue. Educational and medical advisory work is needed here. This group also includes those people who went to work in order to “change their positions” for a year or two before serving in the army or until the next attempt to enter the institute. They do not have much interest in the goals of the group, they easily join the representatives of the alcoholic-sexual group. Systematic competent work with them can lead to the fact that they will move into the “careerist” group. Alcohol groups are especially powerful in budgetary organizations. They develop gradually, and once formed, they can seriously slow down the development of production. In commercial establishments, they are quickly dealt with. The following information will help managers navigate this issue.
██ ██ To all those who lost hope and gave up. The author, like Kozma Prutkov, believes that a person's happiness is in his own hands. And if he knows how to communicate with himself, finds a common language with loved ones, is able to manage a group and quickly get used to a new situation, he is doomed to happiness. The author uses his rich clinical experience and experience in psychological counseling, gives simple recommendations on how to improve communication. Life is an easy thing, and if it's hard for you, then you are doing something wrong. Joy is what is felt after some creative or socially significant action that was not performed for the purpose of obtaining benefits.
Every organization is made up of groups of people. Such groups are not just a random collection of people, but, as a rule, a team carefully selected, trained and prepared to perform certain actions. Therefore, organizational behavior can be considered from the point of view of group behavior, understood as a set of actions of groups and individual individuals that make them up. If individuals make up groups and determine their goals, plans for achieving goals and the means necessary for this, then groups as a whole, in turn, influence individuals, changing, modifying their behavior, interests and needs. The manager must know the psychological patterns of behavior of people in groups and use this knowledge to ensure the highest performance of the group.
Definition and classification of organizations and groups
Before starting consideration of group behavior, it is necessary to define the concepts of "organization" and "group", as well as to classify them.
Organization - it is a group of two or more people who interact and depend on each other, united to achieve common goals. There are formal and informal organizations.
formal organization is a group of people, structured in a certain way, and having special documents (for example, a charter, a certificate of registration), which indicate its goals and its legal status. Such an organization is "registered" in accordance with the current legislation. In a formal organization, the behavior of each member must be directed towards the achievement of common goals.
informal organization - it is a group that, unlike a formal organization, has neither a definite structure nor a document certifying its existence. Most of these groups are usually formed in a service environment, they appear to meet any social needs, such as communication or demonstration of personal professional achievements. So, three employees from different departments who always have lunch together and discuss various topics at the same time is an example of an informal organization.
We can propose the following classification of groups: managed; target; by interest; friendly.
Managed and target groups are formal organizations, but interest groups and friendship groups are more examples of informal organizations.
Consider the characteristics of these groups.
Managed group consists of a manager and those subordinates who report directly to him for the work done. So, for example, the director of a school and the 12 teachers who teach there are a manageable group. The group of the senior auditor on the railway and his assistant belong to the same tin.
Target group also organizationally framed, it is an association of people who work together to achieve some common work goal. However, the target group does not only unite the immediate hierarchical environment, it can also affect other relationships. So, for example, a specialist in the analytical department of a corporation, when a problem arises, can turn not only to colleagues or the head of the department, but also to a familiar lawyer working in the corporation, an experienced procurement officer, the secretary of the head of the department, and other persons who, in his opinion, can provide help. In turn, he himself is ready to help and assist these people. The combination of all these people will make up the target group. It should be noted that all steering groups are also target groups; their members work to achieve specific goals.
Interest Group is created if there are two or more people whose work interests coincide. So, for example, employees who want to change their vacation schedule are an interest group. Such a group will be, for example, people who want to support a dismissed colleague. Workers advocating better working conditions are again an association that has a common interest.
Friends groups are formed on the basis of the fact that people have one or more similar character traits. These associations often go beyond the boundaries of the organization, they can be formed on the basis of the same ethical principles that have developed among people, they can unite workers of the same age or, for example, football club fans. Such groups can also be formed from those whose political views coincide, or they can unite people whose characters are somewhat similar.
Table 4 Reasons why people join groups
|
Cause |
Explanation of the reason |
|
Security |
Becoming a member of the group, each person reduces the likelihood of being "left alone", he feels stronger, less self-doubt. When people unite in groups, they are more successful in confronting emerging problems. |
|
A person who is a member of a group is respected and recognized |
|
|
self esteem |
The group will give each of its members a sense of self-respect. That is, a person is revered not only by those around him, but he himself is proud of his belonging to this group. |
|
Explanation of the reason |
|
|
Satisfying needs |
Any group is created in order to satisfy certain social needs. People tend to communicate with each other, so most groups satisfy the natural human need for interaction. |
|
Often, what cannot be done by an individual is easily accomplished by the efforts of the whole group. In this case, the strength lies in the amount |
|
|
Achievements of goals |
Sometimes it is necessary to concentrate the efforts of several people to achieve a particular goal. There may be a need to combine skills, talent, strength to successfully complete a job task. In this case, management should focus on the creation of formal groups |
informal groups arise to meet the social needs of workers. People tend to communicate with each other, which is why employees often play golf together or drive home from work, have lunch together and drink tea together during breaks. It is important to remember that such groups, although not formal, have a great influence on the behavior of employees in the organization.
It is difficult to identify a single reason that would explain why people unite in such informal groups. Obviously, different groups bring different benefits to their members, which is why one person can often be part of several different informal associations. Typical reasons for the entry of people into groups are shown in Table. 4.