Articles:
Culture of Ancient Mesopotamia (briefly)
Mesopotamia - Mesopotamia or Mesopotamia - is a historical and geographical region in the Middle East, located in the valley of two great rivers - the Tigris and the Euphrates. This plain, along the middle and lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates, is almost entirely located within Iraq, in the southeast it enters Iran, in the northwest - into Syria and Turkey. Ancient Mesopotamia is one of the great civilizations of the Ancient World. Conditional chronological framework - from the middle of the 4th millennium BC. e. (Uruk era) to October 12, 539 BC. e. (fall of Babylon). At different times, the kingdoms of Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia and Assyria were located here.
Writing
One of the most important achievements of the Sumerian period was the invention of writing. They wrote in cuneiform on clay, which was abundant in Mesopotamia. Burnt clay tablets are better preserved than papyrus or other writing material of plant or animal origin. Thanks to this, many written monuments came from Mesopotamia. Entire libraries of cuneiform tablets have been discovered. The collection of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal in Nineveh of the 7th century BC gained world fame. In the 19th century, a part of this library was found - more than 25 thousand tablets. The texts were classified by branches of knowledge. It is difficult to overestimate the significance of this discovery for world history.
An outstanding monument of legal thought were the laws of King Hammurabi, the record of which was preserved on a two-meter stone pillar. The laws consisted of 282 articles, which reflected all aspects of society. Legal norms protected the interests of the ruling class of slave owners.
Astronomy
The needs of life and economy contributed to the development of science and scientific knowledge. The needs of the agricultural economy forced the inhabitants of Mesopotamia to turn to the study of heavenly bodies. They observed the movement of the sun, moon and stars. A star chart was created and all the celestial bodies visible to the naked eye were marked on it. Babylonian astronomers. from among the fixed stars, or, as they were called, "calmly grazing celestial sheep", five bright stars with independent movement (planets) were identified, and their complex path was determined quite accurately. In the 7th century BC e. they learned to predict lunar eclipses.
The development of astronomical knowledge made it possible to create a calendar. The year was divided into twelve lunar months, each of which consisted of either 29 or 30 days, so that there were 354 days in a year. The error compared to the solar year was corrected by introducing a leap year consisting of 13 months.
Medicine of Mesopotamia
Significant development reached in Mesopotamia medicine. Surgeons were able to perform complex operations. Diseases were treated with medicines. Medicines were made mainly from plants. Lack of understanding of the causes of diseases caused the use by doctors of all kinds of conspiracies and spells to expel the "evil spirit" that supposedly inhabited a person.
Mathematics in Mesopotamia
Developing knowledge in the field of mathematics. For practical needs, numerous tables were compiled for four arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The Babylonian number system was based on the numbers 12 and 60. The remnants of this system in our division of day and night into 12 hours, hours into 60 minutes, year into 12 months. In Mesopotamia, units of measures of weight, length, area, volume, money count were developed, subsequently borrowed by other peoples.
Already in the third millennium BC. e. in Mesopotamia they knew how to make glass. Cuneiform tablets describing the construction of a glass-melting furnace, as well as glass decorations, have been preserved. Durable paints (enamels) were created to cover bricks. Tiles made with their help, having lain in the ground for thousands of years, look as if they were made quite recently.
Architecture in Mesopotamia
The inhabitants of Mesopotamia achieved great skill in the construction business. They first learned how to fold vaults, widely used in architecture of a later time. Majestic royal palaces with many halls, courtyards, corridors were built from raw, rarely burnt, brick. The royal palaces of the Assyrians were distinguished by special splendor, in the 7th century. BC e. The walls of palaces were often covered by artists with images of court life, battles and hunting. They skillfully conveyed the tension of the battle, the fury of predators pursued by hunters and wounded by arrows, and often strings of prisoners ruthlessly driven by warriors.
The classical form of the temples was a high stepped tower - a ziggurat, surrounded by protruding terraces. The most famous ziggurat in history can be considered the temple of the god Marduk in Babylon - the famous Tower of Babel, the construction of which as the Babylonian pandemonium is mentioned in the Bible (90 meters high). The landscaped terraces of the Tower of Babel are known as the seventh wonder of the world - the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
According to the teachings of the Babylonian priests, people were created from clay to serve the gods. And it was the gods who determined the fate of people. Only the priests could know the will of the gods: they alone knew how to call and conjure spirits, to talk with the gods.
The myth of the flood
Some legends reflect natural disasters faced by people in antiquity. The legend of the flood is written on clay tablets. It tells that the gods, angry with people, sent a flood to the earth to exterminate mankind. Only one person was warned of the impending disaster. He built a large ship with a mast and a sail, took his family, domestic and wild animals, plant seeds. The flood continued for six days. Water filled the whole earth. All living things perished. Only one ship rushed across the boundless sea. On the seventh day, the sea calmed down, and above the watery desert, the man saw an island, which turned out to be the top of a high mountain. A ship has come to her. The surviving people and animals got out on land.
Stage 1. 3 thousand BC In the south of Iran, land development began, the inhabitants switched to settled agriculture. The appearance of the Sumerians (28-24 centuries BC) - a people who do not belong to the Semitic language family. Versions of the origin of the Sumerians:
1. Came from the North
2. Lived in this area originally
Gradually, villages begin to turn into cities, a single state does not arise because of the unwillingness of cities to unite. The emergence of a nome state is a small administrative unit. Civil strife between cities. Rich harvests, fields bear fruit twice a year. Most of the crops were taken by the aristocracy (military and priestly). Peasants borrow grain from aristocrats, becoming dependent. The appearance of debtors, who later turned into slaves. The emergence of a three-member system of society. Despot - Peasants and artisans - slaves. Some cities created in the East: Uruk - one of the most ancient cities, ruler Gilgamesh, Ur - cultural center. City of temples.
Lagash, Larsa.
Some features of the Sumerians: clothes made of wool, skillfully processed this material; shoes made of straw, wood and leather. The Sumerians were squat and shaved their chins.
3-1 thousand BC The nomads came to conquer the Sumerians. Migration of peoples. The emergence of writing.
Stage 2. Akkadian conquest 24th century BC The Semites, because of their barren lands, are advancing towards the Sumerian lands. Akad is the place where the city is being built - the capital of the Semitic conquering state. The Semites are illiterate, but strong in battle. The Sumerians surrender in order to somehow preserve their family. (Anterior Asian feature) Almost bloodless conquest of the Sumerian state. The main problems are due to hunger. The population remained in their places and retained their rights and privileges, but the resources are in the hands of the Semites. Semites - pastoral nomads who adopted irrigation systems Semites create a single large state - Akad (24-22 century BC) Semites, features of appearance: curly black hair, beards, hooked noses. They create a single system of canals, which improved the economic situation by collecting two crops. Construction of new cities and improvement of old ones.
Social Structure: The population of Sumer is incomplete, and the king is a Semite.
Social structure:
1. Semites, Akkadians, king and aristocracy
2. Free Akkadians (producers)
3. Sumerians (aristocrats) - mushkenum "bowed down" (kept property and slaves) But the property belonged to the Akkadians (the Sumerians only used it)
4. Slaves and the Sumerians and the Akkadians.
Sarbon Ancient Akkadian - the largest and most powerful ruler of Akad, expanded the lands. Acadians quickly mastered cuneiform and learned the Sumerian language
They adopted the literary monuments of the Sumerians and brought them together. They created the Acadian language.
Due to their conquests, the area of application of the Akkadian language expanded, and it became the international language of Western Asia (2 thousand BC)
3 period. 22nd century BC -The Gutians (Gutians) came to the South of Mesopotamia. They squandered the accumulated wealth without doing anything and without developing. Uneducated and unwilling to learn. The kingdom lasted 100 years.
21st century BC Liberation movement under the command of Ur. The southwestern part of Mesopotamia was united by Ur.
Gude - the king of the Kuti (dressed in warm clothes, in a hat, mountain origin)
4 period. 20th century BC State of the 3rd dynasty of Ur. The reign of the Kutievs was not considered as a period.
Social order:
Acadian king, aristocracy
Free Acadians
Mushkenums
Creation of a model of the economy of the ancient state-in. The king, as the viceroy of God, has everything and earth and water and people; people just live.
The king has 50% of the land for personal use, 25% for the god for the temple, 25% for manufacturers
The lands of the king are cultivated by muskenums or slaves of the temple 2/3 of the land belongs to the king and god
Mushkenums are included in the state economy. Peasants pay taxes to the king.
5 period. 20th century BC 2nd wave of Semitic migration. In the eastern Mediterranean
Amorites/Amorites fight fiercely and militantly. Then they go to the North of Mesopotamia. They are moving south very slowly due to: the development of the north, they are building cities (Mari). Go to the intersection of the Tigris and Euphrates. Capital Babylon (19th century BC)
6 period. Ancient, Old Babylonian kingdom 19-16 century BC The most famous king is Hammurabi (middle of the 18th century). The south resists the invaders of Babylon.
In the Zagras mountains are the Elamite tribes who belong to the Dravedic language family. Warrior mountaineers. They do raids. In the north, in Mari (principality), they declare their independence.
Hammurabi concludes a non-aggression pact with Zemlemim. Hammurabi sends troops to Ur and captures them, but loses in the war with the Elamites. But it draws the line. Transfers troops to Mari and captures it, burns it.
Babylon includes almost the entire territory of Mesopotamia. International power.
Hammurabi creates a judicial code "Laws of King Hammurabi" - a set of judicial provisions. Family law, criminal law, punishment for crimes, rent, the situation of slaves. Three parts of the lawsuit: introduction (Hammurabi receives laws from the hands of the sun god (supreme); laws apply to all segments of the population). New build:
Hammurabi and the aristocracy
Free Amorites
Acadians and Sumerians - Mushkenum
Slaves, the number of which is increasing (prisoners of war and debtors).
A slave is an object of law. 1/3 of the land to God, 1/4 to producers. The pantheon of gods is changing. Priorities are changing. Under the descendants of Hamurabi, the state weakens and its combat capability is weakened
7 period. Kasite Babylon 16th-12th century BC The Kasites come from Zagros. Without writing and culture. The number of irrigation canals is decreasing. Due to the authority of Hammurabi, they did not fight with Babylon even under the Kasites. The castes lived off the wealth accumulated by Hammurabi. They learned the Acadian language and the Amorite script.
8 period. 12th century . 3rd wave of the Semitic resettlement of Aramea. The appearance of Assyria did not let the Aramaic hordes to the North. Arameans and Holdei. Neo-Babylonian and Holdey kingdom. Assyria included within its borders Mesopotamia, including Babylon, on the rights of special autonomy. Diplomacy through marriages.
Mesopotamia, the Greeks have long called the territory bounded by two rivers: in the east - the Tigris, in the west - the Euphrates, which have snow-fed. At the confluence - wetlands. The rivers pass through several climatic zones. Weather conditions changed frequently, the lands here were exceptionally fertile. Since ancient times, irrigation and melioration have been practiced here. Vegetation is sparse (reeds, willow). Trees only in the north. The fauna was rich, the abundance of fish and birds. In addition to wood, there were other problems in Mesopotamia, it was deprived of minerals. Various objects of foreign origin are found on the territory of Mesopotamia, it is obvious that trade routes passed through its territory or near its borders.
It is not known who inhabited the territory of Mesopotamia. It is known that the Sumerians were not an autochthonous population and were aliens. Their homeland is modern Bahrain (Dilmun Island). Apparently, the Sumerians sailed from India. The Sumerians most likely belonged to the Dravidian race (dark skin, European facial features). The oldest archaeological cultures - Hassui, Khalaf, Uveid are not of Sumerian origin. It is obvious that the territory of Ancient Mesopotamia was previously inhabited by Akkads - East Semitic tribes. At the beginning of the II millennium BC. Amorites invaded Mesopotamia.
At the turn of the II-I millennium BC. Mesopotamia was invaded by the Arameans, of which the Chaldeans were a part. Jews (literally translated “man from the other side of the river”), homeland - Arabian Peninsula. Since ancient times, Northern Mesopotamia was inhabited by the Hurrians (Subareas), the country of Subartu. They were related to the Urartians (the oldest population of historical Armenia). The Subareas were assimilated by various peoples, including the Hittites, Scythians, and others (they belonged to the Kindo-Iranian ethnic groups).
Medians and Persians. The Persians created a great state, which was called the Achaemenid state. In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. Persians capture Mesopotamia.
In the IV-III millennium BC. in the mountains of Zagros (eastern Mesopotamia) inhabited by Lullubei. They fought with the inhabitants of Mesopotamia.
The Kassites lived in the east. They fought with the inhabitants of Mesopotamia and captured Babylonia. In the 22nd century BC. lower Mesopotamia fell under the rule of the Gutians (Kutis).
Elam. The population is Elamites. Their origin is not clear. Perhaps they were related to the Sumerians. They lived in Iran, which may have been the ancestral home of the Sumerians. Most likely, all these tribes are fragments of the ancient population that lived on the territory of Iran.
Periodization. The first state formations began to take shape at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. in the historical region of Sumer.
The following periods are distinguished:
Proto-written (early 29th - mid-28th centuries BC)
Early dynastic (ser. 28-24 centuries BC), which is divided into 3 stages:
1) middle 28 - early. 27th century BC. - Kush hegemony,
27th - 26th centuries BC. - Hegemony of Uruk, first dynasty of Gilgamesh,
25th - 24th centuries BC. - hegemony of Ur, then Lagash.
The period of creation of a despotic monarchy (the end of the 24th - 20th centuries BC). The existence of the state of Akkad, the Gutian invasion, the Sumero-Akkadian kingdom.
Dynasty of Ur - the state perished under the onslaught of the Amorites.
From this moment (III millennium BC) the periodization of history begins: Assyria, Mitanni, Babylon.
Mitanni did not last long. Its history is not divided into periods.
The north-western part of Mesopotamia was inhabited by the Subareas (16-13 centuries BC)
1 period - Old Babylonian (Amorite) - 19-16 centuries. BC.
2 period - Middle Babylonian (Kassite) - 16-12 centuries. BC.
3rd period - the political weakening of Babylon, the struggle for independence - 12.7 centuries. BC.
4 period - Neo-Babylonian (Chaldean) - 7-6 centuries. BC, culminating in the conquest of the country by Persia.
1 period - Old Assyrian - 20-16 centuries. BC.
2 period - Middle Assyrian - 15-11 centuries. BC.
3rd period - Neo-Assyrian - 10-7 centuries. BC. - the period of existence of the Great Assyrian power, which, under the onslaught of the Babylonians and Mitannians in the 7th century. BC.
Sources. The Bible - the "Old Testament" - is the source of paramount importance. The most interesting information in the Bible contains information about Assyria and Neo-Babylonia.
The most important are the sources of Mesopotamian origin - the Clay Tablets. Clay is the main source for writing. The climate is damp, humid, and therefore the papyrus could not be preserved. Tablets are found in entire libraries in temples or government institutions. Almost all excavated cities have found similar libraries or archives. These are mainly business documents. Not all documents can be read, and pictograms cannot be read. Writing was invented by the Sumerians. Over time, she changed. The Persians were the heirs of the Sumerian cuneiform. The signs expressed the idea, the language is not known. From written documents in the first place - business documents. They are of little content. Legal documents (laws, legal acts) - a reflection of the economy, politics, culture.
Ancient legislation- the laws of King Shulgi (23rd century BC), the law of Ur-Nammu (the founder of the III dynasty of Ur - 22-21 centuries BC), the law of Larsa, the laws of the city of Eshnunna, the laws of King Hamurabi (18th century BC .e.).
diplomatic documents. International treaties - I treaty refers to the period of existence of the Akkadian kingdom - an agreement between the Akkadian king Naram-Suen and the king of Elam, fixing the results of the war between them. Such documents also include letters to Amenhotep III and Akhenaten, as well as documents relating to the reign of the Assyrian king Esarhaddon (7th century BC).
Inscriptions of historical content were carved on rocks and stones.
Historiography. Deciphering cuneiform: 18th century. - a trip to Mesopotamia and Persia by the Danish scientist K. Niebuhr, who made copies of the inscription of the Persian kings, made in cuneiform, and came to the conclusion that they have three writing systems with a different number of characters and varying degrees of complexity. 1802 - deciphering of cuneiform by the German scientist G.F. Grotefend. 30-30s deciphering of cuneiform by an English officer and diplomat G. Raulinson. End of 19th century - German scientist Delich - grammar and dictionary of the Akkadian language. Creation of textbooks and dictionaries of the Sumerian language by scientists F. Thureau-Dangin, A. Pebel, A. Deimel, A. Folkenstein.
Archeology. Excavations in Mesopotamia began in the middle of the 19th century. 1842 excavations of Botta (French diplomat) - the ruins of the residence of the Assyrian king Sargon II. So the Assyrian collection of the Louvre Museum was opened.
1845-1847 - G.A. Layard (English diplomat) - excavations of Nineveh. Collection for the British Museum in London.
H. Rassam - excavations of the palace of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, the ruins of the city of Sippar.
In the second half of the 19th century. English archaeologists discovered the cities of Uruk, Ur, Larsa, Eredu.
19th century - excavations of French archaeologists in the city of Lagash.
American expedition - Nippur.
Early 20th century - German expedition led by R. Koldvey - the discovery of ancient Babylon.
B. Andre - excavations of the city of Ashur (the ancient capital of Assyria).
Coldway and Andre - excavations of the city of Shuruppak.
Development of foreign assirology. In the 19th century - the use of Assyrological monuments to refute or confirm the data of the Bible. The development of Assyrology as part of biblical criticism.
From the end of the 19th century multi-volume editions of cuneiform documents kept in museums in Europe began to appear, the creation of general works on the history of Mesopotamia (Betsold, Meisner, Olmsted, Oppenheim). Questions of political history and state structure are studied (the works of the Danish Sumerologist Jacobsen). The study of the law of ancient Mesopotamia (the laws of King Hammurabi). The study of culture and religion, the problems of ethnogenesis in Mesopotamia, the problems of the economy of this region. Recently, capital studies of the social structure, organization of the economy, the formation of cities, crafts, trade, and temple economy have appeared.
Domestic science. The founder of the "Russian" Assirology - M.V. Nikolsky (Documents of the “Economic Reporting of Ancient Chaldea” - 1908; works on the history of the community, slavery and Babylonian culture in Mesopotamia - 1915).
B.A. Turaev – “History of the Ancient East”, V.K. Shileiko - translations of literary, mythological and historical works of Ancient Mesopotamia.
After the revolution: A.I. Tyumenev - problems of land ownership and social relations in Mesopotamia III millennium BC. (monograph "State economy of ancient Sumer").
V.V. Struve - "History of the Ancient East".
Main tasks: study of problems of land ownership, socio-economic relations, study of slavery and other forms of dependence
On the territory of Mesopotamia from the 7th to the 4th millennium BC. e. there was a decomposition of the primitive communal system and the prerequisites for the emergence of a class society were created.
Periodization of Ancient Mesopotamia.
At the beginning of the III millennium BC. e. the first small states were formed in the southern part of the country, in the historical region of Sumer. The period covering the XXVIII-XXIV centuries. BC e., is called the Early Dynastic. The next period (the last third of the 3rd millennium BC) is characterized by the creation of extensive, so-called despotic monarchies. In the XXIV-XXIII centuries. the political center moves to the central part of Mesopotamia, where the state of Akkad arises, uniting Sumer and the northern regions of Mesopotamia under its rule. From the Akkadian kingdom, which collapsed under the onslaught of the Gutians, the hegemony in Mesopotamia soon passes to the Sumero-Akkadian kingdom.
At the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. in the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates, there were several states, among which the Babylonian kingdom prevailed, uniting a vast country under its rule. Its history is divided into several periods: the Old Babylonian, or Amorite (XIX-XVI centuries BC), the Middle Babylonian, or Kassite (XVI-XII centuries), the period of the political weakening of Babylonia and the struggle for independence (XII-VII centuries) and, finally, the neo-Babylonian short-term period of rise and revival (VII-VI centuries), culminating in the conquest of the country by Persia.
From the 16th to the 13th century BC e. in the western part of northern Mesopotamia, the state of Mitanni played a significant role. In its eastern part, as early as the III millennium BC. e. the Assyrian state arose with the center in the city of Ashur, whose history is further divided into periods: Old Assyrian (XX-XVI centuries BC), Middle Assyrian (XV-XI centuries BC) and New Assyrian (X-VII centuries BC). In this last period, the state of Assyria, through conquests, grows into a huge great power that embraced almost all the countries of the Middle East.
“Everyone will converge in Mesopotamia,
Here is Eden and here is the beginning
Here once a common speech
The word of God sounded...
(Konstantin Mikhailov)
While wild nomads roamed the territory of ancient Europe, very interesting (sometimes inexplicable) events took place in the East with might and main. They are colorfully written in the Old Testament and in other historical sources. For example, such well-known biblical stories as the Flood happened just on the territory of Mesopotamia.
Ancient Mesopotamia without any embellishment can be called the cradle of civilization. It was on this land that the first eastern civilization was born around the 4th century BC. Such states of Mesopotamia (Ancient Mesopotamia in Greek), like Sumer and Akkad, gave mankind writing and amazing temple buildings. Let's go on a journey through this land full of secrets!
Geographical position
What was the name of Mesopotamia? Mesopotamia. The second name of Mesopotamia is Mesopotamia. You can also hear the word Naharaim - this is also she, only in Hebrew.
Mesopotamia is a historical and geographical area located between and the Euphrates. Now there are three states on this land: Iraq, Syria and Turkey. The history of Mesopotamia developed in this territory.
Located in the very center of the Middle East, the region is bounded from the west by the Arabian Platform, from the east by the foothills of the Zagros. In the south, Mesopotamia is washed by the waters of the Persian Gulf, and in the north, the picturesque Ararat Mountains rise.
Mesopotamia is a flat plain stretching along two great rivers. In shape, it looks like an oval figure - such is the amazing Mesopotamia (the map confirms this).
Division of Mesopotamia into regions
Historians conventionally divide Mesopotamia into:
On the territory of Ancient Mesopotamia at different times there were four ancient kingdoms:
- Sumer;
- Akkad;
- Babylonia;
- Assyria.
Why did Mesopotamia become the cradle of civilization?
About 6 thousand years ago, an amazing event took place on our planet: at about the same time, two civilizations were born - Egypt and Ancient Mesopotamia. The nature of civilization is both similar and unlike the first ancient state.
The similarity lies in the fact that both originated in territories with favorable conditions for human life. They are not similar in that each of them is distinguished by a unique story (the first thing that comes to mind: there were pharaohs in Egypt, but not in Mesopotamia).
The topic of the article, nevertheless, is the state of Mesopotamia. Therefore, we will not deviate from it.
Ancient Mesopotamia is a kind of oasis in the desert. The area is surrounded by rivers on both sides. And from the north - mountains that protect the oasis from humid winds from Armenia.
Such favorable natural features made this land attractive to ancient people. Surprisingly, a comfortable climate is combined with the opportunity to engage in agriculture. The soil is so fertile and rich in moisture that grown fruits are juicy, and sprouted legumes are delicious.
The first to notice this were the ancient Sumerians, who settled this territory about 6 thousand years ago. They learned to skillfully grow various plants and left behind a rich history, the riddles of which are still being solved by enthusiastic people.
A bit of conspiracy: about the origin of the Sumerians
Modern history does not answer the question of where the Sumerians came from. There are many assumptions about this, but the scientific community has not yet come to a consensus. Why? Because the Sumerians stood out strongly against the background of other tribes inhabiting Mesopotamia.
One of the obvious differences is the language: it is not similar to any of the dialects spoken by the inhabitants of neighboring territories. That is, it has no similarity with the Indo-European language - the predecessor of most modern languages.
Also, the appearance of the inhabitants of Ancient Sumer is not at all typical for the inhabitants of those places. The tablets depict people with even oval faces, surprisingly large eyes, fine features and above average height.
Another point that historians pay attention to is the unusual culture of an ancient civilization. One of the hypotheses says that the Sumerians are representatives of a highly developed civilization that flew from outer space to our planet. This point of view is rather strange, but it has a right to exist.
How it actually happened is unclear. But one thing can be said with accuracy - the Sumerians gave a lot for our civilization. One of their undeniable achievements is the invention of writing.
Ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia
Different peoples inhabited the extended territory of Mesopotamia. We will highlight two main ones (the history of Mesopotamia without them would not have been so rich):
- Sumerians;
- Semites (to be more precise, Semitic tribes: Arabs, Armenians and Jews).
Based on this, we will talk about the most interesting events and historical figures.
Sumer: a brief historical background
It was the first written civilization to emerge in southeastern Mesopotamia from the 4th to 3rd century BC. Now on this area is the modern state of Iraq (Ancient Mesopotamia, the map again helps us orient ourselves).
The Sumerians are the only non-Semitic people on the territory of Mesopotamia. Numerous linguistic and cultural studies confirm this. The official history says that the Sumerians came to the territory of Mesopotamia from some mountainous Asian country.
They began their journey along Mesopotamia from the east: they settled along the mouths of the rivers and mastered the irrigation economy. The first city where the representatives of this ancient civilization stopped was Eredu. Further, the Sumerians moved deep into the plain: they did not subjugate the local population, but assimilated; sometimes they even adopted some cultural achievements of wild tribes.
The history of the Sumerians is a fascinating process of struggle between different groups of people led by one or another king. The state reached its heyday under the ruler Umma Lugalzages.
The Babylonian historian Beross in his work divided Sumerian history into two periods:
- before the Flood (meaning the Great Flood and the story of Noah, described in the Old Testament);
- after the Flood.
Culture of Ancient Mesopotamia (Sumer)
The first settlements of the Sumerians were original - they were small cities surrounded by stone walls; lived in them from 40 to 50 thousand people. An important city in the southeast of the country was Ur. The center of the Sumerian kingdom was recognized as the city of Nippur, located in the center of the country. Known for the large temple of God Enlil.
The Sumerians were a fairly advanced civilization, let's list what they reached the heights of.
- In agriculture. This is evidenced by the agricultural almanac that has come down to us. It tells in detail how to properly grow plants, when they need to be watered, how to properly plow the soil.
- In craft. The Sumerians knew how to build houses and how to use the potter's wheel.
- In writing. It will be discussed in our next chapter.
The legend of the origin of writing
Most important inventions happen in rather strange ways, especially when it comes to ancient times. The emergence of writing is no exception.
Two ancient Sumerian rulers argued among themselves. This was expressed in the fact that they made riddles to each other and exchanged them through their ambassadors. One ruler turned out to be very inventive and came up with a puzzle so complicated that his ambassador could not remember it. Then writing had to be invented.
The Sumerians wrote on clay boards with reed sticks. Initially, the letters were depicted in the form of signs and hieroglyphs, then - in the form of connected syllables. This process was called cuneiform writing.
The culture of Ancient Mesopotamia is inconceivable without the Sumerian. Neighboring peoples borrowed the skill of writing from this civilization.
Babylonia (Babylonian kingdom)
A state arose at the beginning of the second millennium BC in the south of Mesopotamia. Having existed for about 15 centuries, it left behind a rich history and interesting architectural monuments.
The Semitic people of the Amorites inhabited the territory of the Babylonian state. They adopted the earlier culture of the Sumerians, but they already spoke the Akkadian language, which belongs to the Semitic group.
It arose on the site of the earlier Sumerian city of Kadingir.
A key historical figure was In the course of his military campaigns, he subjugated many neighboring cities. He also wrote a work that has come down to us - "The Laws of Mesopotamia (Hammurabi)".
Let us tell in more detail about the rules of social life written down by the wise king. The laws of Hammurabi are phrases written on a clay tablet that regulate the rights and obligations of the average Babylonian. Historians suggest that the principle of "an eye for an eye" was first formulated by Hammurabi.
The ruler came up with some principles himself, some he rewrote from earlier Sumerian sources.
The laws of Hammurabi indicate that the ancient civilization was really advanced, because people followed certain rules and already had an idea of what was good and what was bad.
The original work is in the Louvre, an exact copy can be found in some Moscow museum.
Babel Tower
The cities of Mesopotamia are a topic for a separate work. We will stop at Babylon, the very place where the interesting events described in the Old Testament took place.
First, we will tell an interesting biblical story about the Tower of Babel, then - the point of view of the scientific community on this matter. The legend of the Tower of Babel is a story about the appearance of different languages on Earth. The first mention of it can be found in the Book of Genesis: the event took place after the Flood.
In those ancient times, mankind was a single people, therefore, all people spoke the same language. They moved south and came to the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates. There they decided to found a city (Babylon) and build a tower as high as the sky. The work was in full swing ... But then God intervened in the process. He created different languages, so people stopped understanding each other. It is clear that very soon the construction of the tower was stopped. The end of history was the resettlement of people in different parts of our planet.
What does the scientific community think about the Tower of Babel? Scientists suggest that the Tower of Babel was one of the ancient temples for observing the stars and conducting religious rites. Such structures were called ziggurats. The highest temple (91 meters high) was located in Babylon. Its name sounded like "Etemenanke". The literal translation of the word is "The house where the heavens meet the Earth."
Assyrian Empire
The first mention of Assyria dates back to the 24th century BC. The state existed for two thousand years. And in the seventh century BC ceased to exist. The Assyrian Empire is recognized as the first in the history of mankind.
The state was located in the Northern Mesopotamia (on the territory of modern Iraq). It was distinguished by militancy: a lot of cities were subjugated and destroyed by Assyrian commanders. They captured not only the territory of Mesopotamia, but also the territory of the kingdom of Israel and the island of Cyprus. There was an attempt to subdue the ancient Egyptians, but it was unsuccessful - after 15 years, the inhabitants of this country regained their independence.
Cruel measures were applied to the captured population: the Assyrians were obliged to pay a monthly tribute.
The major Assyrian cities were:
- Ashur;
- Kalah;
- Dur-Sharrukin (Sargon's Palace).
Assyrian culture and religion
Here again one can trace the connection with the Sumerian culture. The Assyrians spoke in a northern dialect. In schools, they studied the literary works of the Sumerians and Babylonians; some of the moral norms of ancient civilizations were adopted by the Assyrians. On palaces and temples, local architects depicted a bold lion as a symbol of the military success of the empire. Assyrian literature, again, is associated with the campaigns of local rulers: the kings have always been described as brave and courageous people, while their opponents, on the contrary, are shown as cowardly and petty (here one can notice the obvious reception of state propaganda).
Religion of Mesopotamia
The ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia are inextricably linked to the local religion. Moreover, their inhabitants sacredly believed in the gods and necessarily performed certain rituals. Speaking very generally, it was polytheism (belief in various gods) that distinguished Ancient Mesopotamia. To better understand the religion of Mesopotamia, you need to read the local epic. One of the most striking literary works of that time is the myth of Gilgamesh. A thoughtful reading of this book suggests that the hypothesis of an unearthly origin of the Sumerians is not groundless.
The ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia gave us three main mythologies:
- Sumero-Akkadian.
- Babylonian.
- Assyrian.
Let's consider each of them in more detail.
Sumero-Akkadian mythology
It included all the beliefs of the Sumerian-speaking population. It also includes the religion of the Akkadians. The gods of Mesopotamia are conventionally united: each major city had its own pantheon and its own temples. However, similarities can be found.
We list the important gods for the Sumerians:
- An (Anu - Akkad.) - the god of the sky, responsible for the Cosmos and the stars. He was very revered by the ancient Sumerians. He was considered a passive ruler, that is, he did not interfere in people's lives.
- Enlil is the lord of the air, the second most important god for the Sumerians. Only, unlike An, was an active deity. He was revered as responsible for fertility, productivity and peaceful life.
- Ishtar (Inanna) is a key goddess in Sumero-Akkadian mythology. Information about her is very contradictory: on the one hand, she is the patroness of fertility and good relations between a man and a woman, and on the other, a fierce warrior. Such inconsistencies arise due to the large number of different sources that contain references to it.
- Umu (the Sumerian pronunciation) or Shamash (the Akkadian version, speaking of the similarity of the language with Hebrew, since shemesh means the sun).
Babylonian mythology
The main ideas for their religion were adopted from the Sumerians. True, with significant complications.
The Babylonian religion was built on the belief of man in his impotence before the gods of the pantheon. It is clear that such an ideology was based on fear and limited the development of ancient man. The priests managed to build a similar structure: they performed various manipulations in ziggurats (majestic high temples), including a complex ritual of sacrifice.
In Babylonia, the following gods were revered:
- Tammuz - was the patron of agriculture, vegetation and fertility. There is a connection with a similar Sumerian cult of the resurrecting and dying god of vegetation.
- Adad is the patron of thunder and rain. A very powerful and evil deity.
- Shamash and Sin are the patrons of the heavenly bodies: the sun and the moon.
Assyrian mythology
The religion of the warlike Assyrians is very similar to the Babylonian. Most of the rituals, traditions and legends came to the people of the Northern Mesopotamia from the Babylonians. The latter borrowed, as mentioned earlier, their religion from the Sumerians.
Important gods were:
- Ashur is the main god. The patron of the entire Assyrian kingdom, created not only all the other mythological heroes, but also himself.
- Ishtar is the goddess of war.
- Ramman - responsible for good luck in military battles, brought good luck to the Assyrians.
Considered the gods of Mesopotamia and the cults of the ancient peoples - a fascinating topic, rooted in very ancient times. The conclusion suggests itself that the main inventors of religion were the Sumerians, whose ideas were adopted by other peoples.
A rich cultural and historical heritage was left to us by those living in Mesopotamia.
It is a pleasure to study the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, as they are associated with interesting and instructive myths. And everything that concerns the Sumerians is generally one continuous riddle, the answers to which have not yet been found. But historians and archaeologists continue to "dig the ground" in this direction. Anyone can join them and also study this most interesting and very ancient civilization.