ARCHIMEDES 287-212 AD BC.
Archimedes is the name of an ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, mechanic and engineer, an ancient inventor who designed steam tanks and flying machines hundreds of years before the birth of Christ. By today's standards, the works of Archimedes are the level of high school. However, do not forget that they were made over 2000 years ago and were ahead of their time by at least 17 centuries. Thanks to this, Archimedes can rightfully be called one of the greatest geniuses of mankind.
Leonardo da Vinci is an outstanding Italian artist, scientist and inventor.
As you know, Leonardo da Vinci was a master of 17 professions. It is difficult to find such areas of knowledge and technology in which Leonardo would not work, would not make major discoveries and inventions, or would not express bold ideas. He studied anatomy and physiology, geography and geology, mechanics and hydraulics, acoustics and optics, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, engineering, construction and flying. His many discoveries and conjectures were ahead of their time. He left drawings of machines and mechanisms that are prototypes of an excavator, a tank, an airplane, a bicycle, a parachute, a submarine. He developed a project of an ideal city with multi-level traffic.
Pascal - French mathematician, physicist, writer and philosopher
The first mathematical treatise Praktat "Experience in the Theory of Conic Sections" (1639, published in 1640) contained one of the main theorems of projective geometry - Pascal's theorem. In 1641 (according to other sources, in 1642) Pascal designed a summing machine. By 1654, Mr.. completed a number of works on arithmetic, number theory, algebra and probability theory (published in 1665). The range of mathematical interests of Pascal was very diverse. He found a general algorithm for finding signs of the divisibility of any integer by any other integer (treatise "On the nature of the divisibility of numbers"), a method for calculating binomial coefficients, formulated a number of basic provisions of elementary probability theory ("Treatise on the Arithmetic Triangle", published in 1665 ., and correspondence with P. Fermat). In these works, Pascal was the first to accurately define and apply the method of mathematical induction for proof.
(September 22, 1791 - August 25, 1867)
The great English scientist, the founder of the theory of the electromagnetic field, was born on September 22, 1791 in the town of Newington Bette near London.
In 1816, in the journal of the Royal Institute, his first work in chemistry, "Analysis of natural caustic lime", was published, and in 1818 he completed his first work in physics - on a singing flame. In December 1821, he "forced" a wire with current to rotate around the magnetic pole, for the first time there was a transformation of electrical energy into mechanical energy. The scientific ground was prepared for the creation of electric motors.
On January 8, 1824, M. Faraday was elected a member of the Royal Society, and in 1827 received a chair at the Royal Institute. On August 29, 1831, M. Faraday established that when an electrical circuit with current was closed and opened, an induction current appeared in the primary winding. On October 17, 1831, M. Faraday discovered that when the iron core was quickly moved into the coil, a current appeared in the circuit at a certain moment. But only in 1851 did he give a complete formulation of the law of induction.
M. Faraday studied electrolysis and established the laws of this phenomenon (1833-1834).
Michael Faraday died sitting at his desk on August 25, 1867.
The outstanding Italian physicist Alessandro Volta was born on February 18, 1745 in Como (near Milan) into an old noble family. The first scientific study of A. Volt was devoted to the Leyden jar. In 1771, his work "Empirical Research on the Methods of Exciting Electricity and Improving the Design of Machines" was published. In 1774, A. Volta became a teacher of physics in Como, and in 1775 he created an electrophore. In 1779 he became professor of physics at the University of Pavia. In 1780, the scientist took up the problem of atmospheric electricity and created an electroscope with a capacitor. Already in 1792, he came to the conclusion that metals are not only perfect conductors, but also engines of electricity. In 1796 - 1797. A. Volta established the law of stresses, according to which the voltage between the extreme metals of the chain is equal to the voltage that occurs during direct contact of these metals. In 1799, he achieved a significant increase in voltage by using dampened cardboard spacers between copper-zinc metal pairs. A "voltaic pillar" was created. In 1815 - 1819. A. Volta was the director of the Faculty of Philosophy in Padua, and then left the university and moved to his homeland, in Como. The last years of the scientist's life were very modest. It was visited by many prominent people of that time.
Isaac Newton was born in1643 in the town of Woolsthorpe near the city of Grantham, located in the center of Britain, in the family of a poor farmer. At the age of 12, he was sent to study in the city of Grantham at the royal school.
During his studies, Isaac made complex mechanical models of various machines. Newton considered his first physical experience to be the measurement of wind strength during a storm in 1658.
Newton made the main part of his discoveries within two years (1665 - 1667) after graduating from Cambridge University. At a time when the plague was raging in England, Newton, in order to avoid infection, went to his native Woolsthorpe, where he plunged into scientific work. They say that the idea of the law of universal gravitation came to Newton at the moment when, sitting in the garden, he watched an apple fall to the ground. Here he understood why light, refracted in a glass prism, breaks up into colored rays. For the rest of his life, Newton put in order and published the discoveries he made at Woolsthorpe. For the last 25 years of his life, Newton was president of the Royal Society of London, the English Academy of Sciences. Isaac
Newton died on March 20, 1727 at the age of 84. By decree of King Henry 1, he was buried in the tomb of the kings - Westminster Abbey.
(1564 - 1642)
The famous Italian scientist was born in 1564. Galileo was one of the founders of exact natural science, fought against scholasticism, considered experience to be the basis of knowledge.
He laid the foundations of modern mechanics: put forward the idea of the relativity of motion, established the laws of inertia, free fall and the motion of bodies on an inclined plane, the addition of motions; discovered the isochronism of pendulum oscillations; was the first to investigate the strength of beams. He built a telescope with a 32x magnification and discovered mountains on the Moon, four satellites of Jupiter, phases of Venus, spots on the Sun. He actively defended the heliocentric system of the world, for which he was put on trial by the Inquisition (1633), which forced him to renounce the teachings of N. Copernicus. According to legend, Galileo, after his forced abdication, exclaimed: “But still she is spinning!”
Until the end of his life, Galileo was considered a "prisoner of the Inquisition" and was forced to live in his villa Arcetri near Florence. Galileo Galilei died in 1642. In 1992, Pope John PaulIIdeclared the decision of the court of the Inquisition erroneous and rehabilitated Galileo.
Albert Einstein - was born on March 14, 1879 in the small town of Ulm, from which the family later moved to Munich, and in 1893 to Switzerland.
In 1905, an unknown expert of the patent office publishes a work on the private theory of relativity called "On the electrodynamics of moving bodies." In the same year, he gives an explanation of the photoelectric effect based on Planck's quantum hypothesis.
During 1907-1916 he created the general theory of relativity - the theory of gravitation.
Since 1914 Einstein continued his scientific activity in Germany. Einstein's work on the theory of Brownian motion led to the final victory of the molecular-kinetic theory of the structure of matter.
In the 1930s, he came close to fascism. He, a world-famous scientist, is included in the category of enemies of the Nazi regime. In 1933, Einstein was forced to emigrate to the United States, where he continued his scientific and social activities until his death.
Niels Hendrik David Bohr
(1885 - 1962) - the most famous Danish physicist, one of the founders of modern physics.
In 1908, N. Bohr graduated from the University of Copenhagen.
In 1911-1912. worked at the University of Cambridge under the direction of J. J. Thomson and at the University of Manchester under the direction of E. Rutherford. From 1916 he was a professor at the University of Copenhagen, and from 1920 he was director of the Institute for Theoretical Physics in Copenhagen. He created the theory of the atom, which was based on the planetary model of the atom, quantum concepts and the postulates he proposed. He wrote important works on the theory of metals, the theory of the atomic nucleus and nuclear reactions. In 1922 he received the Nobel Prize.
In Copenhagen, Bohr created a large international school of physicists and did much to develop cooperation between physicists from all over the world. Niels Bohr actively participated in the fight against the atomic threat to humanity.
Enrico Fermi - an outstanding Italian physicist was born on September 29, 1901 in Rome. He has numerous works in the field of atomic physics, static mechanics, cosmic ray physics, high energy physics, astrophysics and technical physics. Fermi is one of the founders of quantum electrodynamics and the author of the canonical rules for field quantization.
In 1933-1934 he created the quantitative theory of beta decay, which laid the foundation for the theory of weak interactions.
In 1934, he discovered artificial radioactivity due to neutrons, discovered the phenomenon of neutron slowdown and gave his theory, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1938, expressed the idea of obtaining new (transuranium) elements as a result of irradiating uranium nuclei with neutrons. Having left for the Nobel Prize in Stockholm with his family, he did not return to Italy, where the fascist dictatorship of Mussolini, in essence, eliminated the conditions for normal scientific work. In the USA (Chicago), he built the first nuclear reactor and on December 2, 1942, launched it for the first time, having received a self-sustaining chain reaction. He laid the foundation for optics and neutron spectroscopy. He was a member of many academies of sciences and scientific societies. The 100th chemical element in the United States has been named in his honor and a prize named after him has been established.
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
was born on February 22, 1857 in Hamburg in the family of a well-known lawyer. Young Hertz was fond of the problems of astronomy, physics and mathematics. At first, Hertz intended to get an engineering education, for which he entered the Dresden Polytechnic, and then continued his studies in Munich. At the age of 20, he moved to the University of Berlin, where he listened to lectures on mathematics and physics, studied the works of the classics of the exact sciences and got acquainted with the history of natural science. During these years, Hertz did an excellent experimental work on the topic “Does an electric current have kinetic energy?”, And then a theoretical doctoral thesis “On the rotation of bodies in a magnetic field”. At the age of 23, Hertz completed his studies in Berlin and worked as an assistant at the Physics Institute. In 1883 he went to the provincial university in Kiel. Only after moving to Karlsruhe in 1884 as a professor at the Higher Technical School did Hertz conduct his famous experiments on obtaining electromagnetic waves and studying their properties.
From 1889 until the end of his days, Hertz worked at the University of Bonn, where he systematized the main provisions of the electromagnetic theory.
A premonition of imminent death prompted the scientist to write to his parents in December 1893: “If something really happens to me, you should not be sad, but ... be proud and think that I belong to the elect who live little, but still enough.” Heinrich Hertz died on January 1, 1894, two months before the age of 37.
(
December 18, 1856 – August 30, 1940)
J. J. Thomson , or, as he was later called, "JJ", was born on December 18, 1856 in the suburbs of Manchester in the family of a book dealer. Going to become an engineer, at the age of 14 he entered Owen College (later the University of Manchester), but after the death of his father and due to lack of funds, he could not continue his studies. Having independently studied mathematics, physics and chemistry, he graduated from Trinity College, Cambridge University. After he was awarded a degree in mathematics, he works at the Cavendish Laboratory under the direction of J. Rayleigh. At the age of 28, Professor Thomson will head this laboratory, remaining its director for 20 years. In it, he will conduct his main experimental and theoretical research and here he will create a famous scientific school that has trained 8 Nobel Prize winners, 27 members of the Royal Society of London and 80 professors of physics for many European countries.
In 1906, J. J. Thomson was awarded the Nobel Prize "for his investigations into the passage of electricity through gases."
Alexander Stepanovich Popov - Russian physicist, inventor of radio. Born in the village of Turinskiye mines (now the city of Krasnoturinsk, Sverdlovsk region). In 1877 he entered the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of St. Petersburg University, where he took an active part in the work of the Physics Laboratory of the University, became an excellent experimenter, and became interested in electrical engineering. After graduating from the university, he worked in the Electrical Engineering Society, and then was invited to teach physics and electrical engineering at military educational institutions. From 1901, Popov became the head of the department of physics at the St. Petersburg Electrotechnical Institute. After the publication in 1888 of the works of G. Hertz on obtaining electromagnetic waves, he began to study electromagnetic phenomena. Convinced of the possibility of communication without wires using electromagnetic waves, Popov built the world's first radio receiver, using a sensitive element, a coherer, in his circuit. On April 25 (May 7, according to a new style), 1895, Popov made a scientific report on the invention of a wireless communication system and demonstrated its operation. During experiments on radio communications using Popov's instruments, the reflection of radio waves from a ship was detected for the first time. Popov's merits were recognized by the decision of the Council of People's Commissars to consider May 7 as Radio Day. The Academy of Sciences of the USSR established a gold medal to them. A. S. Popova.
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Eugens Christian
(1629 – 1695)
Dutch physicist and mathematician Born in The Hague. Entering the University of Leiden, Huygens, at the insistence of his father, studied law. In 1655 Huygens defended his dissertation in France for the degree of doctor of law. Along with this, he devotes a lot of time to classes in optics. He made a telescope with which Huygens discovered Saturn's moon Titan. In 1657 he built the first pendulum clock. Huygens was the first to use a pendulum to achieve a regular clock and derived a formula for the period of oscillation of a mathematical and physical pendulum. In 1659 Huygens published a book on Saturn in which he explained the appearance of the planet. He was the first to see and describe the ring surrounding Saturn. In 1663 Huygens was elected a member of the Royal Society of London. In 1665 he was invited to Paris to the Royal Academy of Sciences as its chairman.
Huygens is the creator of the first wave theory of light. Huygens outlined the foundations of this theory in his Treatise on Light (1690).
Huygens' mathematical work dealt with the study of conic sections, the cycloid, and other curves. He owns one of the first works on the theory of probability.
To 
Urchatov Igor Vasilievich
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Soviet physicist and organizer of science, three times Hero of Socialist Labor. Born in the village of Sim in the Southern Urals in the family of an assistant forester. After graduating from the gymnasium, in 1920 he entered the Crimean University. After early graduation from the university, he moved to Petrograd, where he continued his studies at the Polytechnic Institute. In 1925 Kurchatov began working at the Physico-Technical Institute. He has been studying nuclear physics since the 1930s. In 1943, Kurchatov headed scientific work related to the atomic problem. Under his leadership, the first atomic reactor in Europe (1946), the first Soviet atomic bomb (1949) and a thermonuclear bomb were created. Under the scientific guidance of Kurchatov, the world's first industrial nuclear power plant was built (1954), the largest installation for conducting research on the implementation of controlled thermonuclear reactions (1958)
Kurchatov's early work relates to the study of ferroelectrics, nuclear reactions caused by neutrons, and artificial radioactivity. Kurchatov discovered the existence of excited states of nuclei with a relatively long lifetime.
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Klodovska-Curie Marie -
physicist and chemist. Born in Poland, in the family of a teacher, she worked in France.
Maria Sklodowska became the first female teacher in the history of the Sorbonne. At the Sorbonne she met Pierre Curie, also a teacher, whom she later married. Together they began to study the anomalous rays (X-rays) that emitted uranium salts. Without any laboratory, and working in a shed on Rue Lomont in Paris, from 1898 to 1902 they processed 8 tons of uranium ore and isolated one hundredth of a gram of a new substance - radium. Later, polonium was discovered - an element named after the birthplace of Marie Curie. In 1903, Marie and Pierre Curie received the Nobel Prize in Physics "for outstanding services in their joint investigations of the phenomena of radiation". Being at the awards ceremony, the spouses are thinking of creating their own laboratory, and even the Institute of Radioactivity. Their idea was brought to life, but much later.
After the tragic death of her husband Pierre Curie in 1906, Marie Skłodowska-Curie inherited his chair at the University of Paris.
In 1910, in collaboration with André Debierne, she managed to isolate pure metallic radium, and not its compounds, as had happened before. Thus, a 12-year cycle of research was completed, as a result of which it was proved that radium is an independent chemical element. In 1911, Skłodowska-Curie received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for outstanding achievements in the development of chemistry: the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, the isolation of radium, and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element." Skłodowska-Curie became the first (and to date the only woman in the world) to win the Nobel Prize twice.
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Peter Nikolaevich Lebedev (1866-1912)
- Russian physicist, was born in Moscow in a merchant family.
After completing secondary education, he studied in Germany. In 1891, Lebedev returned to Moscow and, at the invitation of A.G. Stoletova becomes a teacher, and from 1900 to 1911 - a professor at Moscow University. He was the first to measure the pressure of light on solids and gases. These works by Lebedev quantitatively confirmed Maxwell's theory.
In an effort to find new experimental evidence for the electromagnetic theory of light, Lebedev received electromagnetic waves of millimeter length and investigated all their properties.
Lebedev created the first physics school in Russia. Many outstanding Soviet scientists are his students. The Physics Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences (FIAN) bears the name of Lebedev
Stoletov Alexander Grigorievich - Russian physicist, professor at Moscow University (since 1873) Stoletov was born in Vladimir, into a merchant family. After graduating in 1860. Moscow University was left attached to the university to prepare for a professorship. In 1862-1865 he continued his education in France and Germany. The study of the photoelectric effect brought Stoletov worldwide fame. Centuries also the possibility of applying the photoelectric effect in practice. In his doctoral dissertation "Research on the function of magnetization of soft iron", he developed a method for studying ferromagnets and established the form of the magnetization curve. This work was widely used in practice in the design of electrical machines. Stoletov devoted much energy to the development of physics in Russia. He was the initiator of the creation of a physics institute at Moscow University.
(April 23, 1858 – October 4, 1947)
Planck Max - great German theoretical physicist, founder of quantum theory - the modern theory of motion, interaction and mutual transformations of microscopic particles. Born into a family of lawyers and scientists, who paid much attention to the development of children's abilities. He graduated from the gymnasium in Munich, where, along with high talent in many disciplines, he showed high diligence and efficiency. The decision to become a physicist was not easy - along with natural disciplines, music and philosophy attracted. He studied physics in Berlin and Munich.
After defending his thesis, he taught from 1885 to 1889 in Kiel, and then from 1889 to 1926 in Berlin. From 1930 to 1937, Planck headed the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (since 1948 it was transformed into the Max Planck Society).
Planck devoted his research mainly to questions of thermodynamics. He gained fame after explaining the spectrum of the so-called "absolutely black body" In 1900, in his work on equilibrium thermal radiation, Planck first introduced the assumption that the energy of an oscillator (a system that performs harmonic oscillations) takes discrete values proportional to the frequency of oscillations. Electromagnetic energy is emitted by the oscillator in separate portions.
AT 
ilhelm conrad roentgen
was born in Linnep (modern name Remscheid) as the only child in the family. Wilhelm receives his first education at the private school of Martinus von Dorn. Since 1861, he attended the Utrecht Technical School, but in 1863 he was expelled because of his disagreement to extradite the one who drew a caricature of one of the teachers.
In 1865, Roentgen tries to enter the University of Utrecht, despite the fact that, according to the rules, he could not be a student of this university. Then he takes exams at the Federal Polytechnic Institute of Zurich, and becomes a student in the department of mechanical engineering, after which he graduates with a Ph.D. in 1869. However, realizing that he was more interested in physics, Roentgen decided to go to study at the university. After successfully defending his dissertation, he starts working as an assistant at the Department of Physics in Zurich, and then in Giessen. Between 1871 and 1873, Wilhelm worked at the University of Würzburg, and then, together with his professor August Adolf Kundt, moved to the University of Strasbourg in 1874, where he worked for five years as a lecturer (until 1876), and then as a professor ( since 1876). Also in 1875, Wilhelm became a professor at the Academy of Agriculture in Cunningham (Wittenberg). Already in 1879 he was appointed to the chair of physics at the University of Giessen, which he later headed. Since 1888, Roentgen headed the Department of Physics at the University of Würzburg, later, in 1894, he was elected rector of this university. In 1900, Roentgen became the head of the Department of Physics at the University of Munich - it was his last place of work. Later, upon reaching the age limit stipulated by the rules, he handed over the chair to Wilhelm Wien, but still continued to work until the very end of his life.
September 5 (17), 1857 
- September 19, 1935)
Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky - Russian scientist, founder of modern cosmonautics. Beginning in 1896, he was engaged in the theory of the movement of rocket vehicles and proposed a number of schemes for long-range rockets and rockets for interplanetary stations. In 1903, a part of his article "Investigation of the World Spaces with Reactive Instruments" was published. In this article, as well as in the works of 1911 and 1914. he laid the foundations for the theory of rockets and liquid-propellant rocket engines. He was the first to solve the problem of landing a spacecraft on the surface of planets devoid of an atmosphere. In 1926-1929. Tsiolkovsky developed the theory of multi-stage rockets. He was the first to solve the problem of the movement of rockets in a gravitational field, considered the influence of the atmosphere on the flight of a rocket, and calculated the necessary fuel reserves to overcome the resistance forces of the Earth's air shell. He also expressed the idea of creating near-Earth stations. Tsiolkovsky wrote a number of works in which he paid attention to the use of artificial Earth satellites in the national economy.
André Marie Ampère (1775-1836) - French physicist and mathematician, born in Lyon. Under the guidance of his father, he was educated at home. Ampère was 14 years old when he read 20 volumes of the Encyclopedia. Amper began his career as a home teacher of mathematics, physics and chemistry. In 1801, he was accepted as a teacher of physics and chemistry at the Central School in Bourg-en-Bress. In 1805, Ampère took a position as a teacher of mathematics at the Polytechnic School in Paris. In 1814, Ampère was elected a member of the Paris Academy of Sciences. In 1824, he held the post of professor of physics at the Normal School in Paris.
Ampere discovered the mechanical interaction of currents and, on the basis of the hypothesis of the existence of molecular currents, built the first theory of magnetism.
In 1826, Ampère prepared and published his main work - "The Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Derived Exclusively from Experience."
The unit of current, the ampere, is named after the Ampere.
Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854) - German physicist Born in Erlangen in the family of a craftsman. After graduating from high school, Om entered the University of Erlangen, but interrupted his studies due to financial difficulties. He worked as a teacher in Gotstadt (Switzerland). He independently prepared his doctoral dissertation and defended it at the University of Erlangen in 1811. After that, Om taught mathematics and physics at various schools in Germany. In 1826, Ohm established a formula for direct current in an electrical circuit, now known as Ohm's law. Om's recognition did not come immediately, but only about 10 years after his discovery. In addition to research on electricity, Ohm carried out work on optics, crystal optics, and acoustics. In 1833 Ohm became the director of the Polytechnic School in Nuremberg, in 1849 he became a professor at the University of Munich. The recognition of the importance of the discovery made by Ohm was his election in 1842 as a member of the Royal Society of London. The unit of electrical resistance is named after Ohm.
(September 21, 1801 – March 11, 1874)
Boris Semenovich Jacobi - Russian physicist and electrical engineer, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.
Jacobi was born in Potsdam (Germany). Graduated from Goettingen University. From 1837 he lived in St. Petersburg and accepted Russian citizenship. Jacobi designed the world's first practically usable electric motor with a continuous rotational movement of the shaft and in 1838 for the first time applied it to the movement of a ship (testing of Jacobi's "electric ship" was carried out on the Neva River). Jacobi is the inventor of electroforming and in 1840 published a complete description of the electroforming process. Jacobi owns a number of theoretical studies related to the operation of an electric motor. He developed several designs of telegraph devices and was one of the first in the world to build operating cable telegraph lines. Through his activities, the scientist largely contributed to the establishment of a system of measures, participated in the development of standards, the choice of units of measurement.
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icolaus copernicus
- Polish scientist. Born in Torun, comes from a merchant family. Copernicus received a versatile education. After graduating from the cathedral school in Wloclawsk, Copernicus entered the University of Krakow at the age of 19, where he studied astronomy and the art of observation. To continue his education, in 1496 he moved to Italy. At first, Copernicus studied law and mathematics at the famous University of Bologna. In 1501 he continued his education at the University of Padua, where he studied medicine. In 1503 he was awarded a doctoral diploma. Returning to his homeland, Copernicus soon moved to Frombork, where he took up a spiritual position. The scientific activity of Copernicus in Frombork was very diverse. He develops a new, heliocentric, system of the world, designs the simplest instruments for observing and measuring the heights of celestial bodies, and conducts astronomical observations. By 1530, Copernicus basically completes the development of his doctrine and system of the world, but only in 1543 Copernicus decides to print a manuscript with a complete exposition of the heliocentric system.
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icola leonard sadi carnot
- French engineer and scientist. Sadi Karnot is the son of L. N. Karnot (1753-1823), a scientist, statesman, participant in the French bourgeois revolution. In 1814, S. Carnot graduated from the Polytechnic School in Paris and then entered the service in the engineering troops. In 1827 he was promoted to captain and soon retired. While in military service, he devoted a lot of time to scientific work. Carnot wrote the only scientific work “Reflections on the driving force of fire and on machines capable of developing this force”, published in 1824. At first, Carnot’s work was not widely distributed, and only by 1834 another French scientist Clapeyron (1799-1864) drew attention to him. After Carnot's death, his brother published Carnot's notes. They expressed the idea of the equivalence of heat and work.
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udolf Julius Emanuel Clausius
Born January 2, 1822 in Köslin (now Koszalin, Poland) in the family of a pastor. He studied at a private school, then at a gymnasium. He graduated from the University of Berlin (1848), where he received a Ph.D. In 1850-1857 he taught in Berlin and Zurich. University professor in Zurich, Würzburg, Bonn. Since 1884 - rector of the University of Bonn.Clausius made a great contribution to the development of the molecular-kinetic theory of gases. He first applied a new approach here - the so-called method of averages (what is now called statistical methods), explained from a unified position such different phenomena as internal friction, thermal conductivity, diffusion. He introduced the concept of the mean free path of molecules and in 1860 calculated its value, which later made it possible to estimate the size of molecules. He generalized the van der Waals equation of gas state, revealed the meaning of the equation relating the melting (or boiling) temperature of a substance with pressure (Clapeyron-Clausius equation).
In addition, Clausius developed the theory of polarization of dielectrics, from which, independently of O. Mossotti, he derived the relationship between permittivity and polarizability (the Clausius-Mossotti formula).
Clausius is one of the founders of thermodynamics and the kinetic theory of gases. He formulated the first and second gas laws of thermodynamics. In 1876 he wrote the work "The Mechanical Theory of Heat".
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judwig boltzmann
- Austrian physicist, founder of statistical mechanics and molecular kinetic theory.
After graduating from the gymnasium, Boltzmann entered the University of Vienna. Already in 1866, at the age of 22, he received his doctorate and took the position of Privatdozent at the University of Vienna. Since 1869, Boltzmann has been a professor at the universities of Graz, Vienna, Munich, and Leipzig. He spent his last years in Vienna.
Most of Boltzmann's works relate to theoretical research in the field of molecular physics. His main merit was the statistical interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics. These works of Boltzmann were not appreciated during his lifetime and only after his death did they receive recognition.
Boltzmann also owns a number of works on mechanics, electrodynamics and other branches of theoretical physics. In his views, he was a convinced materialist and a sharp ideological opponent of Mach and Ostwald, who tried to substantiate idealistic philosophical teachings on the basis of a distorted view of the achievements of science.
Jean Baptiste Perrin - French physicist After graduating from the Higher Normal School in Paris, Perrin first worked at the same school, and then at the University of Paris.
Since 1910 he has been a professor. In 1940, after the occupation of France by Nazi Germany, he left for the United States.
Perrin owns works related to various fields of physics, and in particular, works on the study of Brownian motion.
Perrin was an honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1929), a Nobel laureate (1926)
(August 14, 1777 – March 9, 1851 
G.)
Oersted Hans Christian is a Danish physicist.
Oersted was born in Rudköbing, located on the island of Langeland, in the family of a pharmacist. In 1797 he graduated from the University of Copenhagen. In 1800 Oersted became an adjunct and in 1806 a professor at the University of Copenhagen. Oersted's main works are devoted to physics, chemistry, and philosophy. The discovery of the deflection of a magnetic needle under the action of an electric current was Oersted's most important scientific merit. His communication about his experiments caused a number of subsequent important studies (Ampère, Faraday, etc.) on electrodynamics, which led to the construction of the theory and practical use of electricity.
Oersted organized in Denmark the Society for the Dissemination of Natural Science Knowledge and the Polytechnic School in Copenhagen, of which he was the first director. For 36 years he served as secretary of the Royal Danish Society (Danish Academy of Sciences).
Since 1830, Oersted was an honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.
James Clerk Maxwell - English physicist, creator of the electromagnetic field theory, one of the founders of statistical physics. Maxwell was born in Edinburgh (Scotland) into a noble family. In 1847 Maxwell entered the University of Edinburgh. In 1850 Maxwell goes to study at the University of Cambridge. After graduating from Trinity College of this university (in 1854), he began to teach there. In 1856, Maxwell became a professor of physics at a university in Scotland, then at the University of London, and since 1871 Maxwell was a professor at Cambridge University. In the latter he founded the famous Cavendish Laboratory and was its first director. The first of Maxwell's major works on electrodynamics was called "On Faraday's Lines of Force" (1855-1856). In it, the young scientist formulated a method and, in essence, outlined a program for the study of electromagnetic phenomena based on the concept of short-range interaction. The subsequent development of the theory of the electromagnetic field was given by Maxwell in the works: "On physical lines of force" (1861-1862), "Dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field" (1864), "Treatise on electricity and magnetism" (1873).
The development of the theory of electromagnetism is the most important of a wide range of problems that received a first-class solution in the works of Maxwell.
(
March 22, 1868 – December 19, 1953)
Robert Andrus Milliken (1868-1953) is an American physicist. Milliken graduated from college in Ohio State. He received his PhD from Columbia University. In 1895-1896. worked in Germany at the University of Berlin and Göttingen, then from 1896 at the University of Chicago and other institutions.
Millikan made a very accurate measurement of the charge of an electron using a method he developed.
Millikan also tested the photoelectric effect equation. He owns a number of works on spectroscopy, cosmic rays, etc. He is a Nobel Prize winner.
E 
rnest rutherford
–
English physicist, founder of nuclear physics. Born in the family of a poor farmer in New Zealand. In 1894 E. Rutherford graduated from the University of New Zealand. In 1895-1898 he worked under the direction of J.J. Thomson at the Cavendish Laboratory. In 1898 -1907. Rutherford - professor at McGill University in Montreal (Canada), in 1907-1919. - Professor at the University of Manchester, and since 1919 - Professor at the University of Cambridge and director of the Cavendish Laboratory. Since 1903 - a member of the Royal Society of London, and in the period from 1925 to 1930 - its president. Rutherford is an honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Sciences of most countries of the world. He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1908). Rutherford's main works relate to the physics of the atom and the atomic nucleus. He was the first to discover (in 1899) that the radiation of radioactive elements has a complex composition; He named the two components of this radiationα
- and β
-rays. In 1903, Rutherford, together with F. Soddy, created the theory of the radioactive decay of elements. Based on scattering experimentsα
- particles He concluded that there is a positively charged nucleus in the center of a chemical element. In 1919, Rutherford was the first to discover the possibility of the transformation of atoms of non-radioactive elements into atoms of other elements under the influence of impacts.α
- particles. In 1920, Rutherford predicted, and in 1933, together with M. Oliphant, experimentally proved the validity of the law of the relationship between mass and energy.
(
March 12 (24), 1891 - January 25, 1951)
Sergei Ivanovich Vavilov - Soviet physicist, academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, from 1945 to 1951 - President of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. S.I. Vavilov was born in Moscow, in the family of a trade clerk. He received his secondary education at a commercial school. From 1909 to 1914 he studied at Moscow University, where he joined a group of physicists led by P. N. Lebedev. In Lebedev's laboratory, Vavilov performed his first scientific research in optics, for which he later received a gold medal. After graduating from the university, Vavilov was drafted into the army and sent to the front, where he stayed until 1918. From 1918 to 1932, Vavilov worked at Moscow University (from 1929 - professor) and at the same time (from 1918 to 1930) headed the department of physical optics at the Institute of Physics and Biophysics, and since 1932 he was the director of the Physical Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The main scientific works of Vavilov are devoted to the problems of physical optics. In 1938, Vavilov was elected a deputy of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR, and in 1946, a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Vavilov's name was given to the Institute of Physical Problems of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Moscow and the State Optical Institute in St. Petersburg. In 1951, a gold medal named after S.I. Vavilov, awarded annually for outstanding work in the field of physics.
Short description:
The "Portrait Gallery" consists of posters of scientists and cells-frames of A3 format. The gallery of scientists is multifunctional and allows you to quickly change the portraits of physicists. The gallery of physicists can be decorated with the flag of the country (France, Russia, USA, Great Britain, etc.), which allows you to identify the country where the scientist was born. Thanks to the colorful design, these portraits attract the attention of students in the physics classroom, allow them to expand their horizons in the field of physics.
The set of posters includes portraits of famous physicists:
Alessandro VOLTA, Albert EINSTEIN, André Marie AMPER, Sergei Ivanovich VAVILOV, Galileo GALILEY, Heinrich Rudolf HERZ, Georg Simon OM, James Clerk MAXWELL, James Prescott JOUL, Isaac NEWTON, Igor Vasilievich KURCHATOV, Alexander Stepanovich POPOV, Charles Augustin COULON, Ernest Rutherford , Mikhail Vasilievich LOMONOSOV.
You can arrange a complete gallery in the physics room of the school or purchase several cells and organize a ROTATION of posters during the academic year, for example, for the birthdays of scientists (safe plastic is used in the cells, replacing the poster takes 2-3 minutes).
The price of a set of posters (15 portraits of physicists) 1170 rub.
The price of one frame A3 858 rub.
The price of one flag 98 rub.
Posters are only sold as a set. The number of cells can be purchased from 1 to 15, because. you can arrange not a complete gallery, but purchase from one to several cells for the ROTATION of posters. The price of the order is calculated by the manager, taking into account the number of cells and the flags required for them.
Flags for portraits of scientists.
Complete set: flags - 15 pcs., holders - 15 pcs.
US flag - 1 pc.
Flag of Italy - 2 pcs.
French flag - 2 pcs.
Flag of Germany - 2 pcs.
Great Britain flag - 4 pcs.
Flag of Russia - 4 pcs.
When the posters are ROTATED (for the number of cells A3 in the order no more than 6 pieces), flags are enough - 6 pieces, the number of holders is equal to the number of cells.
US flag - 1 pc.
Flag of Italy - 1 pc.
French flag - 1 pc.
Flag of Germany - 1 pc.
UK flag - 1 pc.
Flag of Russia - 1 pc.
Albert EINSTEIN - US flag
Alessandro VOLTA - Flag of Italy
Galileo Galilei - Flag of Italy
André Marie Ampere - flag of France
Charles Augustin PENDANT - flag of France
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz - Flag of Germany
Georg Simon OM - Flag of Germany
James Clerk MAXWELL - Flag of Great Britain
James Prescott JOUL - Flag of Great Britain
Isaac NEWTON - UK flag
Ernest Rutherford - flag of Great Britain
Sergey Ivanovich VAVILOV - flag of Russia
Igor Vasilyevich KURCHATOV - flag of Russia
Alexander Stepanovich POPOV - flag of Russia
Mikhail Vasilyevich LOMONOSOV - flag of Russia
Portraits of physicists and stands for decoration of the physics classroom