Social sanction is the reaction of society or a social group to the behavior of an individual in a socially significant situation. Social control Public reaction to behavior

In the broad sense of the word, social control is defined as the totality of all types of control that exist in society (moral, state, industrial, legal control). In a narrow sense, social control is an assessment of people's activities by public opinion.
Forms of social control changed as society developed.
In a traditional society, social control existed in the form of customs, traditions, unwritten rules of conduct. In modern society, individual mechanisms of social control are formalized, their basis is the norms fixed in writing: decrees, laws, instructions.
Examples of social control in modern society: examination grades at school, the taxation system, product control authorities.

In sociology, there are different types and forms of social control.

Internal and external control.
A person who has mastered social norms is able to independently regulate his actions, coordinating them with the generally accepted system of values and approved patterns of behavior. This is internal control (self-control), which is based on the moral principles of a person.
External control is a set of social institutions that regulate people's behavior and ensure compliance with generally accepted norms and laws.

Informal and formal control.
Informal (intra-group) control is carried out by participants in a social process and is based on the approval or condemnation of the individual's actions by the immediate environment (colleagues, acquaintances, friends, family members), public opinion.
Formal (institutional) control is carried out by special public institutions, control bodies, state organizations and institutions (army, court, municipal institutions, media, political parties, etc.).

The mechanism of social control is formed by certain elements:
1) social norms - prescriptions indicating how one should behave in society;
2) positive and negative social sanctions - means of encouragement (reward) or censure (punishment), regulating people's behavior, stimulating them to comply with social norms and act for the benefit of society;
3) methods of social control (isolation, separation, rehabilitation);
4) specific measures (certain forms of physical, economic, emotional impact on the individual).

Social sanctions are different types of reaction on the part of society to the behavior of a person or group and certain forms of influence on it.
Depending on the method of influence on the individual, formal and informal sanctions are distinguished.
Social sanctions can be negative (blaming) and positive (encouraging).
Formal negative sanctions - punishments and measures to prevent deviant behavior coming from official organizations (for example, a fine, reprimand, demotion, dismissal, deprivation of civil rights, imprisonment, confiscation of property).
Formal positive sanctions are various ways of encouraging an individual's activities that come from official bodies and institutions (for example, announcing gratitude, conferring an honorary title, government award, election to a high position).
Informal negative sanctions - an expression of dissatisfaction, condemnation of a person coming from informal persons and social groups (for example, ridicule, unfriendly feedback, remark, complaint, defiant ignorance).
Informal positive sanctions - approval of a person's actions coming from informal persons and social groups (for example, praise, gratitude, compliment, approving smile).

Self-control, or internal control, is the application by a person of positive and negative sanctions in relation to himself.

Assessing his actions, a person compares them with the system of norms, customs, moral rules, value orientations, standards of proper behavior adopted by him.
Self-control is an important mechanism for maintaining social stability, based on a conscious volitional effort, restraint of involuntary impulsive urges. The higher the level of development of self-control among members of society, the less society has to resort to external control and negative sanctions.
Conscience is a manifestation of internal control, the ability of a person to independently formulate his own moral duties. Conscience is an indicator of a developed self-awareness of a person, a sense of duty, responsibility.

The efforts of society aimed at preventing deviant behavior, punishing and correcting deviants are defined by the concept of "social control".

Social control is a mechanism for regulating relations between the individual and society in order to strengthen order and stability in society.

In the broad sense of the word, social control can be defined as the totality of all types of control that exist in society *, moral, state control, etc., in the narrow sense, social control is the control of public opinion, publicity of the results and evaluations of activities and people's behavior.

Social control includes two main elements: social norms and sanctions.

Sanctions - any reaction on the part of others to the behavior of a person or group.

There is the following classification of sanctions.

Types of sanctions

Formal:

- negative - punishment for breaking the law or violating the administrative order: fines, imprisonment, etc.

- positive - encouragement of a person's activity or act by official organizations: awards, certificates of professional, academic success, etc.

Informal:

- negative - condemnation of a person for an act by the society: offensive tone, swearing or reprimand, defiant ignoring of a person, etc.

- positive - gratitude and approval of unofficial persons - friends, acquaintances, colleagues: praise, approving smile, etc., etc.

Sociologists distinguish two main forms of social control.

social control

Internal (self-control)

A form of social control in which the individual independently regulates his behavior, coordinating it with generally accepted norms

A set of institutions and mechanisms that guarantee compliance with generally accepted norms of behavior and laws

Informal (intra-group) - based on approval or condemnation from a group of relatives, friends, colleagues, acquaintances, as well as from public opinion, which is expressed through traditions and customs or through the media

Formal (institutional) - based on the support of existing social institutions (army, court, education, etc.)

In the process of socialization, norms are assimilated so firmly that people, violating them, experience a feeling of awkwardness or guilt, pangs of conscience. Conscience is a manifestation of internal control.

Generally accepted norms, being rational prescriptions, remain in the sphere of consciousness, below which is located the sphere of the subconscious, or unconscious, consisting of elemental impulses. Self-control means containment of the natural elements, it is based on volitional effort.

In a traditional society, social control rested on unwritten rules; in modern society, it is based on written norms: instructions, decrees, decrees, laws. Social control has gained institutional support. Formal control is carried out by such institutions of modern society as the court, education, the army, production, the media, political parties, and the government. The school controls thanks to examination grades, the government - thanks to the system of taxation and social assistance to the population, the state - thanks to the police, the secret service, state channels of radio, television, and the press.

In the Russian Federation, special bodies have been created to exercise social control. These include the Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation, the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation, the Federal Security Service, various financial control bodies, etc.

social behavior

Deputies of various levels are also vested with control functions. In addition to state control bodies, various public organizations play an increasing role in Russia, for example, in the field of consumer protection, in monitoring labor relations, the state of the environment, etc.

Detailed (petty) control, in which the leader intervenes in every action, corrects, corrects, etc., is called supervision. Supervision is carried out not only at the micro, but also at the macro level of society. The state becomes its subject, and it turns into a specialized public institution.

The more self-control developed among members of a society, the less that society has to resort to external control. And vice versa, the less self-control is developed in people, the more often the institutions of social control come into action, in particular the army, the court, the state. The weaker the self-control, the tighter the external control must be. However, strict external control, petty guardianship of citizens hinder the development of self-consciousness and expression of will, muffle internal volitional efforts.

Methods of social control

Insulation

Establishment of impenetrable partitions between the deviant and the rest of society without any attempt to correct or re-educate him

Isolation

Limiting the deviant's contacts with other people, but not his complete isolation from society; this approach allows for the correction of deviants and their return to society when they are ready to fulfill the generally accepted norms again

Rehabilitation

The process by which deviants can prepare for a return to normal life and the correct performance of their social roles in society

SIBERIAN ACADEMY OF PUBLIC SERVICE

INSTITUTE FOR RETRAINING SPECIALISTS

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT

Course work

in sociology

Topic: social control (on the example of Russia)

Completed by: Vlasova T.N.

gr. 08611 GMU

Checked by: Shukshina Z.A.

Novosibirsk 2010

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………3

Chapter I. The essence of social control………………………………………….5

1.1. The concept of social control, its functions………………………..…….5

1.2. Social norms as a regulator of behavior…………………………………7

1.3. Sanctions as an element of social control……………………….………9

1.4. self control……………………………………………………………………………………..12

Chapter II. Social control in modern Russia……………………….14

2.1. Organized crime in modern Russia…………..……….14

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….19

List of literature used…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Introduction

Society is a self-regulating complex social system. The most important role in the social regulation of public life is played by social culture, social values, norms, social institutions and organizations. At the same time, in the social structure of society there is and plays an important role a special structural formation - the institution of social control. It acts as part of the general system of social regulation and is called upon to ensure the normal orderly functioning and development of society by various means, as well as to prevent and correct such social deviations that are capable of disorganizing public life and social order.

This topic is relevant, because. society is a dynamic system, and as this system develops, various traditions, norms, and values are formed and developed. In addition, a person is interested in a calm and prosperous life, in social order, in the successful development and functioning of society. All this is provided by the institution of social control, and the more it develops and improves, the more organized and prosperous the society will be. Therefore, the system of social control needs to be studied more deeply, to find various ways to resolve social conflicts and improve the current social culture.

The purpose of the course work is to determine the role of social control in society, to identify the dependence of the direction and content of social control on the economic, political, ideological and other characteristics of a given social system, historically determined by the level of its development.

The set goal determined the following tasks:

Consider the essence of social control.

Familiarize yourself with the various functions of social control.

Explore forms of social control.

object this course work is directly the institution of social control, public relations, and subject- its close relationship with society, the forms in which it is carried out, as well as the effectiveness of the impact of social control on society.

ChapterI. The essence of social control

1.1 The concept of social control, its functions

Term "social control" was introduced into scientific vocabulary by the famous French sociologist, one of the founders of social psychology, G. Tarde, who proposed considering it as one of the most important factors of socialization. Later, in the works of a number of scientists - such as, for example, E. Ross, R. Park, A. Lapierre - a theory of social control was developed.

So, social control - this is a way of self-regulation of a social system (society as a whole, a social group, etc.), which ensures through normative regulation the targeted impact of people and other structural elements of this system, their orderly interaction in the interests of strengthening order and stability.

The main purpose of social control is to maintain order and stability in society, as well as to ensure social reproduction (continuity) in the direction corresponding to the development strategy chosen by a particular society. Thanks to the mechanisms of socialization, prescription, encouragement, selection and control, the social system maintains a balance.

The following distinguishing features of social control can be pointed out:

1) orderliness, categoricalness and formality: social norms are often applied to an individual without taking into account his personal characteristics; in other words, a person must accept a norm only because he is a member of a given society;

2) connection with sanctions - punishments for violation of norms and rewards for their observance;

3) collective implementation of social control: social action is often a reaction to a particular human behavior, and therefore can be both a negative and a positive incentive when choosing goals and means to achieve them 2.

The mechanism of social control plays a crucial role in strengthening the institutions of society. Figuratively speaking, this mechanism is the “central nervous system” of a social institution. Social institution and social control consist of the same elements, i.e.

e. identical rules and norms of behavior, fixing and standardizing the behavior of people, making it predictable.

Social control in relation to society performs two main functions:

protective function. This function sometimes prevents social control from acting as a supporter of progress, but the list of its functions does not include the renewal of society - this is the task of other public institutions. So, social control protects morality, law, values, requires respect for traditions, opposes the new, which has not been properly tested.

stabilizing function. Social control acts as the foundation of stability in society. Its absence or weakening leads to disorder, confusion and social discord.

Conclusion: social control is an integral part of a more general and diverse system of social regulation of people's behavior and public life. Its specificity lies in the fact that such regulation is of an orderly, normative and rather categorical nature and is provided by social sanctions or the threat of their application.

1.2. Social norms as a regulator of behavior

Each person understands that no one could successfully build their relationships with other people and social organizations without mutual correlation of actions with the rules approved by society.

Element of social control reaction to the behavior of a person or group

These rules, which serve as a standard in relation to our actions, are called social norms.

social norms- these are prescriptions, instructions and wishes of varying degrees of severity, forcing individuals to act as it is customary to do in a given society, in a specific situation 3. Social norms act as regulators of people's behavior. They establish boundaries, conditions, forms of action, determine the nature of relations, stipulate acceptable goals and ways to achieve them. The assimilation of social norms of society, the development of an individual attitude towards them occur in the process of socialization.

Norms impose obligations and mutual responsibility on the participants in social interaction. They concern both individuals and society. On their basis, the whole system of social relations is formed. At the same time, norms are also expectations: society expects predictable behavior from an individual who performs a certain role. The individual also assumes that society will justify his trust and fulfill his obligations.

Social norms perform an important function - they support and preserve social values, what is recognized in society as the most important, significant, indisputable, deserving of attention: human life and dignity of the individual, attitude towards the elderly and children, collective symbols (coat of arms, anthem, flag) and the laws of the state, human qualities (loyalty, honesty, discipline, diligence), religion. Values are the basis of norms.

Social norms in a generalized form reflect the will of society. Unlike values that are recommended for choice (which predetermines differences in the value orientations of many individuals), norms are more stringent, mandatory 4.

There are several types of social norms:

1) customs and traditions, which are habitual patterns of behavior;

2) moral norms based on collective authority and usually having a rational justification;

3) legal norms enshrined in laws and regulations issued by the state. More clearly than all other varieties of social norms, they regulate the rights and obligations of members of society and prescribe penalties for violations. Compliance with legal norms is ensured by the power of the state;

4) political norms that relate to the relationship between the individual and power. Between social groups and between states are reflected in international legal acts, conventions, etc.;

5) religious norms, which are supported primarily by the belief of the adherents of religion as a punishment for sins. Religious norms are distinguished on the basis of the scope of their functioning; in reality, these norms combine elements characteristic of legal and moral norms, as well as traditions and customs;

6) aesthetic norms that reinforce ideas about the beautiful and the ugly 5.

Social norms are determined by the diversity of social life, any direction of human activity is regulated by them. Different types of social norms can be classified according to the following criteria:

by the scale of distribution - universal, national, social group, organizational;

by functions - orienting, regulating, controlling, encouraging, prohibiting and punishing;

according to the degree of increasing severity - habits, customs, manners, traditions, laws, taboos. Violation of customs or traditions in modern society is not considered a crime and is not strictly condemned. A person bears strict responsibility for violating laws 6.

Conclusion: thus, social norms perform very important functions in society. features:

Regulate the general course of socialization;

Integrate individuals into groups, and groups into society;

Control deviant behavior;

They serve as models, standards of behavior.

Deviation from the norms is punished with sanctions.

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Social norms constitute one of the elements of the mechanism for regulating relations between the individual and society, which is called social control .

social control- a mechanism for regulating relations between the individual and society in order to strengthen order and stability in society.

Social control includes two main elements: social norms and sanctions.

social sanction- any reaction to the behavior of a person or group by others.

Types of social sanctions:

Formal negative - punishment for breaking the law or violating the administrative order: fines, imprisonment, correctional labor, etc.
Informal negative - Condemnation of a person for an act by society: offensive tone, swearing or reprimand, defiant ignoring of a person, etc.
Formal positive - encouragement of a person's activity or act by official organizations: awards, certificates of professional, academic success, etc.
Informal positive - gratitude and approval of informal persons (friends, acquaintances, colleagues): praise, approving smile, etc.

The purposeful influence of this system on the behavior of people in order to strengthen order and stability is provided by social control. How does the mechanism of social control work? Any activity is diverse, each person performs many actions, interacting with the social environment (with society, social communities, public institutions and organizations, the state and other individuals). These actions, individual actions, behavior of a person are under the control of the people around him, groups, society.

As long as they do not violate public order, existing social norms, this control is invisible. However, it is worth breaking the established customs, rules, deviating from the patterns of behavior that are accepted in society, social control manifests itself. The expression of dissatisfaction, the announcement of a reprimand, the imposition of a fine, the punishment imposed by the court - all this sank tions ; along with social norms, they are the most important element of the mechanism of social control. Sanctions are either positive, aimed at encouraging, or negative, aimed at curbing undesirable behavior.

In both cases, they are classified as formal if they are applied in accordance with certain rules (for example, awarding an order or punishment by a court sentence), or informal sanctions if they manifest themselves in an emotionally colored reaction of the immediate environment (friends, relatives, etc.). neighbors, colleagues). Society (large and small groups, the state) evaluates the individual, but the individual also evaluates society, the state, and himself. Perceiving the assessments addressed to him by the people around him, groups, state institutions, a person accepts them not mechanically, but selectively, rethinks through his own experience, habits, previously learned social norms. And the attitude to the assessments of other people turns out to be purely individual for a person: it can be positive and sharply negative. A person correlates his actions with social patterns of behavior approved by him in the performance of those social roles with which he identifies himself.

Forms of social control: external control and internal control.

Thus, along with the highest control on the part of society, group, state, other people, the most important is internal control, or self-control , which is based on norms, customs, role expectations, assimilated by the individual. In the process of self-control plays an important role conscience , i.e. feeling and knowing what is good and what is bad, what is fair and what is unfair; subjective awareness of the conformity or inconsistency of one's own behavior with moral standards. In a person who, in a state of excitement, by mistake or succumbing to the temptation of a bad deed, conscience causes a feeling of guilt, moral feelings, a desire to correct a mistake or atone for guilt.

So, the most important elements of the mechanism of social control are social norms, public opinion, sanctions, individual consciousness, self-control. Interacting, they ensure the maintenance of socially acceptable patterns of behavior and the functioning of the social system as a whole.

The process of social control

In the process of socialization, the norms are assimilated so firmly that people, violating them, experience a feeling of embarrassment, the emergence of a sense of guilt, pangs of conscience. Conscience is a manifestation of internal control.

In the Russian Federation, special bodies have been created to exercise social control: the Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation, the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation, the Federal Security Service, various financial control bodies, etc. Deputies of various levels are also endowed with control functions. In addition to state control bodies, various public organizations play an increasing role in Russia, for example, in the field of consumer protection, in monitoring labor relations, the state of the environment, etc.

Detailed (petty) control, in which the leader intervenes in every action, corrects, pulls, etc., is called supervision. The more self-control developed among members of a society, the less that society has to resort to external control. Conversely, the less self-control people have, the more often institutions of social control come into play. The weaker the self-control, the tighter the external control must be.

Methods of social control:

Insulation- the establishment of impenetrable partitions between the deviant and the rest of society without any attempts to correct or re-educate him.
Isolation- limiting the deviant's contacts with other people, but not his complete isolation from society; this approach allows for the correction of deviants and their return to society when they are ready not to violate generally accepted norms
Rehabilitation- a process in which deviants can prepare for the return to normal life and the correct performance of their social roles in society.

Interests as Factors of Influence on Social Action

Interests play a very important role in social interaction. These include: social institutions, institutions, norms of relationships in society, on which the distribution of objects, values and benefits (power, votes, territory, privileges, etc.) depends. The social nature of interests is due to the fact that they always contain an element of comparison of a person with a person, one social group with another. A set of specific social interests, along with a set of certain rights and obligations, is an indispensable attribute of each social status. First of all, these social interests are aimed at preserving or transforming those institutions, orders, social norms on which the distribution of benefits necessary for a given social group depends. Therefore, the difference in interests, as well as the difference in the level of income, working and leisure conditions, the level of prestige and the opening prospects for advancement in the social space, refers to manifestations of social differentiation.

Social interest underlies all forms of competition, struggle and cooperation between people. Habitual, well-established interests recognized by public opinion are not subject to discussion, thus acquiring the status of legitimate interests. For example, in multinational states, representatives of various ethnic groups are interested in preserving their language and their culture. Therefore, schools and classes are being created in which the study of the national language and literature is conducted, and cultural-national societies are being opened. Any attempt to infringe on such interests is perceived as an attack on the vital foundations of the relevant social groups, communities, and states. The modern world is a complex system of interaction of real social interests. The interdependence of all peoples and states has increased. The interests of preserving life on Earth, culture and civilization come to the fore.

Introduction………………………………………………………………………4

Forms of human social behavior……………………………….5

Social order in society…………………………………………………………………7

Social systems……………………………………………………..10

Social action……………………………………………………..11

Conclusion………………………………………………………………..13

List of used literature……………………………………16

Introduction

The concept of "behavior" came to sociology from psychology. The meaning of the term "behavior" is different from the meaning of such traditionally philosophical concepts as action and activity. If action is understood as a rationally justified act that has a clear goal, a strategy that is carried out with the involvement of specific conscious methods and means, then behavior is only the reaction of a living being to external and internal changes. This reaction can be both conscious and unconscious. So, purely emotional reactions - laughter, crying - will also be behavior.

social behavior϶ᴛᴏ a set of human behavioral processes associated with the satisfaction of physical and social needs and arising as a reaction to the surrounding social environment. The subject of social behavior can be an individual or a group. The minimum of innate instincts that a person possesses as a biological being is the same for all people. Behavioral differences depend on the qualities acquired in the process of socialization and, to some extent, on congenital and acquired psychological individual characteristics.

Social norm of behavior- ϶ᴛᴏ such behavior, which is completely ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ conforms to status expectations. Due to the existence of status expectations, society in advance with sufficient probability can predict the actions of the individual, and the individual himself can coordinate his behavior with the ideal model or model accepted by society.

Forms of human social behavior

People behave differently in this or that social situation, in this or that social environment. For example, some demonstrators peacefully march along the declared route, others seek to organize riots, and others provoke mass clashes. These various actions of factors of social interaction can be defined as social behavior. Consequently, social behavior is a form and way of manifestation by social factors of their preferences and attitudes, capabilities and abilities in social action or interaction. Therefore, social behavior can be considered as a qualitative characteristic of social action and interaction.

In sociology, social behavior is interpreted as: o behavior, expressed in the totality of actions and actions of an individual or group in society and depending on socio-economic factors and prevailing norms; o external manifestation of activity, a form of transformation of activity into real actions in relation to socially significant objects; about the adaptation of a person to the social conditions of his existence.

To achieve life goals and in the implementation of individual tasks, a person can use two types of social behavior - natural and ritual, the differences between them are of a fundamental nature.

Natural" behavior, individually meaningful and egocentric, is always aimed at achieving individual goals and is adequate to these goals. Therefore, the individual does not face the question of the goals and means of social behavior: the goal can and must be achieved by any means. The “natural” behavior of an individual is not socially regulated, therefore it is unconventionally immoral or “arrogantly”. Such social behavior has a "natural", natural character, since it is directed to the provision of organic needs.

In society, "natural" egocentric behavior is "forbidden", therefore it is always based on social conventions and mutual concessions on the part of all individuals.

Ritual behavior ("ceremonial") - individually unnatural behavior; It is precisely through such behavior that society exists and reproduces itself. Ritual social behavior will be a means of ensuring the stability of the social system, and the individual who implements various forms of such behavior participates in ensuring the social stability of social structures and interactions. Thanks to ritual behavior, a person achieves social well-being, constantly making sure of the inviolability of his social status and maintaining the usual set of social roles.

Society is interested in the fact that the social behavior of individuals would be of a ritual nature, but society cannot cancel the “natural” egocentric social behavior, which, being adequate in goals and illegible in means, always turns out to be more beneficial for the individual than “ritual” behavior. Therefore, society seeks to transform the forms of "natural" social behavior into various forms of ritual social behavior, incl. through the mechanisms of socialization using social support, control and punishment.

Such forms of social behavior are aimed at the preservation and maintenance of social relations and, ultimately, the survival of a person as homo sapiens (a reasonable person), such as:

cooperative behavior, which includes all forms of altruistic behavior - helping each other during natural disasters and technological disasters, helping young children and the elderly, helping future generations through the transfer of knowledge and experience;
parental behavior - the behavior of parents in relation to offspring.

Social sanction - the reaction of society or a social group to the behavior of an individual in a socially significant situation

Social sanctions play a key role in the system of social control, rewarding members of society for the implementation of social norms, or punishing for deviation from them.

Deviant (deviant) behavior is behavior that does not meet the requirements of social norms.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

Such deviations can be positive and lead to positive consequences. But in most cases, deviant behavior is assessed negatively, often causing harm to society.

Criminal actions of an individual form delinquent (criminal) behavior.

Social status and roles

Status is a certain position of an individual in society, characterized by a set of rights and obligations.

Personal status - the position of a person that he occupies in a small, or primary, group, depending on how his individual qualities are assessed in it.

Social status - the general position of an individual or social group in society, associated with a certain set of rights and obligations.

May be:

- prescribed (nationality, place of birth, social origin)

- acquired (achieved) - profession, education, etc.

Prestige is an assessment by society of the social significance of a particular status, enshrined in culture and public opinion. Prestige criteria:

A) the real usefulness of those social functions that a person performs;

B) the system of values characteristic of a given society.

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Social science

Textbook for grade 10

§ 7.2. Social behavior and socialization of the individual

To designate human behavior in society, one of the founders of scientific sociology, M. Weber (1864-1920), introduced the concept of "social action". M. Weber wrote: “Not all types of relationships between people are social in nature; socially only that action, which in its meaning is oriented towards the behavior of others. A collision between two cyclists, for example, is nothing more than an accident, similar to a natural phenomenon. However, an attempt by one of them to avoid this clash - the scolding, scuffle or peaceful settlement of the conflict that followed the clash - is already a "social action". In other words, we can say that social action, like social behavior, is manifested in purposeful activity in relation to other people. At the same time, social behavior often proceeds under the influence of external conditions.

Social behavior of a person in society

Analyzing the types of social behavior, M. Weber found that they are based on patterns accepted in society. These patterns include manners and customs.

manners- such attitudes of behavior in society that are formed within a certain circle of people under the influence of habits. This is a kind of socially prescribed stereotypes of behavior. In the process of becoming a person, the assimilation of social mores takes place through identification of oneself with other people. Following mores, a person is guided by the consideration that "everyone does this." As a rule, morals are mass models of actions that are especially protected and revered in society.

If, on the other hand, mores have actually taken root over a long period of time, then they can be defined as customs. Custom consists in steadfast adherence to prescriptions taken from the past. The custom acts as a means of human socialization, the transfer of social and cultural experience from generation to generation, performing the functions of maintaining and strengthening intra-group cohesion.

Mores and customs, being unwritten rules, nevertheless determine the conditions of social behavior.

The process of mastering the knowledge and skills, ways of behavior necessary for a person to become a member of society, act correctly and interact with his social environment, is called socialization. It covers all the processes of initiation into culture, communication and learning, through which a person acquires a social nature and the ability to participate in social life. Some of these factors operate throughout life, creating and changing the attitudes of the individual, such as the media, others - at separate stages of life.

In social psychology, socialization is understood as a process of social learning, which requires the approval of the group. At the same time, a person develops the qualities necessary for effective functioning in society. Many social psychologists distinguish two main stages of socialization. The first stage is characteristic of early childhood. At this stage, external conditions for the regulation of social behavior predominate. The second stage of socialization is characterized by the fact that external sanctions are replaced by internal control.

The expansion and deepening of the socialization of the individual occurs in three main areas: activity, communication and self-awareness. In the field of activity, both the expansion of its types and the orientation in the system of each type of activity, i.e., highlighting the main thing in it, its comprehension, etc. . In the sphere of self-consciousness, the formation of the image of one's own "I" as an active subject of activity, understanding of one's social belonging, social role, the formation of self-esteem, etc.

Three terms are used that are close in meaning: destructive behavior, deviant or deviant.

Such behavior is usually explained by a combination of the results of incorrect development of the personality and the unfavorable situation in which the person finds himself.

At the same time, it is largely determined by the shortcomings of education, leading to the formation of relatively stable psychological properties that contribute to the development of deviations.

Deviant behavior can be normative, that is, have a situational character and do not go beyond serious violations of legal or moral norms.

Dangerous is such behavior that not only goes beyond the limits of permissible individual variations, but also delays the development of the personality or makes it extremely one-sided, making it difficult for interpersonal relationships, although outwardly it does not conflict with legal, moral, ethical and cultural norms.

Ts. P. Korolenko and T. A. Donskikh identified seven variants of deviant behavior: addictive, antisocial, suicidal, conformist, narcissistic, fanatical, autistic.

Many variants of deviations are based on character accentuation.

Demonstrativeness with excessive development leads to narcissistic behavior; stuck - to fanatical; hyperthymia combined with excitability - to antisocial, etc.

Any deviation in its development goes through a series of stages.

social behavior

Addictive behavior is one of the most common deviations.

Its development is facilitated by both objective (social) and subjective (phenomenological) factors of victimization. However, the onset of the deviation often occurs during childhood.

The ability of a person to overcome obstacles and cope with periods of psychological decline serves as a guarantee of preventing the development of deviant behavior.

The essence of addictive behavior is the desire of a person to escape reality by changing his mental state by taking certain substances (alcohol, drugs) or by constantly fixing attention on certain objects or activities, which is accompanied by the development of intense positive emotions.

Most often, the process of developing an addiction begins when a person experiences sensations of extraordinary uplift associated with certain actions.

Consciousness fixes this connection.

A person realizes that there is a certain way of behavior or a means that relatively easily improves the mental state.

The second stage of addictive behavior is characterized by the appearance of an addictive rhythm, when a certain sequence of resorting to addiction is developed.

In the third stage, addiction becomes a common way of responding to an unfavorable situation.

At the fourth stage, the complete dominance of addictive behavior occurs, regardless of the well-being or disadvantage of the situation.

The fifth stage is a disaster. The psychological state of a person is extremely unfavorable, since the addictive behavior itself no longer brings the former satisfaction.

A person is the subject of socialization, its object, but he can also be a victim of socialization.

Initially, the concept of victimization was used within the framework of legal psychology to refer to various processes that cause a person to become a victim of circumstances or violence of other people.

The concept of social pedagogical victimology was introduced in connection with the problems of studying the unfavorable circumstances of human socialization.

A. V. Mudrik defines socio-pedagogical victimology as a branch of knowledge, which is an integral part of social pedagogy that studies various categories of people - real and potential victims of adverse conditions of socialization.

Victimogenicity is the presence of conditions that contribute to the process of turning a person into a victim of socialization, the process itself and the result of such a transformation is victimization.

Among the conditions that contribute to the victimization of a person, one can single out social and phenomenological conditions (factors).

Social factors of victimization are associated with external influences, phenomenological conditions - with those internal changes in a person that occur under the influence of unfavorable factors of upbringing and socialization.

An important social factor is the influence of the characteristics of social control in the society in which a person lives.

Low living standards, unemployment, environmental pollution, weak social support from the state - all these are factors of victimization of the population.

Scientists demographers identify three prevailing factors of victimization in modern life: increased widespread environmental pollution, reduced adaptation of people due to rapidly changing living conditions, and significant psychological stress.

Catastrophes are a special factor in the victimization of the population, since they lead to disruption of the normal socialization of very large groups of the population.

Specific victimogenic factors are due to the instability of the social, economic and political life of society and the state.

The Japanese scientist S. Murayama notes a sharp coarsening of children, their insensitivity towards other people.

Not all children can adapt to society without making excessive efforts, which can lead to emotional disorders, aggression and antisocial behavior.

Antisocial behavior is manifested in the infringement or disregard for the rights of other people, the predominance of hedonistic motivation, whims, demonstrative behavior, lack of a sense of responsibility and duty.

The factors of victimization of a person include all factors of socialization: microfactors - family, peer groups and subculture, microsociety, religious organizations; mesofactors - ethno-cultural conditions, regional conditions, mass media; macrofactors - space, planet, world, country, society, state (classification by A. V. Mudrik).

The vast majority of deviations in social behavior are caused by a complex interaction of many factors.

Fundamentals of the theory of social behavior

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The Place of Behavior Theory in Sociology

The idea is that it is necessary to study not consciousness, but behavior. Consciousness is subjective and it is not possible to generalize it, a person can lie and even does not know himself in theory. It is believed that the methods of sociology do not differ from the methods of natural sciences, for example, physics. Although their objects - society and social behavior are different from the objects of the physical world, but their behavior is subject to general laws.

Chapter 28

The task of sociology, detailed task of physics - the search for general laws of social behavior. For behavioral theorists, as well as for physicists, the deductive-nomological model of explanation is of paramount importance.

Theoretical sources of the sociology of behavior

Philosophy of F. Bacon's empiricism

· The social philosophy of T. Hobbes (the application of the "geometric" method to the study of behavior and the promotion of the "stimulus-response" scheme)

· The moral philosophy of D. Hume and A. Smith, which substantiates the instrumental role of reason in behavior.

Behaviorism of the 20th century

The philosophy of positivism and American pragmatism

Russian School of Physiology

Types of learning and hypotheses of theoretical-behavioral sociology

Classical Conditional Learning

Classical learning is based on the fact that a neutral stimulus is combined with an unconditioned stimulus, causes a certain reaction and acquires the character of a conditioned stimulus. The model of classical conditional learning was studied by the Russian academician I. P. Pavlov (1849-1936), is generally recognized, and does not cause controversy. However, this model does not explain the process of behavior selection.

Instrumental (operand) conditional learning

American sociologist E. Thorndike (1874-1949) discovered the role of random reactions in the formation of behavior. Random reactions that were encouraged by the environment (such encouragement is usually called an amplifier or an operand) were fixed in behavior, entered into social experience according to the law of "trial and error". The central idea of Thorndike is the "law of success" - the dependence of the strengthening of the reaction on its subsequent encouragement or punishment. Thorndike's ideas and work form the basis of behaviorism as a general science of behavior.

The model explains the emergence of new patterns of behavior through a combination of random reactions, their encouragement or punishment from the environment. Since only certain patterns of behavior are reinforced, instrumental learning means selection of behavior.

Model learning (or simulation learning)

Model learning (imitation) consists in observing and imitating the behavior of another, especially its complex forms. In other words, for the formation of human behavior, the specific surrounding world of a person, which he assimilates together with the behavioral complexes actually practiced in it, is of great practical importance. The theory of model learning is of great importance for the study of socialization.

cognitive learning

The theory of cognitive learning goes back to the work and experiments of the Swiss psychologist J. Piaget (1896-180). Piaget developed a model of "balancing" of an active individual, with his "internal conditions" and external influences of the environment, which the individual absorbs like a sponge, moving from one stage of development of behavior to another. The transition from one stage of a child's development to another is carried out thanks to the indicated "tightrope walk", the essence of which consists in four principles:

1. qualitative differences between the stages. Until the potential of one stage of development is exhausted. There is no transition to another stage.

2. The invariance of the sequence of stages, that is, one cannot skip or skip any stage of development.

3. The structural integrity of the stages, i.e. each of them is a fundamental organization of thinking, important for all aspects of the relationship of the individual to the environment.

4. Hierarchical integration. The social experience acquired at the previous stages is included in the structure of the subsequent ones.

On the basis of these principles of cognitive learning, Piaget created the widely known theory of the 4 stages of development of the child's logical thinking (sensory-motor, preoperational, stage of concrete operation, stage of formal operation).

The significance of Piaget's principles of cognitive thinking goes far beyond the study of the development of logical thinking. They have found application in the study of the ability to assimilate roles, moral development (Kohlberg), social understanding, religious consciousness, sexual socialization - that is, in a wide range of studies of problems of social behavior.

General hypotheses of behavioral sociology

Behavioral theoretic sociology seeks to formulate its results in the form of universal laws of behavior, which are traditionally called "hypotheses". An example of an ordered system of such laws is the theoretical generalization of the results of behavioral sociology undertaken by the West German sociologist K.-D. Oppom (1972).

success hypothesis.

The more frequently a particular behavior is encouraged, the more likely it is to be repeated.

Annoyance hypothesis

If a behavior accompanied by a certain stimulus or several stimuli was encouraged in the past, then the person is more likely to choose this behavior, the more modern stimuli are similar to past stimuli. "Irritants" are called the conditions of the situation (the circumstances in which the person acts)

value hypothesis

Reflects the fact that the choice of behaviors is influenced by different reward values.

The more valuable the reward, the more likely the person is to choose the behavior that leads to that reward. The hypothesis is valid if the probability of receiving all rewards is the same.

Hypothesis of need and satiety

The more often in the recent past a person received a certain encouragement, the less value the same additional encouragement has for him. It is important to emphasize that we are talking about the recent past.

The Frustration and Aggression Hypothesis

If a person's action is not accompanied by the expected reward or is accompanied by an unexpected punishment, then the person enters a state of frustration, in which his aggressiveness finds an outlet.

Homans emphasizes that in all hypotheses we are not talking about innate, but about learned behavior.

The five hypotheses do not exhaust the theory of behavior, but together they form the minimum set necessary to explain the social behavior of people.

Criticism of behaviorism

A prominent representative of behaviorism, the American sociologist B. Skinner, in his book “What is Behaviorism” collected, “common judgments about behaviorism, which, according to him, are false. Skinner has compiled a "catalog" of negative statements about behaviorism, which he disputes in his book. Behaviorism, according to its critics, has the following features:

1. ignores the presence of the category of consciousness, sensory states and emotional experiences;

2. based on the argument that all behavior is acquired during individual history, he neglects the innate abilities of a person;

3. understands human behavior simply as a set of responses to certain stimuli, thus an individual is described as an automaton, robot, puppet, machine;

4. does not try to take into account cognitive processes;

5. there is no place for studying the intentions or goals of a person;

6. cannot explain creative achievements in the visual arts, music, literature or the exact sciences;

7. no place is given to the individual core of the personality or his well-being;

8. he is necessarily superficial and unable to address the deeper layers of the soul or personality;

9. limited to the prediction and control of human behavior, and on this basis does not concern the essence of a person;

10. works with animals, especially with white rats, and not with humans, so his picture of human behavior is limited to those traits that humans share with animals;

11. The results obtained in the laboratory are not applicable to everyday life. What is said about human behavior is therefore only unfounded metaphysics;

12. naive and oversimplified. What is presented as actual facts is either trivial or has long been known;

13. looks scientific rather than scientific, and rather imitates the natural sciences;

14. its technical results (successes) are also achievable through the use of a healthy human mind;

15. If the claims of behaviorism are to be valid, then they must apply to behaviorally oriented researchers as well. Hence, what they say is wrong, because their statements are due only to their ability to make such statements.

16. “dehumanizes” a person, it relativizes everything and destroys a person as a person;

17. deals only with general principles, neglecting the uniqueness of each individual;

18. Necessarily anti-democratic, since the subjects are manipulated by the researcher, so his results could be used by a dictator rather than by well-meaning statesmen;

19. considers abstract ideas, such as morality or justice, as purely fictions;

20. indifferent to the warmth and diversity of human life, incompatible with creative joy in the visual arts, music and literature, as well as with true love for one's neighbor.

These statements, Skinner believes, represent a surprising misunderstanding of the meaning and achievements of this scientific paradigm.

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Human behavior in society is a complex concept that reflects the interaction of a particular person with other people. This concept reflects a person's reaction to events, situations and the behavior of other people. Any type of human behavior is based on the needs of a person in communication with society, interaction with people in order to achieve their goals.

Psychologists divide human behavior in society into 3 types: aggressive, passive, and assertive. At the same time, a person can change the type of behavior if he wants to change. Most often, a person is dominated by one type of behavior that helps him get through difficulties and resolve conflicts. Let's look at each of the types of human behavior.

Aggressive behavior

Aggression is a behavior in which a person chooses methods to achieve a result that violate the rights of other people. An aggressive person imposes his beliefs and does not take into account the interests of others. Aggressive behavior requires a lot of emotional effort and energy.

This behavior is typical of people who like to take control of everything. Relationships with other people are built on negativity. Usually, people with aggressive behavior are insecure and weak-minded individuals whose goal is to belittle other people in order to become better and more confident against their background.

Passive behavior

Passivity is a behavior in which a person sacrifices his interests and allows others to violate their rights. A passive person does not publicly express his thoughts, emotions, beliefs. He constantly apologizes, makes excuses, speaks quietly and uncertainly. They put other people's interests ahead of their own beliefs.

Most often, passive people take on the role of the Victim and feel helpless and weak. Passive behavior, like aggressive behavior, is a sign of self-doubt. But, unlike aggressive behavior, a passive person does not take responsibility for their actions. He gives the right to other people to make decisions for him, even if he is sure that this decision will bring harm.

The basis of passive behavior is the fear of life's difficulties, the fear of making decisions, the fear of standing out from the crowd and the fear of responsibility.

The purpose of passive behavior is to prevent any conflict at the stage of its occurrence, as well as to make your life easier by shifting responsibility to others.

assertive behavior

Assertiveness is the expression of one's thoughts and emotions directly and confidently.

Fundamentals of sociology and political science: textbook

Assertiveness is a behavior characteristic of self-confident people. This is the "golden" mean between aggressive and passive behavior.

An assertive person is able to defend his rights and solve life's difficulties, while not entering into conflict. He knows what he needs and speaks openly about it, he can easily refuse another person, in a situation where it will be necessary. An assertive person respects himself and the opinions of other people, but at the same time he does not depend on the opinions of others.

social control - a mechanism for regulating relations between the individual and society in order to strengthen order and stability in society.

Social control includes two main elements: social norms and sanctions.

Sanction (from lat. sanctio- inviolable ordinance) - any reaction to the behavior of a person or group by others.

Types of sanctions
Formal	informal
Negative
Punishment for breaking the law or violating an administrative order; fines, imprisonment, correctional labor, etc.	Condemnation of a person for an act by society: offensive tone, swearing or reprimand, demonstrative ignoring of a person, etc.
Positive
Encouragement of a person’s activity or act by official organizations: awards, certificates of professional, academic success, etc.	Gratitude and approval of unofficial persons (friends, acquaintances, colleagues): praise, approving smile, etc.

Forms of social control

In the process of socialization, the norms are assimilated so firmly that people, violating them, experience a feeling of awkwardness → the emergence of a feeling of guilt → pangs of conscience. Conscience - manifestation of internal control.

In the Russian Federation, special bodies have been created to exercise social control: The Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation, the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation, the Federal Security Service, various financial control bodies and others. deputies of various levels. In addition to state control bodies, various public organizations e.g. in the field of consumer protection, in the control of labor relations, the state of the environment, etc.

Detailed (petty) control, in which the leader intervenes in every action, corrects, pulls, etc., is called oversight.

The more self-control developed among members of a society, the less that society has to resort to external control. Conversely, the less self-control people have, the more often institutions of social control come into play. The weaker the self-control, the tighter the external control must be.

Methods of social control

1) Insulation- the establishment of impenetrable partitions between the deviant (i.e., a person who violates social norms) and the rest of society without any attempts to correct or re-educate him.

2) Isolation- limiting the deviant's contacts with other people, but not his complete isolation from society; this approach allows for the correction of deviants and their return to society when they are ready not to violate generally accepted norms.

3) Rehabilitation- a process in which deviants can prepare for a return to normal life and the correct performance of their social roles in society.

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QUESTIONS:

1. Establish a correspondence between positive sanctions and examples illustrating them: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second column.

The concept of "behavior" came to sociology from psychology. The meaning of the term "behavior" is different from the meaning of such traditionally philosophical concepts as action and activity. If action is understood as a rationally justified act that has a clear goal, a strategy that is carried out with the involvement of specific conscious methods and means, then behavior is just a reaction of a living being to external and internal changes. This reaction can be both conscious and unconscious. Thus, purely emotional reactions - laughter, crying - are also behavior.

social behavior - it is a set of human behavioral processes associated with the satisfaction of physical and social needs and arising as a reaction to the surrounding social environment. The subject of social behavior can be an individual or a group.

If we abstract from purely psychological factors and reason at the social level, then the individual's behavior is determined primarily by socialization. The minimum of innate instincts that a person possesses as a biological being is the same for all people. Behavioral differences depend on the qualities acquired in the process of socialization and, to some extent, on innate and acquired psychological individual characteristics.

In addition, the social behavior of individuals is regulated by the social structure, in particular the role structure of society.

Social norm of behavior- this is a behavior that is fully consistent with status expectations. Due to the existence of status expectations, society can predict the actions of the individual in advance with sufficient probability, and the individual himself can coordinate his behavior with the ideal model or model accepted by society. Social behavior corresponding to status expectations is defined by the American sociologist R. Linton as social role. This interpretation of social behavior is closest to functionalism, since it explains behavior as a phenomenon determined by social structure. R. Merton introduced the category of "role complex" - a system of role expectations determined by a given status, as well as the concept of a role conflict that occurs when the role expectations of the statuses occupied by the subject are incompatible and cannot be realized in some single socially acceptable behavior.

The functionalist understanding of social behavior was subjected to fierce criticism from, first of all, representatives of social behaviorism, who believed that it was necessary to build a study of behavioral processes on the basis of the achievements of modern psychology. The extent to which psychological moments were really overlooked by the role-based interpretation of the command follows from the fact that N. Cameron tries to substantiate the idea of the role-based determinism of mental disorders, believing that mental illness is the incorrect performance of one's social roles and the result of the patient's inability to perform them the way it is. society needs. Behaviorists argued that at the time of E. Durkheim, the successes of psychology were insignificant and therefore the functionality of the expiring paradigm met the requirements of the time, but in the 20th century, when psychology reached a high level of development, its data cannot be ignored when considering human behavior.

Forms of human social behavior

People behave differently in this or that social situation, in this or that social environment. For example, some demonstrators peacefully march along the declared route, others seek to organize riots, and others provoke mass clashes. These various actions of the actors of social interaction can be defined as social behavior. Hence, social behavior is the form and method of manifestation by social actors of their preferences and attitudes, capabilities and abilities in social action or interaction. Therefore, social behavior can be considered as a qualitative characteristic of social action and interaction.

To achieve life goals and in the implementation of individual tasks, a person can use two types of social behavior - natural and ritual, the differences between which are of a fundamental nature.

"Natural" behavior, individually significant and egocentric, is always aimed at achieving individual goals and is adequate to these goals. Therefore, the individual does not face the question of the correspondence between the goals and means of social behavior: the goal can and must be achieved by any means. The "natural" behavior of the individual is not socially regulated, therefore, as a rule, it is immoral or "cavalier". Such social behavior has a "natural", natural character, since it is directed to the provision of organic needs. In society, "natural" egocentric behavior is "forbidden", therefore it is always based on social conventions and mutual concessions on the part of all individuals.

ritual behavior("ceremonial") - individually-unnatural behavior; It is precisely through such behavior that society exists and reproduces itself. Ritual in all its variety of forms - from etiquette to ceremony - so deeply permeates the entire social life that people do not notice that they live in a field of ritual interactions. Ritual social behavior is a means of ensuring the stability of the social system, and the individual who implements various forms of such behavior participates in ensuring the social stability of social structures and interactions. Thanks to ritual behavior, a person achieves social well-being, constantly being convinced of the inviolability of his social status and maintaining the usual set of social roles.

Society is interested in the social behavior of individuals to be of a ritual nature, but society cannot cancel the “natural” egocentric social behavior, which, being adequate in goals and unscrupulous in means, always turns out to be more beneficial for the individual than “ritual” behavior. Therefore, society seeks to transform the forms of "natural" social behavior into various forms of ritual social behavior, including through the mechanisms of socialization using social support, control and punishment.

Such forms of social behavior are aimed at the preservation and maintenance of social relations and, ultimately, the survival of a person as homo sapiens (a reasonable person), such as:

cooperative behavior, which includes all forms of altruistic behavior - helping each other during natural disasters and technological disasters, helping young children and the elderly, helping future generations through the transfer of knowledge and experience;
parental behavior - the behavior of parents in relation to offspring.

Aggressive behavior is presented in all its manifestations, both group and individual - from verbal insults to another person and ending with mass extermination during wars.

Concepts of human behavior

Human behavior is studied by many areas of psychology - in behaviorism, psychoanalysis, cognitive psychology, etc. The term "behavior" is one of the key in existential philosophy and is used in the study of a person's relationship to the world. The methodological possibilities of this concept are due to the fact that it allows you to identify the unconscious stable structures of the personality or the existence of a person in the world. Among the psychological concepts of human behavior that have had a great influence on sociology and social psychology, we should first of all name the psychoanalytic trends developed by Freud, C. G. Jung, and A. Adler.

Freud's representations are based on the fact that the individual's behavior is formed as a result of a complex interaction of the levels of his personality. Freud distinguishes three such levels: the lowest level is formed by unconscious impulses and urges determined by innate biological needs and complexes formed under the influence of the subject's individual history. Freud calls this level It (Id) to show its separation from the conscious Self of the individual, which forms the second level of his psyche. The Conscious Self includes rational goal setting and responsibility for one's actions. The highest level is the Superego - what we would call the result of socialization. This is a set of social norms and values internalized by an individual, which exerts internal pressure on him in order to force out of consciousness undesirable (forbidden) impulses and inclinations for society and prevent them from being realized. According to Freud, the personality of any person is an ongoing struggle between the id and the superego, which loosens the psyche and leads to neuroses. Individual behavior is wholly conditioned by this struggle and fully explained by it, since it is only a symbolic reflection of it. Such symbols can be images of dreams, slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, obsessions, and fears.

The concept of C. G. Jung expands and modifies Freud's teaching, including in the sphere of the unconscious not only individual complexes and drives, but also the collective unconscious - the level of key images common to all people and peoples - archetypes. Archaic fears and value representations are fixed in archetypes, the interaction of which determines the behavior and attitude of the individual. Archetypal images appear in the basic narratives - folk tales and legends, mythology, epic - historically specific societies. The socially regulating role of such narratives in traditional societies is very great. They contain ideal behaviors that shape role expectations. For example, a male warrior should behave like Achilles or Hector, a wife like Penelope, and so on. Regular recitations (ritual reproductions) of archetyonic narratives constantly remind the members of society of these ideal patterns of behavior.

Adler's psychoanalytic concept is based on the unconscious will to power, which, in his opinion, is an innate personality structure and determines behavior. It is especially strong in those who, for one reason or another, suffer from an inferiority complex. In an effort to compensate for their inferiority, they are able to achieve great success.

Further splitting of the psychoanalytic direction led to the emergence of many schools, in disciplinary terms occupying a border position between psychology, social philosophy, and sociology. Let us dwell in detail on the work of E. Fromm.

Fromm's positions - The representative of neo-Freudianism in and - more precisely, can be defined as Freilo-Marxism, since along with the influence of Freud, he was no less strongly influenced by the social philosophy of Marx. The peculiarity of neo-Freudianism in comparison with orthodox Freudianism is due to the fact that, strictly speaking, neo-Freudianism is more of a sociology, while Freud is, of course, a pure psychologist. If Freud explains the behavior of the individual by complexes and impulses hidden in the individual unconscious, in short, by internal biopsychic factors, then for Fromm and Freilo-Marxism in general, the behavior of the individual is determined by the surrounding social environment. This is his similarity with Marx, who explained the social behavior of individuals in the final analysis by their class origin. Nevertheless, Fromm seeks to find a place for the psychological in social processes. According to the Freudian tradition, referring to the unconscious, he introduces the term "social unconscious", implying one psychic experience common to all members of a given society, but most of them do not fall on the level of consciousness, because it is displaced by a special mechanism that is social in nature, belonging not to the individual, but to society. Thanks to this mechanism of displacement, society maintains a stable existence. The mechanism of social repression includes language, the logic of everyday thinking, a system of social prohibitions and taboos. The structures of language and thinking are formed under the influence of society and act as an instrument of social pressure on the psyche of the individual. For example, coarse, anti-aesthetic, absurd abbreviations and abbreviations of "Newspeak" from the Orwellian dystopia actively disfigure the consciousness of people who use them. To one degree or another, the monstrous logic of formulas like: "The dictatorship of the proletariat is the most democratic form of power" became the property of everyone in Soviet society.

The main component of the mechanism of social repression is social taboos that act like Freudian censorship. That in the social experience of individuals that threatens the preservation of the existing society, if it is realized, is not allowed into consciousness with the help of a "social filter". Society manipulates the minds of its members by introducing ideological clichés that, due to frequent use, become inaccessible to critical analysis, withholding certain information, exerting direct pressure and causing fear of social exclusion. Therefore, everything that contradicts socially approved ideological clichés is excluded from consciousness.

Such taboos, ideologemes, logical and linguistic experiments form, according to Fromm, the "social character" of a person. People belonging to the same society, against their will, are, as it were, marked with the seal of a “common incubator”. For example, we unmistakably recognize foreigners on the street, even if we do not hear their speech, by their behavior, appearance, attitude towards each other; these are people from a different society, and, getting into a mass environment alien to them, they stand out sharply from it due to their similarities. Social character - it is a style of behavior brought up by society and unconscious by the individual - from social to everyday. For example, Soviet and former Soviet people are distinguished by collectivism and responsiveness, social passivity and undemandingness, obedience to the authorities, personified in the person of the "leader", a developed fear of being different from everyone else, and gullibility.

Fromm directed his criticism against modern capitalist society, although he paid much attention to the description of the social character generated by totalitarian societies. Like Freud, he developed a program to restore the undistorted social behavior of individuals through the awareness of what was repressed. “By transforming the unconscious into consciousness, we thereby transform the simple concept of the universality of man into the vital reality of such universality. This is nothing but the practical realization of humanism.” The process of derepression - the liberation of socially oppressed consciousness - is to eliminate the fear of realizing the forbidden, to develop the ability to think critically, to humanize social life as a whole.

A different interpretation is offered by behaviorism (B. Skinner, J. Homans), who considers behavior as a system of reactions to various stimuli.

Skinner's concept in fact, it is a biologization one, since it completely removes the differences between the behavior of a person and an animal. Skinner identifies three types of behavior: unconditioned reflex, conditioned reflex, and operant. The first two types of reactions are caused by the impact of appropriate stimuli, and operant reactions are a form of adaptation of the organism to the environment. They are active and spontaneous. The body, as it were by trial and error, finds the most acceptable way of adaptation, and if successful, the find is fixed in the form of a stable reaction. Thus, the main factor in the formation of behavior is reinforcement, and learning turns into "guiding to the desired reaction."

In Skinner's concept, a person appears as a being whose entire inner life is reduced to reactions to external circumstances. Reinforcement changes mechanically cause behavioral changes. Thinking, the higher mental functions of a person, the whole culture, morality, art turn into a complex system of reinforcements designed to evoke certain behavioral reactions. This leads to the conclusion about the possibility of manipulating people's behavior through a carefully developed "technology of behavior". With this term, Skinner denotes the purposeful manipulation control of some groups of people over others, associated with the establishment of an optimal reinforcement regime for certain social goals.

The ideas of behaviorism in sociology were developed by J. and J. Baldwin, J. Homans.

The concept of J. iJ. Baldwin is based on the concept of reinforcement, borrowed from psychological behaviorism. Reinforcement in the social sense is a reward, the value of which is determined by subjective needs. For example, for a hungry person, food acts as a reinforcement, but if a person is full, it is not a reinforcement.

The effectiveness of the reward depends on the degree of deprivation in a given individual. Sub-deprivation refers to the deprivation of something that the individual experiences a constant need for. As far as the subject is deprived in any respect, so much his behavior depends on this reinforcement. The so-called generalized reinforcers (for example, money) do not depend on deprivation, acting on all individuals without exception, due to the fact that they concentrate access to many types of reinforcements at once.

Reinforcers are divided into positive and negative. Positive reinforcers are anything that the subject perceives as a reward. For example, if a certain exposure to the environment brought a reward, it is likely that the subject will seek to repeat this experience. Negative reinforcers are factors that determine behavior through the withdrawal of some experience. For example, if the subject denies himself some pleasure and saves money on it, and subsequently benefits from this saving, then this experience can serve as a negative reinforcer and the subject will always do so.

The effect of punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. Punishment is an experience that makes you want to never repeat it again. Punishment can also be positive or negative, but here everything is reversed compared to reinforcement. Positive punishment is punishment with a suppressive stimulus, such as a blow. Negative punishment affects behavior by depriving something of value. For example, depriving a child of sweets at dinner is a typical negative punishment.

The formation of operant reactions has a probabilistic character. Unambiguity is characteristic of reactions of the simplest level, for example, a child cries, demanding the attention of his parents, because parents always come to him in such cases. Adult reactions are much more complex. For example, a person who sells newspapers in train cars does not find a buyer in every car, but knows from experience that a buyer will eventually be found, and this makes him persistently walk from car to car. In the last decade, the receipt of wages at some Russian enterprises has taken on the same probabilistic character, but nevertheless people continue to go to work, hoping to receive it.

Homans' behavioral concept of exchange appeared in the middle of the 20th century. Arguing with representatives of many areas of sociology, Homans argued that a sociological explanation of behavior must necessarily be based on a psychological approach. The interpretation of historical facts should also be based on a psychological approach. Homans motivates this by the fact that behavior is always individual, while sociology operates with categories applicable to groups and societies, therefore the study of behavior is the prerogative of psychology, and sociology in this matter should follow it.

According to Homans, when studying behavioral reactions, one should abstract from the nature of the factors that caused these reactions: they are caused by the influence of the surrounding physical environment or other people. Social behavior is just an exchange of socially valuable activities between people. Homans believes that social behavior can be interpreted using Skinner's behavioral paradigm, if supplemented with the idea of the mutual nature of stimulation in relations between people. The relationship of individuals among themselves is always a mutually beneficial exchange of activities, services, in short, it is the mutual use of reinforcements.

Homans briefly formulated the exchange theory in several postulates:

the postulate of success - those actions that most often meet with social approval are most likely to be reproduced;
incentive postulate - similar reward-related stimuli are highly likely to cause similar behavior;
postulate of value - the probability of reproducing an action depends on how valuable the result of this action seems to a person;
the postulate of deprivation - the more regularly a person's act was rewarded, the less he appreciates the subsequent reward;
the dual postulate of aggression-approval - the absence of an expected reward or an unexpected punishment makes aggressive behavior likely, and an unexpected reward or the absence of an expected punishment leads to an increase in the value of the rewarded act and makes it more likely to be reproduced.

The most important concepts of the theory of exchange are:

the price of behavior - what this or that act costs an individual - the negative consequences caused by past actions. In worldly terms, this is retribution for the past;
benefit - occurs when the quality and size of the reward exceeds the price that this act costs.

Thus, the theory of exchange depicts human social behavior as a rational search for benefits. This concept seems simplistic, and it is not surprising that it has provoked criticism from a variety of sociological schools. For example, Parsons, who defended the fundamental difference between the mechanisms of human and animal behavior, criticized Homans for the inability of his theory to explain social facts on the basis of psychological mechanisms.

In his exchange theories I. blau attempted a kind of synthesis of social behaviorism and sociologism. Realizing the limitations of a purely behaviorist interpretation of social behavior, he set the goal of moving from the level of psychology to explaining on this basis the existence of social structures as a special reality that is irreducible to psychology. Blau's concept is an enriched theory of exchange, in which four successive stages of transition from individual exchange to social structures are singled out: 1) the stage of interpersonal exchange; 2) the stage of power-status differentiation; 3) the stage of legitimation and organization; 4) the stage of opposition and change.

Blau shows that, starting from the level of interpersonal exchange, exchange may not always be equal. In those cases where individuals cannot offer each other sufficient rewards, the social ties formed between them tend to disintegrate. In such situations, there are attempts to strengthen disintegrating ties in other ways - through coercion, through the search for another source of reward, through subordination of oneself to an exchange partner in the form of a generalized loan. The latter path means a transition to a stage of status differentiation, when a group of persons capable of giving the required remuneration becomes more privileged in terms of status than other groups. In the future, legitimation and consolidation of the situation and the separation of opposition groups take place. In analyzing complex social structures, Blau goes far beyond the paradigm of behaviorism. He argues that the complex structures of society are organized around social values and norms, which serve as a kind of mediating link between individuals in the process of social exchange. Thanks to this link, the exchange of rewards is possible not only between individuals, but also between an individual and a group. For example, considering the phenomenon of organized charity, Blau determines what distinguishes charity as a social institution from the simple help of a rich individual to a poorer one. The difference is that organized charity is socially oriented behavior, which is based on the desire of a wealthy individual to conform to the norms of the wealthy class and share social values; through norms and values, a relationship of exchange is established between the sacrificing individual and the social group to which he belongs.

Blau identifies four categories of social values on the basis of which exchange is possible:

particularistic values that unite individuals on the basis of interpersonal relationships;
universalist values, acting as a measure for evaluating individual merits;
legitimate authority - a system of values that provides the power and privileges of a certain category of people in comparison with all others:
oppositional values - ideas about the need for social change, allowing the opposition to exist at the level of social facts, and not just at the level of interpersonal relations of individual oppositionists.

It can be said that Blau's exchange theory is a compromise, combining elements of Homans theory and sociologism in the treatment of reward exchange.

Role concept by J. Mead is a symbolic interactionist approach to the study of social behavior. Its name is reminiscent of the functionalist approach: it is also called role-playing. Mead considers role behavior as the activity of individuals interacting with each other in freely accepted and played roles. According to Mead, the role interaction of individuals requires them to be able to put themselves in the place of another, to evaluate themselves from the position of another.

Synthesis of exchange theory with symbolic interactionism also tried to implement P. Singelman. Symbolic actionism has a number of points of intersection with social behaviorism and exchange theories. Both of these concepts emphasize the active interaction of individuals and consider their subject from a microsociological perspective. According to Singelman, relationships of interpersonal exchange require the ability to put oneself in the position of another in order to better understand his needs and desires. Therefore, he believes that there are grounds for merging both directions into one. However, social behaviorists were critical of the emergence of the new theory.