In the IX-VIII centuries. BC, other Greeks represented the earth in the form of a slightly convex disk, similar to a warrior's shield, which is washed on all sides by a large river-ocean. In ancient Russia, the earth was represented in the form of a cake, which is kept on 3 whales. In ancient Greece during the time of Pythagoras in the VI century. BC. began to assume that the Earth is a sphere.
The first proof of sphericity was given in the 4th century. BC. Aristotle. He attributed to them observations of lunar eclipses, during the cat. shadows from the earth cast on the surface of the moon are always round. Changes in the starry sky when moving along the meridian over long distances of the horizon when rising; when lifting up, the horizon expands. From the 2nd half of the 15th century. a revival begins, a period of great geographical discoveries has begun. Christopher Columbus reached the coast of America in 1492. Vasco da Gama rounded Africa, continued the sea route to India in 1497. Magellan's expedition made the first circumnavigation of the world in 1519-1522.
At the end of the seventeenth century Isaac Newton suggested that the Earth cannot have the shape of a regular ball; during rotation, a central force arises, a cat. It will be maximum at the equator, it is absent at the poles. In 1672, the astronomer Richet moved to Paris in Cayenne and noticed that his pendulum clock was 2 minutes behind. 28 sec. per day, in order for the clock to run correctly, the pendulum had to be shortened. During rotation, a centrifugal force arises that is perpendicular to the axis of rotation, and the greater, the greater the speed of rotation. The points of geographic poles do not participate in axial rotation, there is no centrifugal force here, the angular velocity for the remaining points of the earth's surface is 15 deg / h, and the linear velocity depends on the length of the parallel, it is maximum at the equator - 464 m / s, decreases from the equator to the poles. Due to centrifugal forces, the matter inside the Earth moved from the poles to the equator, resulting in polar compression and eq. stretching. The force of gravity at the pole is greater than at the equator due to the fact that the pole has no centrifugal force and is closer to the center of the Earth. The weight of the items varies by 0.6%. Wed the radius of the Earth is 6371 km, the polar compression is 21.4 km (382 m). There is also an equatorial compression, eq. the radius differs by 213m. Taking into account the polar compression, the figure of the Earth was called an ellipsoid of revolution or a spheroid. Taking into account the equatorial compression, the figure was called a trihedral Ellipsoid. Sev. the polis is elevated in relation to the south by 20-30m, such a figure was called a cardioid. But the true form of the Earth is even more complicated, in present. temp. it is called the geoid. The surface of the geoid coincides with the average water level in the ocean, mentally extended under the continents. Geographical significance of the figure and dimensions of the Earth: 1) Due to the spherical shape, the angle of incidence of the sun's rays from the equator to the poles gradually decreases, this leads to a decrease in the heating of the earth's surface, which underlies the geographical zonality (thermal belts). 2) Due to the spherical shape. Z. has a shell structure. 3) Z. is constantly divided into illuminated and unilluminated side. Together with axial rotation, this determines the daily rhythm of the thermal regime of its surface. composition and hydrosphere. In present temp. The following are considered scientific evidence of the sphericity of the earth: a photograph of measurements from space from artificial satellites of the earth, degree measurements on the surface of the earth, and a lunar eclipse.
25 . Ecological problems of Moscow and the Moscow region.
Every year, more than 1.2 million tons of pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere of M.. In the atmosphere of the 0.5 million tons. Polluting substances: 1) harmful gases (carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide) nitrogen oxide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, etc. 2) a compound of lead, mercury, copper, and other heavy metals; 3) aerosols, and dust-soot, asbestos. Main sources: In Moscow, motor transport accounts for 77%, energy enterprises (CHP) 10%, and the rest is other industries. In the Moscow Region, apart from the central regions, the air is especially heavily polluted in the south-east and east. M. Causes: 1) south-west, north-west winds prevail; 2) on the north-east, in and partly on the south-east of the lowland; 3) in the south-east before the October Revolution there were many industrial enterprises. At present time there are many enterprises in this part, especially in the cities of Lyubertsy, Balashikha, Kolomna, Voskresensk, and others.
Lecture 1
Subject: INTRODUCTION EARTH AND UNIVERSE
Questions:
1 . Object, subject, tasks and methods of geography
2 . local history
3 . The objectives of the course "Geography and local history" at the socio-pedagogical faculty
4 . The Universe, its composition, structure, origin
5 . The solar system and the place of the Earth in it. Hypotheses for the formation of the solar system
6 . Achievement of mankind in the study of space
Object, subject, tasks and methods of geography
Geography is the science of the most general patterns of the geographic shell of the Earth, its material composition, structure, development and territorial division. Geography is a branch of physical geography. The word "geography" means "description of the earth". The object of geography is the geographic envelope of the Earth.
Geographic envelope- this is the outer layer of the planet, in which the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere come into contact and interact, i.e. inert and living matter. Geographic envelope - physical body. Its upper boundary is located between the troposphere and the stratosphere at an altitude of 16-18 km. The lower boundary on land is at a depth of 3-5 km. The hydrosphere is completely included in the geographic envelope. The energy component of the geographic shell is the radiant energy of the Sun and the internal energy of the Earth.
That side of the object, which is considered by science at a certain stage of development, is the subject of its study. Until the middle of the 19th century, the subject of geography was the description of the earth's surface. Today, the subject of geography is also the study of the regularities of the process occurring in the geographical shell, the cycles of matter and energy, the interaction of human society and nature.
The task of geography is the knowledge of the patterns of structure, dynamics and development of the geographic shell to develop a system of optimal interaction with the ongoing processes in it. Geography in its research uses a variety of methods, both special geographical and methods of other sciences. The most important is expeditionary (for field geographical research); experimental (to identify the role of individual factors in natural phenomena); comparatively - descriptive (to establish the characteristic features of objects); mathematical (for obtaining quantitative characteristics of natural phenomena); statistical (to characterize indicators that change in time and space; for example, temperature, salinity of water, etc.); cartographic method (for studying objects using a model - a map); geophysical (for studying the structure of the earth's crust and atmosphere); geochemical (for studying the chemical composition and geographic envelope); aerospace (use of aerial photography of the earth's surface).
The textbook is devoted to the study of the components of the geographic shell. The factors that form the geographic envelope and its main structural feature - latitudinal zonality are considered. The laws of evolution, integrity, rhythm, cycles of matter and energy in the geographic envelope are described for all spheres of the Earth, taking into account environmental conditions. For students of geographical specialties of institutions of higher education, teachers, specialists in the field of physical geography, nature conservation and environmental management.
The place of general geography in the system classification of geographical sciences
1.1. General geography in the system of geographical sciences
Geography called a complex of closely related sciences, which is divided into four blocks (Maksakovsky, 1998): physical-geographical, socio-economic-geographical sciences, cartography, regional studies. Each of these blocks, in turn, is subdivided into systems of geographical sciences.
The block of physical and geographical sciences consists of general physical and geographical sciences, particular (industry) physical and geographical sciences, and paleogeography. General physical and geographical sciences are divided into general physical geography (general geography) and regional physical geography.
All physical and geographical sciences are united by a common object of study. Most scientists came to the unanimous opinion that all physical and geographical sciences study the geographical shell. By definition, N.I. Mikhailova (1985), physical geography is the science of the geographic shell of the Earth, its composition, structure, features of formation and development, and spatial differentiation.
Geographic envelope (GO)- the complex outer shell of the Earth, within which there are intense interactions of mineral, water and gas environments (and after the emergence of the biosphere - and living matter) under the influence of cosmic phenomena, primarily solar energy. There is no single point of view on the boundaries of the geographic shell among scientists. The optimal boundaries of the GO are the upper boundary of the troposphere (tropopause) and the bottom of the hypergenesis zone - the boundary of the manifestation of exogenous processes, within which the bulk of the atmosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the upper layer of the lithosphere with organisms living or living in them and traces of human activity are located (see topic 9 ).
Thus, geography is not a science of the Earth in general (such a task would be impossible for one science), but studies only a certain and rather thin film of it - GO. However, even within these limits, nature is studied by many sciences (biology, zoology, geology, climatology, etc.). What is the place of general geography in the system classification of geographical sciences? In answering this question, one clarification needs to be made. Each science has a different object and subject of study (the object of science is the ultimate goal that any geographical research strives for; the subject of science is the immediate goal, the task facing a particular study). At the same time, the subject of the study of science becomes the object of study of the whole system of sciences at a lower classification level. There are four such classification stages (taxa): cycle, family, genus, and species (Fig. 1).
Together with geography earth science cycle includes geology, geophysics, geochemistry, biology. The object of all these sciences is the Earth, but the subject of study for each of them is its own: for geography, this is the earth's surface as an inseparable complex of natural and social origin; for geology - bowels; for geophysics - the internal structure, physical properties and processes occurring in the geospheres; for geochemistry, the chemical composition of the Earth; for biology, organic life.
At the level of the cycle, the objective essence of the unity of geography is revealed to the greatest extent. In the cycle of Earth sciences, geography is distinguished not only by the subject of study, but also by the main method - descriptive. The oldest and common to all geographical sciences, the descriptive method continues to become more complex and improved along with the development of science. The very name "geography" (from the Greek ge - Earth, grapho - I write) contains the subject and the main method of research. Geography at the level of the cycle is an undivided geography, the ancestor of all other geographical sciences. It studies the most general patterns and is called undivided because its conclusions equally apply to all subsequent divisions of geographical science.
Family of geographical sciences form regional studies, physical and economic geography, cartography. All of them have a single object - the earth's surface, but different objects. Country studies is a synthesis of physical and economic geography; at the family level, it has a general geographic triune (nature, population, economy) character. Physical geography studies the geographic envelope of the Earth, economic geography studies the economy and population in the form of territorial socio-economic systems. Cartography is the science of displaying and studying the phenomena of nature and society (their location, properties, relationships and changes over time) through maps and other cartographic images.
A special place in the family of geographical sciences is occupied by the history and methodology of geographical science. This is not the traditional history of geographical discoveries, but the history of geographical ideas, the history of the formation of modern methodological foundations of geographical science. The first experience of creating a lecture course on the history and methodology of geographical science belongs to Yu.G. Saushkin.
Rice. one. The place of general geography in the system of geographical sciences (according to F.N. Milkov)
Kind of physical and geographical sciences represented by physical and geographical regional studies, general geography, landscape science, paleogeography, private branch sciences. These different sciences are united by one object of study - the geographical envelope. The subject of study of each of the sciences is specific, individual - this is one of the structural parts or sides of the geographic shell (geomorphology is the science of the relief of the earth's surface; climatology and meteorology are the sciences that study the air shell, the formation of climates and their geographical distribution; soil science - patterns of soil formation, their development, composition and patterns of placement; hydrology is a science that studies the water shell of the Earth; biogeography studies the composition of living organisms, their distribution and the formation of biocenoses). The subject of study of landscape science is the thin, most active central layer of GO - the landscape sphere, which consists of natural and territorial complexes of different ranks. The task of paleogeography is the study of the geographical envelope and the dynamics of natural conditions in past geological epochs.
The subject of study of general geography (03) are the structure, internal and external relationships, the dynamics of the functioning of civil defense as an integral system.
General Geography- a fundamental science that studies the general patterns of the structure, functioning and development of GO as a whole, its components and natural complexes in unity and interaction with the surrounding space-time at different levels of its organization (from the Universe to the atom) and establishes the ways of creation and existence of modern natural ( natural-anthropogenic) environments, the trends of their possible transformation in the future (Bokov, Seliverstov, Chervanev, 1998). In other words, general geography is the science or doctrine of the human environment where all the processes and phenomena we observe are carried out and living organisms function.
Currently, GO has changed a lot under the influence of man. It contains areas of the highest economic activity of society. Now it is no longer possible to consider it without taking into account human impact. In this regard, the idea of through directions began to form in the works of geographers (Maksakovsky, 1998; Kotlyakov, 2001). In general geography as a fundamental science, the importance of such areas as:
✓ humanization, i.e. turning to a person, all spheres and cycles of his activity; this is a new worldview that affirms the values of a universal, common cultural heritage, so geography should consider the connections “man - economy - territory - environment”;
✓ sociologization, i.e. increased attention to the social aspects of development;
✓ ecologization - a direction that involves considering a person inextricably linked with his environment, the conditions for the reproduction of life; The ecological culture of mankind should include a conscious need and need to measure the activities of society and each person with the possibilities of preserving positive ecological qualities and properties of the environment.
In the system of fundamental geographical education, the course of general geography performs several important functions:
✓ The course introduces the future geographer to his complex professional world, laying the foundations of the geographical worldview and thinking. Processes and phenomena are considered in a systemic connection with each other and with the surrounding space, while private disciplines are forced to study them, first of all, separately from each other.
✓ Geography is a theory of GO as an integral system that is a carrier of geographic and other information about the development of matter, which is of fundamental importance for geography in general and allows using the provisions of geography as a methodological basis for geographic analysis.
✓ Geography serves as a theoretical basis for global ecology, which focuses on assessing the current state and predicting the next changes in the geographic envelope as an environment for the existence of living organisms and human habitation in order to ensure environmental safety.
✓ Geography is the theoretical base and basis of evolutionary geography - a huge block of disciplines that explore and decipher the history of the emergence and development of our planet, its environment and the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of the geological (geographical) past. General geography ensures the correct understanding of the past, the reasoning of the causes and consequences of modern processes and phenomena in civil defense, the correctness of their analysis and transfer to similar events of the past.
✓ Geography is a kind of bridge between the geographical knowledge, skills and ideas acquired in school courses, and the theory of civil defense.
1.2. History of the development of general geography
The development of general geography as a science is inseparable from the development of geography. Therefore, the tasks facing geography are to the same extent the tasks of general geography.
All sciences, including geography, are characterized by three stages of knowledge:
✓ collection and accumulation of facts;
✓ bringing them into a system, creating classifications and theories;
✓ scientific forecast, practical application of theory.
The tasks that geography set itself changed with the development of science and human society.
Ancient geography (VIII century BC - II century AD) mainly performed descriptive function - engaged in the description of newly discovered lands. This task was set before geography until the Great geographical discoveries of the XV-XVII centuries. The descriptive direction in geography has not lost its significance at the present time, however, already in ancient times, another was born, analytical , the direction when the first geographic theories appeared.
In Western countries, geography goes back to ancient Greek scientists (Homer, Thales of Miletus, Anaximander, Herodotus, Plato, Aristotle, Pytheas, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, Strabo, Ptolemy), who created a system of basic concepts and a model, or paradigm, of the scientific method, which for many centuries guided by Western Europeans. Scientists of Babylonia, Assyria collected a lot of information about the movement of stars and planets. Their assertion that the position of the heavenly bodies has a decisive influence on the actions of people led to the development of a system of ideas known to us as astrology. The Phoenicians were among the first navigators and discoverers of new lands. In their voyages, they penetrated far beyond the boundaries of known lands, but, occupied only with trade, reported almost nothing about what they saw.
Aristotle (philosopher, scientist, 384-322 BC) - the founder of the analytical direction in geography. His work "Meteorology" is essentially a course in general geography, which speaks of the existence and mutual penetration of several spheres, the circulation of moisture and the formation of rivers due to surface runoff, changes in the earth's surface, sea currents, earthquakes, and zones of the Earth. Aristotle was one of the first to suggest that the shape of the Earth is a sphere.
Eratosthenes (275–195 BC) belongs to the first accurate measurement of the circumference of the Earth along the meridian - 252 thousand stages, which is close to 40 thousand km.
The ancient Greek astronomer played a large and peculiar role in the development of general geography. Claudius Ptolemy (c. 90-160 AD), who lived during the heyday of the Roman Empire. Ptolemy distinguished between geography and chorography. Under the first, he meant “a linear image of the entire part of the Earth now known to us, with everything that is on it,” under the second, a detailed description of the localities; the first (geography) deals with quantity, the second (chorography) deals with quality. Ptolemy proposed two new cartographic projections, on which a degree grid was applied and a large number of geographical objects were shown, for which he is deservedly considered the "father" of cartography. "Guide to Geography" (based on the geocentric system of the world) Ptolemy of 8 books completes the ancient period in the development of geography.
During the long period of the Middle Ages (early III–XI centuries and late XI–XV centuries), the development of geography and the accumulation of information about the Earth were not the same in different states and regions. Europe suffered more than others, where the church persecuted science and rejected many previously obtained knowledge from the field of natural science, for example, about the sphericity of the Earth, the established outlines of the continents, etc. At the same time, the medieval geography of the countries of Central and East Asia actively developed under the influence of trade, construction cities, publishing books and maps. Significant works of this time include the works of Masudi, Biruni, Idrisi, Ibn-Battuta. The most interesting information was collected by Marco Polo about China, India, Ceylon and Arabia (1271–1295) and by Afanasy Nikitin about Persia and India (1466–1478).
The transition from feudal to capitalist relations, the development of commodity production, the search for new trade routes were the main prerequisites for the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries of the 15th–17th centuries. The main milestones of this era:
✓ discovery of America by the expeditions of X. Columbus (1492–1504);
✓ Vasco de Gama's discovery of the sea route to India (1497–1498);
✓ F. Magellan's first round-the-world trip (1519–1520);
✓ the discovery of Siberia and the Far East by the campaigns of Yermak (1581), I. Moskvin (1639), S. Dezhnev (1648), E. Khabarov (1650–1653);
✓ search for the northwestern and northeastern routes to India (expeditions of J. Cabot, G. Hudson, A. Barents).
The achievement of geography was also the widespread use of navigation instruments and maps. The invention of printing from metal plates by I. Gutenberg contributed to the appearance of printed maps and atlases. The accuracy of maps became higher due to the use of map projections, developed mainly by the Flemish cartographer G. Mercator (1512–1594). The main centers for the development of geography during this period were Venice, Florence, and Holland. As a result of the Great geographical discoveries, the territories of the globe known to Europeans increased six times. 60% of all land was studied, as well as almost the entire water area of the World Ocean.
The industrial revolution in the capitalist countries of Europe, the active trade of the colonial powers (Portugal, Spain, Great Britain, France, Holland), as well as the successes of science, had a significant impact on the further development of geography. Large expeditions continued with the discovery of Australia and many islands of the Pacific Ocean (J. Cook), the study of the north of Eurasia, Kamchatka, Sakhalin (P. Kruzenshtern and Yu. Lisyansky, V. Bering, I. Pronchishchev, D. Laptev, S. Chelyuskin, G Shelikhov), the discovery of Antarctica (F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev). Major successes have been achieved in the study of the interior parts of Asia (N. Przhevalsky, P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, V. Obruchev), Africa (D. Livingston, G. Stanley, V. Juncker, E. Kovalevsky, N. Vavilov), South America (A. Humboldt, A. Vespucci).
At the turn of the XVI and XVII centuries. the contours of geography begin to take shape. In 1650 in Holland Bernhard Varenii (1622-1650) publishes "General Geography" - a work from which one can count the time of general geography as an independent scientific discipline. It found a generalization of the results of the Great geographical discoveries and advances in the field of astronomy, based on the heliocentric picture of the world. The subject of geography, according to B. Varenii, is an amphibious circle formed by interpenetrating parts - earth, water, atmosphere. The amphibian circle as a whole is studied by universal geography. Separate areas are the subject of private geography.
In the 18th-19th centuries, when the world was basically discovered and described, analytical and explanatory functions: geographers analyzed the accumulated data and created the first hypotheses and theories. A century and a half after Vareniya, scientific activity unfolds Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859). A. Humboldt, an encyclopedic scientist, traveler, researcher of the nature of South America, represented nature as a holistic, interconnected picture of the world. His greatest merit lies in the fact that he revealed the significance of the analysis of relationships as the leading thread of all geographical science. Using the analysis of the relationship between vegetation and climate, he laid the foundations of plant geography; expanding the range of relationships (vegetation - fauna - climate - relief), substantiated the bioclimatic latitudinal and altitudinal zonality. In his work Cosmos, Humboldt took the first step towards substantiating the view of the earth's surface (a subject of geography) as a special shell, developing the idea not only of the relationship, but also of the interaction of air, sea, Earth, the unity of inorganic and organic nature. He owns the term "life sphere", similar in content to the biosphere, as well as the term "sphere of the mind", which later received the name "noosphere".
At the same time he worked with A. Humboldt Carl Ritter (1779–1859), professor at the University of Berlin, founder of the first department of geography in Germany. K. Ritter introduced the term "geography" into science, tried to quantify the spatial relationships between various geographical objects. K. Ritter created a scientific school, which included such prominent geographers as E. Reclus, F. Ratzel, F. Richthofen, E. Lenz, who made a significant contribution to understanding the geographical features of individual parts of the Earth and enriched the content of theoretical geography and physical geography.
The development of geographical thought in Russia in the 18th–19th centuries. associated with the names of the largest scientists - M.V. Lomonosov, V.N. Tatishcheva, S.P. Krasheninnikova, V.V. Dokuchaeva, D.N. Anuchina, A.I. Voeikova and others. M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765) - the organizer of science, a great practitioner. He explored the solar system, discovered the atmosphere on Venus, studied electrical and optical effects in the atmosphere (lightning). In the work "On the Layers of the Earth", the scientist emphasized the importance of the historical approach in science. Historicism pervades all of his work, whether he speaks of the origin of black earth or of tectonic movements. The laws of relief formation outlined by Lomonosov are still recognized by geomorphologists. Lomonosov is the founder of Moscow State University (MGU).
V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903) in the monograph "Russian Chernozem" and A.I. Voeikov (1842–1916) in the monograph “Climates of the Globe, Especially Russia”, on the example of soils and climate, reveal the complex mechanism of interaction between the components of the geographic envelope. At the end of the XIX century. Dokuchaev comes to the most important theoretical generalization in general geography - the law of world geographical zonality. He considers zonality to be a universal law of nature, which applies to all components of nature (including inorganic ones), to plains and mountains, land and sea.
In 1884 D.N. Anuchin (1843–1923) organizes the Department of Geography and Ethnography at Moscow State University. In 1887, the department of geography was opened at St. Petersburg University, a year later - at Kazan University. The organizer of the Department of Geography at Kharkov University in 1889 was a student of Dokuchaev A.N. Krasnov (1862–1914), explorer of the steppes and foreign tropics, creator of the Batumi Botanical Garden. In 1894 he became the first doctor of geography in Russia after a public defense of his dissertation. Krasnov spoke about three features of scientific geography that distinguish it from the old geography:
✓ scientific geography aims not to describe disparate natural phenomena, but to find the interconnection and mutual conditioning between natural phenomena;
✓ scientific geography is not interested in the external side of natural phenomena, but in their genesis;
✓ Scientific geography does not describe an unchanging, static nature, but a changing nature, which has its own history of development.
Krasnov is the author of the first Russian textbook for universities on general geography. In the introduction to the Fundamentals of Geography, the author argues that geography studies not individual phenomena and processes, but their combinations, geographical complexes - deserts, steppes, areas of eternal snow and ice, etc. Such a view of geography as the science of geographical complexes was new in geographical literature.
The idea of the outer shell of the Earth as an object of physical geography was expressed most clearly P.I . Brownov (1852–1927). In the preface to the course "General Physical Geography" P.I. Brownov wrote that physical geography studies the modern structure of the earth's outer shell, which consists of four concentric spherical shells: the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. All these spheres penetrate one another, determining by their interaction the outer appearance of the Earth and all the phenomena occurring on it. The study of this interaction is one of the most important tasks of physical geography, making it completely independent, different from geology, meteorology and other related sciences.
In 1932 L.L. Grigoriev (1883–1968) comes out with the article "The Subject and Tasks of Physical Geography", which states that the earth's surface is a qualitatively special vertical physical-geographical zone or shell. It is characterized by deep interpenetration and active interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere, the emergence and development of organic life in it, the presence in it of a complex but unified physical and geographical process. A few years later, in 1937, Grigoriev devoted a special monograph to the consideration of the geographical shell as an object of physical geography. In his works, he also found justification for one of the main methods for studying GO - the balance method, which takes into account, first of all, the radiation balance, the balance of heat and moisture.
During these same years L.C. Berg (1876–1950) laid the foundations for the doctrine of landscape and geographical zones. In the late 1940s attempts were made to oppose the teachings of A.A. Grigoriev about the physical-geographical shell and the physical-geographical process and L.S. Berg on landscapes. The only correct position in the unfolding discussion was taken by S.V. Kalesnik (1901-1977), who showed that these two directions do not contradict each other, but reflect different aspects of the object of physical geography - the geographical envelope. This point of view was embodied in Kalesnik's fundamental work Fundamentals of General Geography (1947, 1955). The work largely contributed to a deep knowledge of the geographical shell as an object of physical geography.
The continuing differentiation of geography has led to detailed developments of its individual parts. There were special studies of the ice cover and its paleogeographic significance (K.K. Markov), the geophysical mechanism of differentiation of the earth's surface by geographical zones and altitudinal zonation (M.I. Budyko), climate history against the background of changes in the geographic envelope in the past (A.S. Monin), landscape systems of the world in their unity and genetic differences (A.G. Isachenko), landscape shell as part of the geographical shell (F.N. Milkov). During these years, the Grigoriev-Budyko periodic law of geographical zoning was established, the huge role of bioorganic matter in the formation of specific geological formations of the distant past (A.V. Sidorenko) was revealed, new areas of geography appeared - space geography, global ecology, etc.
The beginning of the modern stage in the development of geography marks the 1980s. Radio and photospace methods make it possible to remotely view the Earth and study the dynamic processes occurring on its surface. Cartographic, mathematical and physical modeling of many processes occurring in the geographic envelope has become available. A special role is played by a systematic approach, which allows us to consider objects of nature as a set of interacting components that make up an integral geographical system.
1.3. Basic Research Methods
All the variety of methods of geographical research is reduced to three categories: general scientific, interdisciplinary and specific to a given science (according to Milkov, 1990).
The most important general scientific method is an materialist dialectics. Its laws and basic provisions on the universal connection of phenomena, the unity and struggle of opposites, the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, and the negation of negation form the methodological basis of geography. Connected with materialist dialectics is historical method. In physical geography, the historical method found its expression in paleogeography. of general scientific importance systems approach to the object under study. Each object is considered as a complex formation, consisting of structural parts interacting with each other.
Interdisciplinary Methods – common for a group of sciences. In geography, these are mathematical, geochemical, geophysical methods and a modeling method. mathematical method implies the use of quantitative characteristics, mathematical statistics for the study of objects. Recently, computer processing of materials has been widely used. This is an important method in geography, but it should be remembered that a creative, thinking person should not be limited to testing and memorizing quantitative characteristics. Geochemical and geophysical methods make it possible to evaluate the flows of matter and energy in the geographical envelope, cycles, thermal and water regimes.
key concept modeling method is a model - a graphic representation of the object, reflecting the structure and dynamic relationships, giving a program for further research. The models of the future state of the biosphere by N.N. Moiseev.
Awareness of the systemic organization of the geographical envelope led to the introduction and recognition of the systematic approach as a general scientific interdisciplinary fundamental principle of physical geography. The systematic approach made it possible to develop a coherent idea of the levels of organization of the geographic envelope, its structure, and interrelations. A clear scheme for studying the components of the geographic envelope has been formed, taking into account their hierarchy and interrelations. In addition, the systematic approach contributed to a faster penetration into science of concepts, terms and methods from mathematics, physics, biology, and ecology. Thanks to this, such concepts as integrity, orderliness, organization, stability, self-regulation, functioning appeared. In turn, this gave impetus to the study of natural processes and the elucidation of their role in the formation of certain properties of the geographic envelope. Finally, thanks to the systematic approach, the understanding that the anthropogenic impact leads to the formation of a new type of geosystems - natural-anthropogenic and technogenic (geotechnical) has accelerated.
To specific methods in geography are comparative descriptive, expeditionary, cartographic, aerospace, method of balances.
Comparative descriptive method, as well as cartographic, is the oldest method in geography. A. Humboldt in "Pictures of Nature" wrote that comparing the distinctive features of the nature of distant countries and presenting the results of these comparisons is a rewarding task for geography. Comparison performs a number of functions: it determines the area of similar phenomena, delimits similar phenomena, makes the unfamiliar familiar. The expression of the comparative descriptive method is various kinds of isolines - isotherms, isohypses, isobars, etc. Without them, it is impossible to imagine any branch or complex scientific discipline of the physical and geographical cycle.
The comparative-descriptive method finds the most complete and versatile application in regional studies.
Expeditionary method called field. The field material collected on expeditions is the bread and butter of geography, its foundation, on the basis of which alone theory can develop.
The expedition as a method of collecting field material originates in ancient times. Herodotus in the middle of the 5th century. BC e. made a long journey, which gave him the necessary material on the history and nature of the visited countries. In his nine-volume work "History" he described the nature, population, religion of many countries (Babylon, Asia Minor, Egypt), gave data on the Black Sea, the Dnieper, the Don. This is followed by the era of the great geographical discoveries - the travel of Columbus, Magellan, Vasco da Gama, etc.). The Great Northern Expedition in Russia (1733–1743) should be put on a par with them, the purpose of which was to explore Kamchatka (the nature of Kamchatka was studied, the northwest of North America was discovered, the coast of the Arctic Ocean was described, the extreme northern point of Asia was mapped - Cape Chelyuskin). The academic expeditions of 1768–1774 left a deep mark on the history of Russian geography. They were complex, their task was to describe the nature, population and economy of a vast territory - European Russia, the Urals, part of Siberia.
A variety of field studies are geographical hospitals. The initiative to create them belongs to A.A. Grigoriev, the first hospital under his leadership was created in the Tien Shan. The geographical station of the State Hydrological Institute in Valdai, the geographical station of Moscow State University are widely known.
cartographic method consists in using maps in order to obtain information (qualitative and quantitative characteristics), study the interconnections and interdependencies of phenomena, establish the dynamics and evolution of phenomena, and apply monitoring data. The study of geographical maps is a necessary condition for successful field work. At this time, gaps in the data are identified, areas of integrated research are determined. Maps are the final result of field work, they reflect the relative position and structure of the studied objects, show their relationships. However, the cartographic image does not sufficiently reveal the dynamics of phenomena, which is currently being overcome by the use of digital mapping methods and the creation of geographic information systems (GIS).
aerial photography used in geography since the 1930s, space shooting appeared relatively recently. They allow in a complex, over large areas and from a great height to assess the objects under study.
The basis balance method a universal physical law was established - the law of conservation of matter and energy. Having established all possible ways of entry and exit of matter and energy and measuring the flows, the researcher can judge by their difference whether these substances have been accumulated in the geosystem or whether they have been consumed by it. The balance method is used in geography as a means of studying energy, water and salt regimes, gas composition, biological and other cycles.
All geographic research is distinguished by a specific geographical approach - a fundamental idea of the relationship and interdependence of phenomena, a comprehensive view of nature. It is characterized by territoriality, globality, historicism.
The family of geographical sciences is formed by physical and economic geography, regional studies, cartography, history and methodology of geographical science. All of them have a single object - the earth's surface, but different subjects: physical geography - the geographic shell of the Earth, economic - economy and population in the form of territorial socio-economic systems. Country studies is a synthesis of physical and economic geography; at the family level, it has a general geographic triune (nature, population, economy) character.
In the family of geographical sciences, a special place is occupied by the history and methodology of geographical science. This is not the traditional history of geographical discoveries, but the history of geographical ideas, the history of the formation of modern methodological foundations of geographical science. The first experience of creating a lecture course on the history and methodology of geographical science belongs to Yu.G. Saushkin (1976).
The genus of physical and geographical sciences is represented by general geography, landscape science, paleogeography and private sectoral sciences. These different sciences are united by one object of study - the geographical shell; the subject of study of each of the sciences is specific, individual - this is one of the structural parts or sides of the geographical shell (geomorphology - the science of the relief of the earth's surface, climatology and meteorology - the sciences that study the air shell, the formation of climates and their geographical distribution, soil science - patterns of soil formation, their development, composition and patterns of placement, hydrology is a science that studies the water shell of the Earth, biogeography studies the composition of living organisms, their distribution and the formation of biocenoses). The task of paleogeography is the study of the geographical envelope and the dynamics of natural conditions in past geological epochs. The subject of study of landscape science is the thin, most active central layer of GO - the landscape sphere, which consists of natural-territorial complexes of different ranks. The subject of study of general geography (GS) is the structure, internal and external relationships, the dynamics of the functioning of GO as an integral system.
General Geography- a fundamental science that studies the general patterns of the structure, functioning and development of GO as a whole, its components and natural complexes in unity and interaction with the surrounding space-time at different levels of its organization (from the Universe to the atom) and establishes the ways of creation and existence of modern natural ( natural-anthropogenic) conditions, trends of their possible transformation in the future. In other words, general geography is the science or doctrine of the human environment where all the processes and phenomena we observe are carried out and living organisms function.
The geographical envelope has now changed a lot under the influence of man. It contains areas of the highest economic activity of society. Now it is no longer possible to consider it without taking into account human impact. In this regard, the idea of through directions began to form in the works of geographers (V.P. Maksakovskii, 1998). In general geography as a fundamental science, the importance of these areas is especially emphasized. Firstly, it is humanization, i.e. turn to the person, all spheres and cycles of his activity. Humanization is a new worldview that affirms the values of a universal, common cultural heritage, therefore geography should consider the links "man - economy - territory - environment".
Secondly, it is sociologization, i.e. increased attention to the social aspects of development.
Thirdly, greening is a direction that is currently given exceptional importance. The ecological culture of mankind should include skills, a perceived need and need to measure the activities of society and each person with the ability to preserve positive environmental qualities and properties of the environment.
Fourth, economization is a direction characteristic of many sciences.
In the system of fundamental geographical education, the course of general geography performs several important functions:
- 1. This course introduces the future geographer to his complex professional world, laying the foundations of a geographical worldview and thinking. Processes and phenomena are considered in a systemic connection with each other and with the surrounding space, while private disciplines are forced to study them, first of all, separately from each other.
- 2. Geoscience is the theory of the geographic envelope as an integral system, which is the carrier of geographical and other information on the development of matter, which is of fundamental importance for geography as a whole and allows using the provisions of geography as a methodological basis for geographical analysis.
- 3. Geoscience serves as a theoretical basis for global ecology, which focuses on assessing the current state and predicting the next changes in the geographic envelope as an environment for the existence of living organisms and human habitation in order to ensure environmental safety.
- 4. Geography is the theoretical base and basis of evolutionary geography - a huge block of disciplines that investigate and decipher the history of the emergence and development of our planet, its environment and the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of the geological (geographical) past. General geography ensures the correct understanding of the past, the reasoning of the causes and consequences of modern processes and phenomena in the geographical shell, the correctness of their analysis and transfer to similar events of the past.
- 5. Geography is a kind of bridge between the geographical knowledge, skills and ideas acquired in school courses, and the theory of civil defense.
At present, the concept of geography, which has developed as a systemic doctrine of an integral object - GO, has noticeably transformed - from the knowledge of fundamental physical and geographical patterns to the study of "humanized" nature on this basis in order to optimize the natural environment (natural-anthropogenic) and manage processes, including those caused by human activity and its consequences at the planetary level.
The development of general geography as a science is inseparable from the development of geography. Therefore, the tasks facing geography are to the same extent the tasks of general geography.
All sciences, including geography, are characterized by three stages of knowledge:
- collection and accumulation of facts;
- bringing them into a system, creating classifications and theories;
- · scientific forecast, practical application of the theory.
The tasks that geography set for itself changed as science and human society developed.
Ancient geography mainly had a descriptive function, it was engaged in the description of newly discovered lands. This task was carried out by geography until the Great geographical discoveries of the 16th and 17th centuries. The descriptive direction in geography has not lost its significance at the present time. However, in the bowels of the descriptive direction, another direction was born - the analytical one: the first geographical theories appeared in ancient times. Aristotle (philosopher, scientist, 384-322 BC) - the founder of the analytical direction in geography. His work "Meteorology", essentially a course of general geography, in which he spoke about the existence and mutual penetration of several spheres, about the circulation of moisture and the formation of rivers due to surface runoff, about changes in the earth's surface, sea currents, earthquakes, zones of the Earth. Eratosthenes (275-195 BC) owns the first accurate measurement of the circumference of the Earth along the meridian - 252 thousand stages, which is close to 40 thousand km.
The ancient Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy (c. 90-168 AD), who lived during the heyday of the Roman Empire, played a large and unique role in the development of general geography. Ptolemy distinguished between geography and chorography. Under the first he meant "a linear image of the entire part of the Earth now known to us, with everything that is on it", under the second - a detailed description of the localities; the first (geography) deals with quantity, the second (chorography) deals with quality. Ptolemy proposed two new cartographic projections, he is deservedly considered the "father" of cartography. "Guide to Geography" (based on the geocentric system of the world) Ptolemy of 8 books completes the ancient period in the development of geography.
Medieval geography is based on the dogmas of the church.
In 1650, in Holland, Bernhard Varenii (1622 - 1650) published "General Geography" - a work from which one can count the time of general geography as an independent scientific discipline. It summarized the results of the Great geographical discoveries and successes in the field of astronomy based on the heliocentric picture of the world (N. Copernicus, G. Galileo, J. Bruno, I. Kepler). The subject of geography, according to B. Varenii, is an amphibious circle formed by interpenetrating parts - earth, water, atmosphere. The amphibian circle as a whole is studied by universal geography. Separate areas are the subject of private geography.
In the 18th - 19th centuries, when the world was mostly discovered and described, analytical and explanatory functions came to the fore: geographers analyzed the accumulated data and created the first hypotheses and theories. A century and a half after Vareniya, the scientific activity of A. Humboldt (1769 - 1859) unfolded. A. Humboldt - an encyclopedic scientist, traveler, researcher of the nature of South America - represented nature as a holistic, interconnected picture of the world. His greatest merit lies in the fact that he revealed the significance of the analysis of relationships as the leading thread of all geographical science. Using the analysis of the relationship between vegetation and climate, he laid the foundations of plant geography; expanding the range of relationships (vegetation - fauna - climate - relief), he substantiated the bioclimatic latitudinal and altitudinal zonality. In his work Cosmos, Humboldt took the first step towards substantiating the view of the earth's surface (a subject of geography) as a special shell, developing the idea not only of the relationship, but also of the interaction of air, sea, Earth, the unity of inorganic and organic nature. He owns the term "life sphere", which is similar in content to the biosphere, as well as the "sphere of the mind", which later received the name noosphere.
At the same time as A. Humboldt worked Karl Ritter (1779 - 1859), professor at the University of Berlin, founder of the first department of geography in Germany. Ritter introduced the term "geography" into science, sought to quantify the spatial relationships between various geographical objects. K. Ritter was a purely armchair scientist and, despite the great popularity of his works on general geography, their natural history part is unoriginal. The earth - the subject of geography - K. Ritter proposed to consider as the dwelling of the human race, but the solution to the problem of nature - man resulted in an attempt to combine the incompatible - scientific natural science with God.
The development of geographical thought in Russia in the 18th - 19th centuries. associated with the names of the largest scientists - M.V. Lomonosov, V.N. Tatishcheva, S.P. Krasheninnikova V.V. Dokuchaeva, D.N. Anuchina, A.I. Voeikova and others M.V. Lomonosov (1711 - 1765), unlike K. Ritter, was an organizer of science, a great practitioner. He explored the solar system, discovered the atmosphere on Venus, studied electrical and optical effects in the atmosphere (lightning). In the work "On the Layers of the Earth", the scientist emphasized the importance of the historical approach in science. Historicism permeates all of his work, whether he speaks of the origin of black earth or of tectonic movements. The laws of relief formation, outlined by M.V. Lomonosov, are still recognized by geomorphologists. M.V. Lomonosov is the founder of Moscow State University.
V.V. Dokuchaev (1846 - 1903) in the monograph "Russian Chernozem" and A.I. Voeikov (1842 - 1916) in the monograph "Climates of the globe, especially Russia" on the example of soils and climate reveal a complex mechanism of interaction between the components of the geographic envelope. At the end of the 19th century V.V. Dokuchaev comes to the most important theoretical generalization in general geography - the law of world geographical zonality, he considers zonality to be a universal law of nature, which applies to all components of nature (including inorganic ones), to plains and mountains, land and sea.
In 1884 D.N. Anuchin (1843 - 1923) organizes the Department of Geography and Ethnography at Moscow State University. In 1887, the department of geography was opened at St. Petersburg University, a year later - at Kazan University. The organizer of the Department of Geography at Kharkov University in 1889 was a student of V.V. Dokuchaeva A.N. Krasnov (1862 - 1914), explorer of the steppes and foreign tropics, creator of the Batumi Botanical Garden, in 1894 became the first doctor of geography in Russia after the public defense of his dissertation. A.N. Krasnov spoke about three features of scientific geography that distinguish it from the old geography:
- · scientific geography aims not to describe disparate natural phenomena, but to find the interconnection and mutual conditioning between natural phenomena;
- - scientific geography is not interested in the external side of natural phenomena, but in their genesis;
- · -scientific geography does not describe immutable, static nature, but changing nature, which has its own history of development.
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1 1 Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus Educational and Methodological Association of Higher Educational Institutions of the Republic of Belarus for Pedagogical Education APPROVED by First Deputy Minister of Education of the Republic of Belarus AI Zhuk Registration TD-/type. BASICS OF GENERAL EARTH SCIENCE Standard curriculum for higher educational institutions in the specialties: Biology; Biology. Additional specialty; Biology. Valeology AGREED Chairman of the Educational and Methodological Association of Higher Educational Institutions of the Republic of Belarus for Pedagogical Education P.D. Kukharchik AGREED Head of the Department of Higher and Secondary Specialized Education Yu.I. Miksyuk First Vice-Rector of the State Educational Institution Republican Institute of Higher Education I.V.Kazakova Expert Comptroller Minsk 2008
2 2 COMPILERS: O.Yu. Panasyuk, Associate Professor of the Department of Physical Geography of the Educational Institution “Belarusian State Pedagogical University named after Maxim Tank”, Candidate of Geographical Sciences, Associate Professor; A.V.Taranchuk, Associate Professor of the Department of Physical Geography of the Educational Institution "Belarusian State Pedagogical University named after Maxim Tank", Candidate of Geography, Associate Professor REVIEWERS: Department of General Geography of the Belarusian State University; V.S. Khomich, Deputy Director for Research of the State Scientific Institution Institute of Problems of the Use of Natural Resources and Ecology of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Doctor of Geography, Associate Professor Tank” (minutes 12 dated April 2, 2008); Scientific and methodological council of the educational institution "Belarusian State Pedagogical University named after Maxim Tank" (minutes 3 of April 24, 2008); Scientific and Methodological Council for Science Education of the Scientific and Methodological Association of Higher Educational Institutions of the Republic of Belarus for Pedagogical Education (Minutes 4 of May 19, 2008) Responsible for the issue: N.L.Strekha
3 3 Explanatory note In the system of teacher education, the course "Fundamentals of General Geography" is a kind of link between natural history knowledge, skills and ideas acquired at school, and global natural science. The accelerated development of scientific thought and the availability of new factual material require their introduction into the field of education in order to improve its content and train specialists at the modern level. New data obtained in all branches of human knowledge, the emergence and active development of the idea of sustainable development of society, co-evolution (co-creation) of man and nature have led to the need to reflect these points in the process of considering the issues of the emergence and development of our planet, the existence and change of life on it. The program for the discipline "Fundamentals of General Geography" was developed in accordance with the educational standard "Educational Standard. Higher education. First step” for specialties Biology; Biology. Additional specialty, Biology. Valeology. The purpose of studying the discipline "Fundamentals of General Geography" is to study the general patterns of the structure, functioning and development of the geographical shell in unity and interaction with the surrounding space at different levels of its organization (from the Universe to the atom), to establish ways of creating and existing modern natural (natural-anthropogenic) situations and trends of their possible transformation in the future. Objectives of the discipline: study of the composition of the geographic shell (its geospheres and components); study of the structure of the geographical shell of the nature of the links between the components of the geospheres, and the processes that ensure these links; clarification of the causes and methods of formation of the structure of the geographic shell; identification of patterns of development of the geographic envelope (its components and the whole as a whole); identification of spatial patterns of formation of the structure of the geographic shell (its components and the whole as a whole); formation of knowledge about the structure, origin and modern dynamics of processes occurring in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere; the study of geographical nomenclature "Fundamentals of general geography" is an integrated discipline that includes knowledge of particular disciplines, such as astronomy, geology, climatology, hydrology, geomorphology, soil science. When selecting the material, first of all, the need was taken into account to ensure the most complete disclosure of the subject of study and the tasks of this
4 4 disciplines. The main methods (technologies) of teaching the discipline are problem-based learning, communication and gaming technologies. This discipline is logically connected with other disciplines of the curriculum in the specialties of Biology; Biology. Additional Specialty. Among the disciplines, the study of which by students is necessary for the successful study of the "Fundamentals of General Geography" include special disciplines "Fundamentals of Modern Natural Science", "Botany", "Zoology". The course itself is the base for other natural history disciplines: "Evolutionary Teaching", "Fundamentals of Agriculture", "Biogeography", "Zoology", "Botany". In accordance with the requirements of the educational standard, as a result of studying the discipline "Fundamentals of General Geography", the graduate must: know: the general features of the Universe and its evolution, the features of the structure and origin of the Solar System and the planet Earth, cosmic impact on the Earth; general features of the Earth as a planet, the laws of its internal structure, origin, movement, properties of the Earth and their geographical consequences; the structure of the geographic shell, the composition and properties of its main parts; general geographical patterns of development and functioning of the geographic envelope; environmental problems arising in the geographical envelope; a minimum of geographical names, concepts and terms; be able to: apply knowledge about the basic concepts, concepts, theories, patterns in relation to specific objects; explain the main natural phenomena occurring in the spheres of the geographical envelope; explain the relationship between the components of the geographic envelope and the processes occurring in it; formulate the main geographical patterns and determine the boundaries of their manifestation; analyze thematic maps, graphs, diagrams; compile, according to various sources (textbooks, thematic maps, atlases), climatic, hydrological and other natural characteristics of territories; to use literary and other sources of geographical information, to have the skills of summarizing them. In total, the study of the discipline "Fundamentals of General Geography" is given a maximum of 162 hours, of which 68 classroom hours (36 lectures, 24 laboratory classes, 8 seminar classes).
5 Names of sections 1. Introduction. Place of the course "Fundamentals of General Geoscience" in the system of Earth Sciences 5 Approximate thematic plan Number of classroom hours Total 2 2 including lectures laboratory classes seminars 2. Earth in the Universe Plan and map Internal structure and composition of the Earth. Lithosphere Relief of the Earth Atmosphere Hydrosphere Biosphere Geographical envelope Geographical environment and human society Total:
6 6 The content of educational material Section 1. Introduction. Place of the course "Fundamentals of General Geography" in the system of Earth Sciences Subject and objectives of the course "Fundamentals of General Geography". Earth and Universe. Modern ideas about the structure of the Universe. The Milky Way Galaxy and the place of the solar system in it. Influence of the outer space on the processes taking place on the Earth. The structure of the solar system. Influence of the bodies of the solar system on the geographic envelope of the Earth. The moon as a satellite of the earth and its characteristics. Hypotheses about the origin of the solar system. Section 2. Earth in the Universe General characteristics of the Earth as a planet. The shape of the earth and its geographical consequences. Rotation of the Earth around its axis and its consequences. Rotation of the Earth around the Sun. Change of seasons. Section 3. Plan and map Plan and map, differences between them. Degree network and geographic coordinates. Scale, its types. Symbols of the map. Relief display methods. Eye survey of the area. Ways of orientation on the ground. Section 4. Internal structure and composition of the Earth. Lithosphere Shell structure of the Earth. Earth's crust, mantle, core, their physical properties and chemical composition. Types of the earth's crust. Formation, migration and differentiation of matter. Minerals and rocks, their origin and classification. The lithosphere is an integral part of the geographic shell. Modern ideas about the lithosphere. Geochronology. The main epochs of mountain building in the history of the Earth. Theory of the latest global tectonics of lithospheric plates (neomobilism). Section 5. Relief of the Earth Energy sources and processes of relief formation. Endogenous processes, their role in the deformation of the earth's crust (tectonic movements, earthquakes, volcanism). The relief-forming role of tectonic movements of the earth's crust: folding, discontinuous, oscillatory movements and their manifestation in the relief. The main types of morphostructure of the Earth. Platforms, their structure, geographical distribution. Geosynclines, their structure, evolution. Geographic distribution of mountain systems of different ages. Epigeosynclinal and revived mountains. Plains. Genetic types of plains. Geographic distribution of the largest plains. Modern tectonic manifestations. Volcanism, earthquakes. Geographic distribution and causes. Exogenous processes: weathering - physical, chemical, organogenic, denudation and accumulation. Manifestation of exogenous processes in the lithosphere. Morphosculpture. Activity of flowing waters. Forms
7 7 fluvial relief created by temporary and permanent streams. Karst and suffosion relief, conditions of its formation and forms. Relief-forming activity of glaciers. Areas of modern development of glacial relief-forming processes. Alpine landforms created by the glacier. The relief of the Pleistocene glaciation areas. Cryogenic processes, conditions for their manifestation and landforms in permafrost areas. Geomorphological processes associated with wind activity (deflation, corrosion, transportation, accumulation). Conditions conducive to the development of eolian landforms. Landforms characteristic of arid regions. Coastal processes and relief of sea coasts. Geographic patterns of distribution of exogenous relief. Relief of the bottom of the World Ocean. Anthropogenic and biogenic relief. Section 6. Atmosphere Atmosphere. Composition and structure. Solar radiation, radiation balance. Air temperature, its daily and annual course. Air humidity. Precipitation. Atmospheric pressure and its measurement. Features of the distribution of atmospheric pressure. Wind, wind speed and direction. General circulation of the atmosphere. Winds of local and general circulation. Air masses and atmospheric fronts. Weather and climate. Weather, its types. Weather forecast. Climate, factors of climate formation. Climate change under the influence of technogenic factors. Atmospheric protection. Section 7. Hydrosphere The concept of the hydrosphere as one of the shells of the Earth. The most important properties of natural water. Origin of water on earth. The water cycle in nature and its role in the geographical envelope. The World Ocean and its parts: oceans, seas, bays, straits. Physical and chemical properties of sea water: salinity, transparency, temperature, density. Sea currents and their classification. Geographical significance of sea currents. Life in the oceans. Biological and mineral resources of the ocean. Protection of sea waters. Underground waters and their classification by origin, conditions of occurrence, temperature, salinity. Sources. The role of groundwater in nature and economic activity. Groundwater protection. Rivers. Water supply of rivers and water regime. Flow rates, runoff and water discharge in rivers. Formation of the longitudinal and transverse profile of the river valley. River protection. Lakes, classification of lakes according to the origin of the water mass, lake basins, mineralization. Water and temperature regime of lakes. The evolution of lakes. The importance of lakes in nature and their protection.
8 8 Reservoirs, ponds and their role. Bogs, features of their formation. Types of swamps, their distribution. The role of swamps in the geographical envelope. Security. Section 8. Biosphere The concept of the biosphere, its composition, structure, boundaries. The teachings of V.I. Vernadsky about the biosphere, its evolution, the noosphere. The role of living matter in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, pedosphere (soil sphere). Formation of soil cover in different natural zones. Biological circulation of matter and energy in the biosphere. The role of organisms in the cycle of basic elements in the biosphere. Living communities of organisms. Systematics of living organisms. Species diversity of plants and animals. Distribution of living organisms on land and in the ocean. Characteristics of the biocenosis. Biogeocenosis. Biological productivity and biomass. Food (trophic) chains of living organisms. Ecological pyramids. Section 9. Geographical shell Representation of the origin of the geographical shell, its boundaries. The main stages in the development of the geographic envelope (pre-biogenic, biogenic, anthropogenic, noospheric). General regularities of the geographic shell: cycles of matter and energy, unity and integrity, rhythm, zoning, azonal. Sectoriality (sectoriality). Vertical explanation. Geographical zones and natural zones. Differentiation of the geographic envelope according to zonal and azonal features. General and component zoning. natural complexes. The value of a systematic approach in the study of natural complexes. The concept of landscapes as the main natural-territorial complexes. landscape dynamics. Anthropogenic and cultural landscapes. Section 10. Geographical environment and human society Geographical environment and its role in the development of society. The history of interaction between man and nature. Expansion and deepening of the process of technogenesis in the era of scientific and technological progress and its consequences in the geographical envelope. Global changes in the geographic envelope caused by natural (internal and external) and artificial (anthropogenic) factors. Negative anthropogenic changes in the natural environment (desertification, changes in land landscapes, oil pollution of the ocean, depletion of minerals, greenhouse effect, ozone layer depletion, the problem of acid precipitation, climate change models, the Chernobyl accident, etc.). Global problems of a regional scale (the emergence of new diseases, the destruction of coral reefs, the emergence of alien biological species, the destruction of permafrost, the melting of land glaciers, etc.). ). Environmental monitoring. Problems of conservation of biological diversity.
9 Main 9 List of main and additional literature 1. Bobkov A.A., Seliverstov Yu.P. Geography. M., Bokov V.A., Seliverstov Yu.P., Chervanev I.G. General geography. SPb., Kudlo K.K. Mazyr, Lyubushkina S.G., Pashkang K.V. Natural science: Earth science and local history. M Milkov F.N. General geography. M., Neklyukova N.P. General geography. M., 1974, Ratobylsky N.S., Lyarsky P.A. Earth science and local history. Mn., Savtsova T.M. General geography. M., Shubaev L.P. General geography. M., Additional 1. Bogoslovsky B.B. lake science. M., Voitkevich G.V., Vronsky V.A. Fundamentals of the doctrine of the biosphere. M., Dolgushin L.D., Osipova G.B. Glaciers. M., Donskoy N.P. Fundamentals of ecology and economics of environmental management. Mn., Zavelsky F.S. Time and its measurement. M., Isachenko A.G. Landscape science and physical-geographical zoning. M., Kaznacheev V.P. Problems of urban ecology and human ecology. M., Kalesnik S.V. General geographical patterns of the Earth. M., Kats N.Ya. Swamps of the globe. M., Leontiev O.K., Rychagov G.I. General geomorphology. M., Mavrishchev V.V. Fundamentals of ecology. M., Martsinkevich G.I., Klitsunova N.K. etc. Landscapes of Belarus. Mn., Nikonova M.A. Earth science and local history. M., Panasyuk O.Yu., E.V. Efremenko, Vagner N.M. Questions and tasks for the study of the geographical nomenclature of the map in the course "General Geography". Mn., Panasyuk O.Yu., N.M. Wagner. The relief of the earth's surface. Landforms created by endogenous processes. Mn., Poghosyan Kh.P. General circulation of the atmosphere. L., Poghosyan Kh.P., Turketti Z.A. Earth's atmosphere. M., Sladkopevtsev S.A. Earth science and nature management. M., Stepanov V.N. World Ocean. M., 1974.
10 Stepanov V.N. Planetary processes and changes in the nature of the Earth. M., Chilidze Yu.B. Ecological bases of nature management. M., Shubaev L.P. Land waters. M., Yakushko O.F. Fundamentals of geomorphology. Mn., 1997.
EXPLANATORY NOTE Geoscience is of great national economic importance, as it helps the planning and location of the branches of agriculture and industrial production, nature protection and rational
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CONTENTS 1. Additions and changes in the work program that occurred after the approval of the program 2. Goals and objectives of mastering the discipline "Hydrology" 3. Place of the discipline "Hydrology" in the structure of the
The content of education in geography in grades 6-9 The study of geography is aimed at achieving the following goals: mastering knowledge about basic geographical concepts, geographical features of nature,
Development of geographical knowledge about the Earth. Introduction. What does geography study. Representations of the world in antiquity (Ancient China, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome). The appearance of the first geographical maps.
FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION RUSSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY OF OIL AND GAS IM. THEM. GUBKINA "I APPROVE" Vice-Rector for Academic Affairs V. G. Martynov WORKING PROGRAM of discipline Earth Sciences
The work program in geography is compiled on the basis of: The Law of the Russian Federation "On Education in the Russian Federation" The Federal State Educational Standard for Basic General Education
Learning outcomes Meta-subject learning outcomes A student should be able to: - set a learning task under the guidance of a teacher; - plan their activities under the guidance of a teacher;
The educational program in geography is based on: The main educational program of the basic general education of the GBOU secondary school with. Letnikovo approved by order 98 of 08/31/2015 - Approximate
The work program in geography is based on: the Federal Law "On Education in the Russian Federation" dated December 29, 2012 N 273-FZ (in the latest edition), the Federal State Educational Standard of the Basic
1 Title of the section, topic of the lesson Term Type of the lesson Elements of the compulsory minimum education Requirements for the level of students' preparation Practical work Forms of control Homework 2 1 Geography as a science.
GEOGRAPHY ENTRANCE EXAM PROGRAM 1. Standard of general education in geography for university applicants. 2. Reason: preparation of pre-examination materials. 3. Objectives: The study of geography on
Municipal educational autonomous institution secondary school 2 of the Shchelkovsky municipal district of the Moscow region Work program in geography (basic level) Grade 6
Ticket 1 1.Modern geography and its branches. 2.Atmosfera and its composition. atmospheric layers. Significance, study and protection of the atmosphere. 3.Practical task: determining the scale of the map. Ticket 2 1. Opening,
STANDARD OF BASIC GENERAL EDUCATION IN GEOGRAPHY The study of geography at the level of basic general education is aimed at achieving the following goals: mastering knowledge about basic geographical concepts,
General requirements of the Program for applicants. Geography In the geography exam, applicants entering a higher educational institution must: freely navigate through physical, socio-economic, political maps;
Test work on the topic: “Biosphere. Geographical shell "Basic level 1. Shell of life 1) geographical shell 2) biosphere 3) lithosphere 4) hydrosphere 5) atmosphere 2. The first (lower) high-altitude
Municipal budgetary educational institution Secondary school 4 Considered at the pedagogical council Minutes 1 of 31.08. 2017 Order 162 dated August 31, 2017 I.B. / Director 4 I APPROVE:
“Agreed” Deputy Head of Water Resource Management MKOU “Secondary School 1” / / Full name 20 “Agreed” Head of MKOU “Secondary School 1” / / Full name Order dated 20 WORK PROGRAM OF THE TEACHER Martynova Lyubov Sergeevna, 1 qualification
State budgetary educational institution secondary school 163 of the Central District of St. Petersburg WORKING PROGRAM "GEOGRAPHY" for 6 grades (basic level) total 35
Practical work in geography in grade 6 Name of types of work 1 quarter 2 quarter 3 quarter 4 quarter (number) (number) (number) (number)
Test tasks for conducting entrance examinations in geography are developed on the basis of the Federal component of state standards for basic general and secondary (complete) general education in
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION FGBOU HPE "URAL STATE ACADEMY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE" FACULTY OF BIOTECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY
Order dated August 29, 206. 43 Work program Geography grade 6 for the 206207 academic year Kozlov A.E. First qualification category Skopin, 206 The subject result of studying the course "Geography"
1. Planned results of mastering the subject PERSONAL: - mastery at the level of general education of a complete system of geographical knowledge and skills, skills of their application in various life
Explanatory note The school course of geography plays an important role in the implementation of the main goal of modern Russian education - the formation of a comprehensively educated, enterprising and successful personality,
Annotation in geography grade 6. The work program is drawn up in accordance with Art. 12 "Educational programs" and Art. 28 "Competence, rights, duties and responsibilities of an educational organization"
The work program on the subject "Geography" for the 6th grade for the 2018-2019 academic year Teacher: Bichoeva Marina Barazbievna Explanatory note The work program in geography for the 6th grade has been compiled
Fund of assessment tools for conducting intermediate certification of students in the discipline (module): B1.B.11 Earth sciences: geology, geography, soil science. General information 1. Department of Natural Sciences
Municipal budgetary educational institution "Secondary school 21" CONSIDERED at a meeting of the methodological association, protocol 1 of 2018. Head of MO ACCEPTED at the Pedagogical Council of the school
GEOGRAPHY PROGRAM for applicants to the Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov in 2014 Explanatory note The content of entrance examinations is determined on the basis of
Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus Educational and methodological association of higher educational institutions of the Republic of Belarus for education in the field of mining RZDAYU Deputy Minister
EDUCATIONAL STANDARD FOR BASIC GENERAL EDUCATION IN GEOGRAPHY The study of geography in primary school is aimed at achieving the following goals: mastering knowledge about basic geographical concepts, patterns
I. Explanatory note The work program was drawn up in accordance with: Federal Law of the Russian Federation dated December 29, 2012, 273-FZ “On Education in the Russian Federation”. federal component
1 Explanatory note. The work program in geography of the 6th grade was developed on the basis of: - The federal component of the state educational standard for basic general education in geography,
Name of types of work Quarter 1 Quarter 2 Quarter 3 Quarter 4 (quantity) (quantity) (quantity) (quantity) 2. Calendar-thematic lesson planning Topic 1 Introduction. What does geography study.
Explanatory note The work program in geography for grade 6 is based on: the Federal State Educational Standard for General Education; The fundamental core of the content of the general
WORKING PROGRAM in geography Grade 6 Kudinova Tatyana Mikhailovna, teacher of geography and chemistry, I qualification category 2016 Explanatory note The work program in geography has been developed
MUNICIPAL AUTONOMOUS GENERAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION "SEVERAGE EDUCATIONAL SCHOOL 2" Approved by: Director O.A. Sorokin Order 371 08/31/2016 Agreed: Deputy. Director for SD Lukyanova N.S.
Municipal educational institution "Secondary school 16" of the Podolsk city district Work program in geography (basic level) Grade 6A, Grade 6B Compiled by: Garmel Elena Vasilievna,
Municipal educational institution "Ushakovskaya secondary school" APPROVED: Director of the school M.Yu. Askerov Order of 2016 M.P. GEOGRAPHY WORK PROGRAM BASIC
Unified State Exam in GEOGRAPHY Codifier of content elements and requirements for the level of training of graduates of general educational institutions for the unified state exam in 2010
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "Vyatka State University" (Vyatka State University) I APPROVE Chairman
Municipal budgetary educational institution "Secondary school 10" CONSIDERED: ACCEPTED: Appendix to the order At a meeting of the MS at the pedagogical council of MBOU "School 10" From "23"