1. Types of analyzes used in system analysis:
Parametric;
Structural;
Genetic;
Component;
Functional.
2. The purpose of the system is...
Some (perhaps imaginary) state of affairs that is being sought.
3. Elements of a system or subsystem are considered to be interconnected if
By the change occurring in one of the elements, one can judge the changes occurring in the elements associated with it;
If between them there is an exchange of matter, energy or information, which is important from the point of view of the functioning of the system.
4. With a systematic approach, the analysis is carried out
From the whole to the constituent parts, from the system to the elements, from the complex to the simple.
5. Parametric analysis is
Establishing qualitative limits for the development of an object - physical, economic, environmental, etc.
6. The element of the system is
The limit of the division of the system in terms of the aspect of consideration, the solution of a specific problem, the goal.
7. Qualitative methods for describing systems use
Scenario type methods, expert assessment methods;
cognitive structuring;
Morphological methods;
Block-hierarchical approach.
8. Systems come in
Answers 1-3 are correct.
9. System stability is
The ability of a system to return to a state of equilibrium after it has been brought out of this state under the influence of external disturbing actions.
10. Communication in the system is
This is a limitation of the degrees of freedom of the elements;
Any interactions that ensure the functioning of the system, exceeding in their strength interactions with the external environment;
That which ensures the emergence and preservation of integral properties.
11. Open system
Able to exchange mass, energy, information with the environment.
12. Systemic research methods are most in demand when solving
Weakly structured tasks that have only qualitative assessments.
13. Indicate the correct statements regarding management
For control, feedback is needed, which reflects the influence of control actions;
For management, it is necessary to know what parameters we can change and within what limits;
Purposeful intervention in the process in the system is called management.
14. The technical system is
A finite set of elements of some regulatory device that establishes connections between elements, manages these connections, creating an indivisible unit of functioning.
15. Self-organizing systems under the influence of the external environment
Change the structure and control algorithm;
They have an adapter.
16. Interaction of a self-developing system with the environment
Useful external signals are absorbed and used, harmful ones are reflected.
17. A developing system has the following features:
The fundamental non-equilibrium of the system and the maintenance of its state in a non-equilibrium form;
The ability to change your structure while maintaining integrity;
Decreasing level of entropy, which characterizes the increase in order in the system.
18. Closed system
Does not exchange mass, energy, information with the external environment or has a constant exchange, which may not be taken into account in the simulation.
19. Links in the system have the following features
directed;
non-directional;
genetic;
strong;
Weak.
20. Component analysis is
Consideration of an object that includes constituent elements and, in turn, is included in a system of a higher rank.
21. A system is called strictly hierarchical
In which a subordinate can have only one boss.
22. A developing system has the following features
Unpredictability of behavior as a result of the presence of elements with "free will";
Non-stationarity (variability, instability).
23. Mark fair statements:
The elements of any system act as systems of a lower order;
Systems form a special unity with the environment;
Any system under study is an element of a higher order system.
24. Entropy characterizes
A measure of the disorder of a system consisting of many elements, the greater the entropy, the greater the disorder in the system.
25. The subsystem of the system is
Relatively independent part of the system in terms of consideration, solution of a specific problem, goal.
26. Synergy means
Joint interaction.
27. The state of the system is
The set of values of the essential properties of the system at a certain point in time; a set of system parameters sequentially ordered in time.
28. A system in which all processes are automated is called
Automatic.
29. What does not apply to the main methods of system analysis?
specification.
30. Studies of the beginning and termination of the operation and the phenomena that occur at the beginning and end of an unsteady process are engaged in
Theory of switching devices.
31. The purpose of cognitive structuring is to identify
Structural schemes of cause-and-effect relationships, their qualitative assessment.
32. The concept of "problem" can be formulated as follows
Discrepancy between the necessary and the actual state of affairs;
As a contradiction between existing theories and facts.
33. The cybernetic black box model suggests that
The input signals are a function of the input. And the element itself;
Only the input and output values of the signals acting on the system are known.
34. What was the reason for the intensive development of system analysis?
A huge amount of accumulated knowledge in various fields of knowledge;
The need to develop a study of poorly structured tasks;
Great specialization and differentiation of sciences, leading to difficulty in understanding and difficulty in discussing and solving problems that lie at the intersection of sciences.
35. The balance of the system is
The ability of a system in the absence of external disturbances (or under constant influences) to maintain its state for an arbitrarily long time.
36. Genetic analysis is
The study of the history of the development of the object under study.
37. The replacement of human labor in workers' organizations is called
Automation.
38. Functional Analysis
Consideration of an object as a complex of useful and harmful functions performed by it.
39. Criteria for the development of the system is
Reducing the entropy of the system;
Increase order;
increase in information.
40. The study of operations related to the control of the values of the parameters of automated processes is engaged in
Theory of automatic control.
41. System complexity is defined as
Structural and functional.
42. If the control actions do not ensure the achievement of the goal, then
If possible, move to the reachable area of the target;
The range of control parameters should be expanded.
43. Structural analysis is
Defining the interaction between the components of an object.
44. In the management of the system, the following types of communication play an important role, providing counteraction to trends, ongoing changes
Reverse negative.
45. The structure of the system is
This is a stable order in space and time of its elements and connections between them, which determines the layout of the system and its interaction with the external environment;
This is what remains unchanged in the system when changing its state when implementing various forms of behavior, when performing a system operation;
This is the set of all possible relationships between subsystems and elements within the system.
46. Systems are classified according to the degree of certainty of functioning
Probabilistic;
Deterministic.
47. Component analysis is
Consideration of an object that includes the constituent elements of the one that, in turn, enters the system of a higher rank.
48. Self-adjusting systems under the influence of the external environment
They include an adapter;
Change their operating parameters.
49. Which definition of a system is suitable only for artificially created systems?
Interrelated elements united by unity of purpose (or purpose) and functional integrity. A system is a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, which form a certain integrity, unity.
50. The main assumptions about the nature of the functioning of the system when building a model
The output signal at a given point in time is determined by the state of the system and the input signals related to this and previous points in time;
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3. TESTS FOR THE TRAINING COURSE "SYSTEM ANALYSIS"
1. What is meant by the composition of elements and the relationships between them?
Structure
Integrity
Element
emergence
1. Behavior
2. Development
3. Condition
4. Operation
3. What are terms?
1. Names and members of sentences, certain objects of study
2. Composition of system properties
3. That which links the elements in the system
4. Part of the object, which has a certain independence in relation to the entire object
4. Which of the following is not included in a dynamic description of a system?
1. Process
2. Functors
3. System
5. Which of the principles of the system approach implies the need to study an object as a complex set of its constituent elements?
1. Purpose principle
2. The principle of complexity
3. The principle of integrity
4. The principle of historicism
6. What is not a life cycle stage?
1. Operation
2. Creation
3. Development
4. Management
7. What is system analysis?
1. Methodology for problem solving
2. Transfer of management functions to technical means
3. General systems theory
4. A set of scientific methods and practical techniques for solving various problems based on a systematic approach
8. What is the scientific basis of automation?
1. Automata theory
2. Philosophy
3. Computer science
4. General systems theory
9. What are principles?
1. A system of knowledge about some area of the real world
2. Set of properties of the system
3. Establishing correspondence between the requirements of objective laws and subjective activity
4. The composition of the elements of the system and the links between them
10. What is a system?
1. An integral set of related elements
2. Part of the object, which has a certain independence in relation to the entire object
3. Lots of objects
4. An integral set of related objects
11. What types of connections are there?
1. Essential and non-essential
2. With control, without control
3. Dynamic, static
4. Internal, external
12. What are abstract systems?
1. Systems with material elements
2. Systems consisting of abstract elements that have no analogues in the real world
3. Systems consisting of abstract elements and having analogues in the real world
4. Systems with biological elements
13. What groups are the systems divided into in relation to the environment?
1. Natural, artificial
2. Static, dynamic
3. Open, closed
4. Active, passive
14. What are the main stages of the system life cycle do you know?
1. Creation, growth, maturity, destruction
2. Creation, functioning, destruction
3. Creation, debugging, functioning, destruction
4. Creation, debugging, operation
15. Within what scientific discipline are well-structured problems solved?
1. Decision theory
2. System analysis
3. Operations research
4. Game theory
16. Within the framework of what scientific discipline are weakly structured problems solved?
1. Decision theory
2. System analysis
3. Operations research
4. Theory of efficiency
17. What is the attribute of the problem?
1. Place and time of the problem
2. Difficulty
3. Scale (dimensions of discrepancy)
4. Importance
18. In systems analysis, a system is built to:
1. Studying the composition of its constituent elements
2. Identification of the problem
3. Definitions of interaction with other systems
4. Allocation of subsystems of the system
19. The technological scheme of system research includes:
1. Determining the purpose of the system, building the system, analyzing the system
2. Determining the purpose of the study, identifying the problem, solving the problem
3. General analysis of the system under study, identification of the problem, identification of directions and ways to solve the problem
4. Identification of subsystems of the system, selection of the system, analysis of the system
20. Necessary components of system analysis are:
1. Reliability, problematic, solvable, integrity
2. Integrity, quality, structure, model
3. Purpose, alternatives, resources, criterion, model
4. Set of solutions, resources, model
21. Which of the axioms are the axioms of control theory?
1. The presence of observability and controllability of the control object
2. The presence of freedom of action of the governing body in the development of control actions
3. The presence of freedom to choose control actions from a set of acceptable alternatives and resources for the implementation of the decisions made
4. The presence of a goal and a criterion for the effectiveness of management
22. A system with control is:
1. Decision making system
2. The system in which control is implemented
3. Cybernetic system
4. System for generating control actions
23. The principles of management are:
1. Operational management, regulation, planning
2. Hierarchical management, current management, formal management
3. Centralized control, decentralized control, combined control
4. Planning, operational management, control
24. Management functions are:
1. Accounting, control, planning, operational management
2. Regulation, forecasting, organization, evaluation
3. Evaluation, forecasting, regulation, formalization
4. Planning, operational management, organization, forecasting, accounting, control
25. W. R. Ashby's principle of necessary diversity is formulated as follows:
1. The diversity of the control object should be greater than the diversity of the control system
2. The diversity of the control system should be greater than the diversity of the control object
3. The variety of the control system must be no less than the variety of the control object
4. The diversity of the control system must be less than the diversity of the control object
26. The task of analysis is:
1. System optimization
2. Evaluation of the effectiveness of the system
3. Revealing the structure of the system and the principles of its functioning
4. Determination of the composition of parameters and elements of the system
27. The task of synthesis is:
1. Determination of the structure and parameters of the system, based on the specified requirements for performance indicators of its functioning
2. Revealing the principles of building a system
3. Determining the optimal values of system parameters
4. Finding the optimal principles for building a system
28. Determine the purpose of measurement scales
1. Comparison of the values of qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects
2. Identification of alternatives
3. Measurement of the states of objects, processes, phenomena
4. Establishing preferences for the characteristics of compared objects
29. The concept of "measurement" is:
1. An operation that associates a given observable state of an object, process, phenomenon with a certain designation
2. A set of actions to collect initial data for evaluating objects
3. Obtaining initial data about the object using the device
4. A set of rules for collecting information about the states of objects
30. The essence of the task of pairwise comparison is:
1. Determination of the qualitative characteristics of the compared objects
2. Identifying an object with more utility
3. Revealing the best of the two compared objects
4. Determining the parameters of the compared objects
31. The task of ranking is to:
1. Ordering of system objects in descending (ascending) order of the value of some attribute
2. Assigning ranks to objects of the system
3. Arrangement of system objects according to the place and time of their occurrence
4. Sorting system objects by increasing the frequency of access to them
32. The essence of the classification task is:
1. Measuring system parameters using a classification scale
2. Assigning a given element of the system to one of the subsets
3. Organizing system objects
4. Assigning a certain quantitative attribute to the objects of the system
33. The essence of the problem of numerical evaluation is:
1. Comparison to the system of one or more numbers
2. Measurement of the qualitative characteristics of the objects of the system
3. Evaluation of the essential characteristics of the system
4. Optimization of system parameters according to the selected criterion
34. An assessment task is called an examination if it:
1 . Solved with the help of experts in the study area
2. Solved with the help of consultants
3. Decided by the decision maker
4. Solved with the help of experts
35. Which of the following stages are the stages of the examination?
1. Ordering the set of outcomes of the operation according to their preference
2. Determining the usefulness of each outcome
3. Checking the obtained estimates for consistency by comparing the estimates of the utility of the outcomes
4. Eliminate inconsistencies in estimates by adjusting any option for ordering outcomes, or utilities, or both
36. Which of the following methods are methods for qualitative evaluation of systems?
1. Morphological methods
2. Methods of vector optimization
3. Scenario Type Methods
4. Method of the "tree of goals" type
37. Which of the following rules must be observed when using a brainstorming method?
1. Do not allow criticism of any idea, do not declare it false and do not stop discussion
2. It is advisable not to express non-trivial ideas
3. Provide more freedom for brainstorming participants to think and come up with new ideas
4. Welcome any ideas, even if at first they seem dubious or absurd
38. The script type method allows you to:
1. Help the researcher get an idea of the problem
2. Help the researcher solve the problem
3. Get the researcher meaningful reasoning about the problem
4. Study the problem by the researcher using a computer
39. What problems are solved using methods of expert assessments?
1. Problems for which there is sufficient provision of information
2. Problems for which there is not enough provision of information
3. Problems in respect of which knowledge is not enough for the certainty and validity of the indicated hypotheses
4. Problems in respect of which knowledge is sufficient for the certainty and validity of the indicated hypotheses
40. Which of the following stages are not examination stages?
1. Formation of the goal and development of the examination procedure
2. Forming a group of experts and conducting a survey
3 . Collection of statistical data by experts
4. Analysis and processing of information
41. Which of the following procedures are not expert measurement procedures?
1. Churchman-Akoff method
2. Von Neumann-Morgenstern method
3. Lagrange method
4. Thurstone method
42. Which of the following procedures are not procedures of the Delphi method?
1. Sequence of brainstorming cycles
2. Development of individual surveys of the "scenario" type
3. Introduction of coefficients of significance of expert opinions
4. Development of a program of consecutive individual surveys
43. Which of the following procedures are not components of the method ^ PATTERN ?
1. Expanding a goal tree with a number of criteria for each level
2. Determination by experts of weights of criteria and coefficients of significance of goals
3. Revealing the links between the levels of the goal tree
4. Determination of the coefficient of communication of goals
44. What is the essence of morphological methods of qualitative evaluation of systems?
1. Systematic finding of all conceivable options for solving the problem by combining the selected elements or their features
2. Systematic finding of all conceivable options for implementing the system by combining the selected elements or their features
3. Systematic finding of the most significant options for solving a problem or implementing a system by combining selected elements or their features
4. Systematic finding of all conceivable options for building a system by combining selected elements or their features
45. What is the subject of study of decision theory?
1. Patterns of construction of complex systems
2. Patterns of selection and decision-making
3. Patterns of processing command (control) information
4. Patterns of processing state information into command information
46. Define the main task of operations research
1. Quantitative and qualitative substantiation of decisions
2. Qualitative justification of decisions
3. Preliminary quantitative justification of decisions
4. Preliminary qualitative justification of decisions
47. An operation in decision theory is:
1. The process of performing a sequence of actions in the system
2. The stage of the system functioning, limited to the fulfillment of a certain goal
3. A set of rules for building a system
4. Stage of system operation
48. Unmanaged characteristics of the system are:
1. Part of the characteristics that the governing body can change with the help of the control object and must be taken into account when choosing decisions
2. Part of the characteristics that the governing body can change with the help of the control object
3. Part of the characteristics that the control object can change
4. Part of the characteristics that the governing body cannot change with the help of the control object, but must take into account when choosing solutions
49. Managed characteristics of the system are:
1. Characteristics of the system that can be changed by the governing body
2. Characteristics of the system that can be changed by the control object
3. Selectable features
4. Specified characteristics
50. Making a decision is:
1. The act of setting the values of controlled characteristics
2. Determination of the composition of the controlled and unmanaged characteristics of the system
3. Determination by the governing body of the quantity, quality, place and time of the use of resources to achieve the goal
4. The act of setting the values of uncontrolled characteristics
51. Solutions are called admissible:
1. For which unmanaged characteristics are defined
2. Accepted by the governing body
3. Satisfying the imposed restrictions
4. For which controlled characteristics are defined
52. An optimal solution is one that:
1. More preferable than other solutions in the field of feasible solutions
2. More preferable than other solutions in terms of a certain trait
3. Is the best in terms of system resource usage
4. Has the best values of unmanaged characteristics
53. Strategy in decision theory is called:
1. The set of unmanaged characteristics taken to perform the operation
2. The set of controlled characteristics taken to perform the operation
3. The set of decisions taken to perform the operation
4. Decision made to perform the operation
54. Satisfaction choice in decision theory is:
1. Choice of a set of solutions from the domain of admissible solutions
2. Choice of any solution from the domain of admissible solutions
3. Choosing the optimal solution
4. Choice of admissible solutions
55. The outcome of the operation is:
1. The result of achieving the goal of the operation
2. Implementation of a particular solution
3. The situation that has developed (forecasted) at the time of completion of the operation
4. The final stage of the implementation of the operation
56. The effectiveness of the solution is:
1. The property of the solution to correspond to the purpose of the operation
2. The property of the system to meet the goal set for the system
3. Property of the decision, which consists in achieving the goal of the operation
4. A set of actions to select the values of controlled parameters
57. Which of the terms are synonymous with the term "efficiency"?
1. Efficiency
2. Optimality
3. Fitness
4. Effectiveness
58. The indicator of the effectiveness of the solution is:
1. Parameter whose value satisfies a feasible solution
2. Indicators of the outcomes of the operation, on the basis of which the criterion of effectiveness is formed
3. Functions of indicators of the outcomes of the operation, on the basis of which the criterion of effectiveness is formed
4. Criterion of solution efficiency
59. The usefulness of the outcome of the operation is:
1. Numeric bounded function
2. The real number attributed to the outcome of the operation and characterizing its preference over other indicators with respect to the goal
3. The indicator of the outcome of the operation, which serves to compare outcomes
4. The real number attributed to the outcome of the operation
60. The utility function is:
1. Linear function for determining the type of efficiency criterion
2. Numerical bounded function defined on the set of outcomes
3. Threshold function for determining the type of efficiency criterion
4. Bounded function used to evaluate the effectiveness of solutions
61. The procedure for determining the utility function includes the following steps:
1. Identification of indicators of outcomes of the operation
2. Determination of the set of acceptable outcomes of the operation
3. Determining the usefulness of the outcomes of the operation
4. Determining the usefulness of the system
62. Ways to determine the utility function are as follows:
1. Analysis of the impact of the outcomes of the operation under study on the operation of a higher level of the hierarchy
2. Expert assessments
3. Approximation
4. Interpretation
63. The criterion of effectiveness is:
1. That by which solutions are compared when choosing
2. Parameter by which solutions are compared when choosing
3. A measure that quantifies the effectiveness of each solution and serves as the basis for choosing one of them
4. A characteristic that quantifies the effectiveness of each solution and serves as the basis for choosing one of them
64. The objective function is:
1. Solution efficiency
2. Mathematical expression of the decision efficiency criterion
3. One of the ways to write the solution efficiency criterion
4. Results of evaluating the effectiveness of the solution
65. A deterministic operation is:
1. An operation in which for each solution there are many outcomes of the operation with known distribution laws
2. An operation in which for each decision there are many outcomes of the operation
3. An operation in which for each decision there is one well-defined outcome of the operation
4. An operation in which for each solution there is one outcome of the operation with a known distribution law
66. A probabilistic operation is:
1. An operation in which each decision is associated with a set of outcomes of the operation
2. An operation in which each decision is associated with a set of outcomes of the operation with known laws of probability distribution on the outcomes
3. An operation in which each decision is associated with a set of outcomes of the operation with unknown laws of probability distribution on the outcomes
4. Operation at risk
67. An indefinite operation is:
1. An operation in which each decision corresponds to a certain outcome with an unknown probability distribution law
2. An operation in which different outcomes can correspond to each decision
3. An operation in which each decision is associated with a set of outcomes of the operation with known laws of probability distribution on the outcomes
4. An operation in which each decision can correspond to different outcomes with unknown laws of the distribution of probabilities on the outcomes
68. Which of the following steps make up the decision making process?
1. Analysis of the conditions of the operation
2. Building a model of the functioning of the system during the operation
3. Choosing the optimal solution within the framework of the constructed model
4. Formation of the decision to be made
69. What is the essence of the commission method?
1. In organizing the work of the expert group through open discussion
2. In organizing the work of the expert group through a closed discussion
3. Brainstorming
4. In a comprehensive assessment of the phenomenon, event, process under study
70. The main properties of experts during group examination should be:
1. Decency
2. Competence
3. Creativity
- tutorial
I recently had an interview for Middle QA for a project that clearly exceeds my capabilities. I spent a lot of time on what I did not know at all and little time on repeating a simple theory, but in vain.
Below is the basics of the basics to review before the interview for Trainee and Junior: definition of testing, quality, verification / validation, goals, stages, test plan, test plan items, test design, test design techniques, traceability matrix, test case, checklist, defect, error/defect/failure, bug report, severity vs priority, testing levels, types / types, approaches to integration testing, testing principles, static and dynamic testing, exploratory / ad-hoc testing, requirements, bug life cycle, software development stages, decision table, qa/qc/test engineer, link diagram.
All comments, corrections and additions are very welcome.
Software testing- verification of the correspondence between the actual and expected behavior of the program, carried out on the final set of tests, selected in a certain way. In a broader sense, testing is one of the quality control techniques, which includes the activities of work planning (Test Management), test design (Test Design), test execution (Test Execution) and analysis of the results (Test Analysis).
Software Quality is a set of characteristics of software related to its ability to satisfy stated and implied needs.
Verification- is the process of evaluating a system or its components to determine whether the results of the current stage of development satisfy the conditions formed at the beginning of this stage. Those. whether our goals, deadlines, project development tasks, defined at the beginning of the current phase, are being met.
Validation- this is the definition of compliance of the developed software with the expectations and needs of the user, system requirements.
You can also find another interpretation:
The process of assessing the conformity of a product to explicit requirements (specifications) is verification, while at the same time assessing whether a product meets user expectations and requirements is validation. You can also often find the following definition of these concepts:
Validation - 'is this the right specification?'.
Verification - 'is the system correct to specification?'.
Test Goals
Increase the likelihood that an application intended for testing will work correctly under all circumstances.
Increase the likelihood that the application intended for testing will meet all the described requirements.
Providing up-to-date information about the state of the product at the moment.
Testing steps:
1. Product analysis
2. Dealing with requirements
3. Development of a testing strategy
and planning of quality control procedures
4. Creation of test documentation
5. Prototype testing
6. Basic testing
7. Stabilization
8. Operation
Test Plan is a document describing the entire scope of testing work, starting with a description of the object, strategy, schedule, criteria for starting and ending testing, up to the equipment required in the process, special knowledge, as well as risk assessment with options for resolving them.
Answers the questions:
What should be tested?
What will you test?
How will you test?
When will you test?
Criteria for starting testing.
Criteria for the end of testing.
The main points of the test plan
The IEEE 829 standard lists the items that a test plan should (let it be) consist of:
a) test plan identifier;
b) introduction;
c) test items;
d) Features to be tested;
e) Features not to be tested;
f) approach;
g) Item pass/fail criteria;
h) Suspension criteria and resumption requirements;
i) test deliverables;
j) Testing tasks;
k) environmental needs;
l) Responsibilities;
m) staffing and training needs;
n) Schedule;
o) risks and contingencies;
p) Approvals.
test design- this is the stage of the software testing process, at which test scenarios (test cases) are designed and created in accordance with the previously defined quality criteria and testing goals.
Roles responsible for test design:
Test analyst - defines "WHAT to test?"
Test designer - defines "HOW to test?"
Design Test Techniques
Equivalence Partitioning (EP). As an example, if you have a range of valid values from 1 to 10, you must choose one correct value within the interval, say 5, and one incorrect value outside the interval, 0.
Boundary Value Analysis (BVA). If we take the example above, as values for positive testing, we will choose the minimum and maximum limits (1 and 10), and the values \u200b\u200bfor more and less than the limits (0 and 11). Boundary value analysis can be applied to fields, records, files, or any kind of constrained entity.
Cause / Effect (Cause / Effect - CE). This is, as a rule, the input of combinations of conditions (causes) to receive a response from the system (Consequence). For example, you are testing the ability to add a customer using a particular display. To do this, you will need to enter several fields, such as "Name", "Address", "Phone Number" and then, click the "Add" button - this is "Reason". After pressing the "Add" button, the system adds the client to the database and displays his number on the screen - this is the "Consequence".
Error Guessing - EG. This is when the tester uses his knowledge of the system and the ability to interpret the specification in order to "foresee" under what input conditions the system may give an error. For example, the spec says "the user must enter a code". The tester will think: “What if I don’t enter the code?”, “What if I enter the wrong code? ", and so on. This is error prediction.
Exhaustive Testing (ET)- this is an extreme case. Within this technique, you have to test all possible combinations of input values, and in principle, this should find all problems. In practice, the use of this method is not possible due to the huge number of input values.
Pairwise Testing is a technique for generating test data sets. The essence can be formulated, for example, like this: the formation of such data sets in which each tested value of each of the tested parameters is combined at least once with each tested value of all other tested parameters.
Suppose some value (tax) for a person is calculated based on his gender, age and the presence of children - we get three input parameters, for each of which we somehow select values for tests. For example: gender - male or female; age - up to 25, from 25 to 60, over 60; having children - yes or no. To check the correctness of the calculations, you can, of course, enumerate all combinations of values of all parameters:
| № | floor | age | children |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | the male | up to 25 | no kids |
| 2 | woman | up to 25 | no kids |
| 3 | the male | 25-60 | no kids |
| 4 | woman | 25-60 | no kids |
| 5 | the male | over 60 | no kids |
| 6 | woman | over 60 | no kids |
| 7 | the male | up to 25 | Do you have children |
| 8 | woman | up to 25 | Do you have children |
| 9 | the male | 25-60 | Do you have children |
| 10 | woman | 25-60 | Do you have children |
| 11 | the male | over 60 | Do you have children |
| 12 | woman | over 60 | Do you have children |
And you can decide that we do not need combinations of values of all parameters with all, but we only want to make sure that we check all unique pairs of parameter values. That is, for example, in terms of gender and age parameters, we want to make sure that we accurately check a man under 25, a man between 25 and 60, a man after 60, and a woman under 25, a woman between 25 and 60, well, a woman after 60. And in the same way for all other pairs of parameters. And thus, we can get much fewer sets of values (they have all pairs of values, although some are twice):
| № | floor | age | children |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | the male | up to 25 | no kids |
| 2 | woman | up to 25 | Do you have children |
| 3 | the male | 25-60 | Do you have children |
| 4 | woman | 25-60 | no kids |
| 5 | the male | over 60 | no kids |
| 6 | woman | over 60 | Do you have children |
This approach is approximately the essence of the pairwise testing technique - we do not check all combinations of all values, but we check all pairs of values.
Traceability matrix - Requirements compliance matrix is a two-dimensional table containing the correspondence between the functional requirements of the product and the prepared test scenarios (test cases). Requirements are located in the column headings of the table, and test scenarios are placed in the row headings. At the intersection, a checkmark indicating that the current column's requirement is covered by the current row's test case.
The requirements compliance matrix is used by QA engineers to validate product coverage with tests. The MCT is an integral part of the test plan.
Test Case is an artifact that describes a set of steps, specific conditions and parameters necessary to verify the implementation of the function under test or part of it.
Example:
Action Expected Result Test Result
(passed/failed/blocked)
Open page "login" Login page is opened Passed
Each test case should have 3 parts:
PreConditions A list of actions that bring the system into a state suitable for a basic check. Or a list of conditions, the fulfillment of which indicates that the system is in a state suitable for conducting the main test.
Test Case Description A list of actions that transfer the system from one state to another, to obtain a result, based on which it can be concluded that the implementation meets the requirements
PostConditions List of actions that bring the system to its initial state (the state before the test is performed - initial state)
Types of Test Scripts:
Test cases are divided according to the expected result into positive and negative:
A positive test case uses only valid data and verifies that the application correctly executed the called function.
The negative test case operates on both valid and invalid data (minimum 1 invalid parameter) and aims to check for exceptions (validators fire), and also checks that the function called by the application is not executed when the validator fires.
Checklist is a document describing what is to be tested. In this case, the checklist can be of absolutely different levels of detail. How detailed the checklist will be depends on the reporting requirements, the level of knowledge of the product by employees, and the complexity of the product.
As a rule, the checklist contains only actions (steps), without the expected result. The checklist is less formalized than the test script. It is appropriate to use it when test scripts are redundant. Also, the checklist is associated with flexible approaches to testing.
Defect (aka bug)- this is a discrepancy between the actual result of the program execution and the expected result. Defects are discovered at the stage of software (software) testing, when the tester compares the results of the program (component or design) with the expected result described in the requirements specification.
error- user error, that is, he tries to use the program in a different way.
Example - enters letters in fields where numbers are required (age, quantity of goods, etc.).
In a quality program, such situations are provided and an error message is issued, with a red cross which.
Bug (defect)- a mistake of a programmer (or a designer or someone else who takes part in the development), that is, when something in the program does not go as planned and the program gets out of control. For example, when user input is not controlled in any way, as a result, incorrect data causes crashes or other “joys” in the program. Or inside the program is built in such a way that initially it does not correspond to what is expected of it.
Failure- failure (and not necessarily hardware) in the operation of a component, the entire program or system. That is, there are such defects that lead to failures (A defect caused the failure) and there are those that do not. UI defects for example. But a hardware failure that has nothing to do with software is also a failure.
Bug Report is a document describing the situation or sequence of actions that led to the incorrect operation of the test object, indicating the reasons and the expected result.
Hat
Short Description (Summary) A short description of the problem, explicitly indicating the cause and type of error situation.
Project Name of the project being tested
Application component (Component) The name of the part or function of the product under test
Version number (Version) The version on which the error was found
Severity The most common five-level system for grading the severity of a defect is:
S1 Blocker
S2 Critical
S3 Major
S4 Minor
S5 Trivial
Priority Defect priority:
P1 High
P2 Medium
P3 Low
Status The status of the bug. Depends on the procedure used and the bug workflow and life cycle
Author (Author) Creator of the bug report
Assigned To The name of the person assigned to resolve the issue
Environment
OS / Service Pack, etc. / Browser + version /… Information about the environment where the bug was found: operating system, service pack, for WEB testing - browser name and version, etc.
…
Description
Steps to Reproduce Steps by which you can easily reproduce the situation that caused the error.
Actual Result (Result) The result obtained after going through the steps to play
Expected Result Expected correct result
Add-ons
Attachment A log file, screenshot, or any other document that can help clarify the cause of the error or indicate a way to solve the problem.
Severity vs Priority
Severity is an attribute that characterizes the impact of a defect on the performance of an application.
Priority is an attribute that indicates the order in which a task or defect must be completed. We can say that this is a tool for a work planning manager. The higher the priority, the faster the defect needs to be fixed.
Severity is exposed by the tester
Priority - manager, team leader or customer
Defect severity grading (Severity)
S1 Blocker
A blocking error that brings the application to a non-working state, as a result of which further work with the system under test or its key functions becomes impossible. Solving the problem is necessary for the further functioning of the system.
S2 Critical
A critical bug, a key business logic not working properly, a security hole, a problem that temporarily crashes the server, or renders some part of the system inoperable, with no way to resolve the problem using other entry points. Solving the problem is necessary for further work with the key functions of the system under test.
S3 Major
Significant bug, part of the main business logic does not work correctly. The error is not critical, or it is possible to work with the function under test using other entry points.
S4 Minor
A minor error that does not violate the business logic of the part of the application under test, an obvious user interface problem.
S5 Trivial
A trivial error that does not concern the business logic of the application, a poorly reproducible problem that is hardly noticeable through the user interface, a problem of third-party libraries or services, a problem that does not have any impact on the overall quality of the product.
Defect Priority Grading
P1 High
The error must be corrected as soon as possible, as its presence is critical for the project.
P2 Medium
The error must be fixed, its presence is not critical, but requires a mandatory solution.
P3 Low
The error must be fixed, its presence is not critical, and does not require an urgent solution.
Testing Levels
1. Unit Testing
Component (unit) testing checks the functionality and looks for defects in parts of the application that are available and can be tested separately (program modules, objects, classes, functions, etc.).
2. Integration Testing
The interaction between the system components is checked after component testing.
3. System Testing
The main task of system testing is to test both functional and non-functional requirements in the system as a whole. This detects defects, such as incorrect use of system resources, unintended combinations of user-level data, incompatibility with the environment, unintended use cases, missing or incorrect functionality, inconvenience of use, etc.
4. Operational testing (Release Testing).
Even if the system satisfies all requirements, it is important to ensure that it satisfies the needs of the user and fulfills its role in the environment of its operation, as defined in the business model of the system. It should be noted that the business model may contain errors. This is why it is so important to conduct operational testing as the final step of validation. In addition, testing in the operating environment allows you to identify non-functional problems, such as: conflict with other systems related to business or software and electronic environments; insufficient performance of the system in the operating environment, etc. It is obvious that finding such things at the implementation stage is a critical and expensive problem. Therefore, it is so important to carry out not only verification, but also validation, from the earliest stages of software development.
5. Acceptance Testing
A formal testing process that verifies that a system meets requirements and is conducted to:
determining whether the system satisfies the acceptance criteria;
decision by the customer or other authorized person whether the application is accepted or not.
Types / types of testing
Functional types of testing
Functional testing
User Interface Testing (GUI Testing)
Security and Access Control Testing
Interoperability Testing
Non-functional types of testing
All types of performance testing:
o Load testing (Performance and Load Testing)
o Stress Testing
o stability or reliability testing (Stability / Reliability Testing)
o Volume Testing
Installation testing
Usability Testing
Failover and Recovery Testing
Configuration Testing
Types of testing associated with changes
Smoke TestingRegression Testing
Re-testing
Build Verification Test
Sanitary testing or consistency/health testing (Sanity Testing)
Functional testing considers pre-specified behavior and is based on an analysis of the specifications of the functionality of the component or the system as a whole.
User Interface Testing (GUI Testing)- functional check of the interface for compliance with the requirements - size, font, color, consistent behavior.
Security Testing is a testing strategy used to test the security of a system, as well as to analyze the risks associated with providing a holistic approach to protecting an application, attacks by hackers, viruses, unauthorized access to confidential data.
Interoperability Testing is functional testing that tests the ability of an application to interact with one or more components or systems and includes compatibility testing and integration testing
Stress Testing- this is an automated testing that simulates the work of a certain number of business users on a common (shared by them) resource.
Stress Testing allows you to check how the application and the system as a whole are operable under stress and also evaluate the ability of the system to regenerate, i.e. to return to normal after the cessation of exposure to stress. Stress in this context can be an increase in the intensity of operations to very high values or an emergency change in the server configuration. Also, one of the tasks in stress testing can be the assessment of performance degradation, so the goals of stress testing may overlap with the goals of performance testing.
Volume testing (Volume Testing). The goal of volume testing is to get a measure of performance as the amount of data in the application database grows.
Testing stability or reliability (Stability / Reliability Testing). The task of stability (reliability) testing is to check the performance of the application during long-term (many hours) testing with an average load level.
Installation testing is aimed at verifying the successful installation and configuration, as well as updating or uninstalling the software.
Usability testing- this is a testing method aimed at establishing the degree of usability, learnability, understandability and attractiveness for users of the developed product in the context of given conditions. This also includes:
User eXperience (UX) is the feeling experienced by the user while using a digital product, while the User interface is a tool that allows interaction between the user and the web resource.
Failover and Recovery Testing validates the product under test for its ability to withstand and recover successfully from potential failures due to software bugs, hardware failures, or communication problems (such as network failure). The purpose of this type of testing is to check recovery systems (or duplicating the main functionality of systems), which, in the event of a failure, will ensure the safety and integrity of the data of the tested product.
Configuration Testing- a special type of testing aimed at checking the operation of software under various system configurations (declared platforms, supported drivers, various computer configurations, etc.)
Smoke testing is considered as a short cycle of tests performed to confirm that after building the code (new or fixed), the application being installed starts and performs the main functions.
Regression Testing- this is a type of testing aimed at verifying changes made to an application or environment (fixing a defect, merging code, migrating to another operating system, database, web server or application server), to confirm the fact that the previously existing functionality works as well as before. Regression tests can be both functional and non-functional tests.
Retesting- testing, during which the test scripts that detected errors during the last run are executed to confirm the success of fixing these errors.
What is the difference between regression testing and re-testing?
Re-testing - bug fixes are checked
Regression testing - it is checked that bug fixes, as well as any changes in the application code, did not affect other software modules and did not cause new bugs.
Build Test or Build Verification Test- testing aimed at determining the compliance of the released version with the quality criteria for starting testing. According to its goals, it is an analogue of Smoke Testing, aimed at accepting a new version for further testing or operation. It can penetrate further into the depths, depending on the quality requirements of the released version.
Sanitary testing- this is a narrow testing sufficient to prove that a particular function works according to the requirements stated in the specification. It is a subset of regression testing. Used to determine the health of a particular part of the application after changes have been made to it or the environment. Usually done manually.
Integration Testing Approaches:
Bottom Up (Bottom Up Integration)
All low-level modules, procedures, or functions are put together and then tested. After that, the next level of modules is assembled for integration testing. This approach is considered useful if all or almost all modules of the developed level are ready. Also, this approach helps to determine the level of application readiness based on the results of testing.
Top Down Integration
First, all high-level modules are tested, and gradually, one by one, low-level ones are added. All lower-level modules are simulated by stubs with similar functionality, then, as they are ready, they are replaced by real active components. So we test from top to bottom.
Big Bang ("Big Bang" Integration)
All or almost all developed modules are assembled together as a complete system or its main part, and then integration testing is carried out. This approach is very good for saving time. However, if the test cases and their results are not recorded correctly, then the integration process itself will be greatly complicated, which will become an obstacle for the testing team in achieving the main goal of integration testing.
Testing principles
Principle 1– Testing shows the presence of defects
Testing can show that defects are present, but cannot prove that they are not. Testing reduces the likelihood of defects in the software, but even if no defects are found, this does not prove its correctness.
Principle 2– Exhaustive testing is impossible
Complete testing using all combinations of inputs and preconditions is not physically feasible except in trivial cases. Instead of exhaustive testing, risk analysis and prioritization should be used to more accurately focus testing efforts.
Principle 3– Early testing
To find defects as early as possible, testing activities should start as early as possible in the software or system development life cycle, and should be focused on specific goals.
Principle 4– Defects clustering
Testing efforts should be concentrated in proportion to the expected, and later the actual density of defects per module. As a rule, most of the defects found during testing or that caused the majority of system failures are contained in a small number of modules.
Principle 5– Pesticide paradox
If the same tests are run many times, eventually this set of test cases will no longer find new defects. To overcome this “pesticide paradox”, test cases must be regularly reviewed and adjusted, new tests must be diversified to cover all software components,
or system, and find as many defects as possible.
Principle 6– Testing is concept depending
Testing is done differently depending on the context. For example, security-critical software is tested differently than an e-commerce site.
Principle 7– Absence-of-errors fallacy
Finding and fixing defects will not help if the created system does not suit the user and does not meet his expectations and needs.
Static and dynamic testing
Static testing differs from dynamic testing in that it is performed without running the product code. Testing is carried out by analyzing the program code (code review) or compiled code. The analysis can be performed both manually and with the help of special tools. The purpose of the analysis is to identify errors and potential problems in the product early. Static testing also includes testing specifications and other documentation.
Exploratory / ad-hoc testing
The simplest definition of exploratory testing is developing and executing tests at the same time. Which is the opposite of the scenario approach (with its predefined testing procedures, whether manual or automated). Exploratory tests, unlike scenario tests, are not predetermined and are not executed exactly according to plan.
The difference between ad hoc and exploratory testing is that, theoretically, anyone can conduct ad hoc, while exploratory testing requires skill and possession of certain techniques. Note that certain techniques are not just testing techniques.
Requirements is a specification (description) of what is to be implemented.
Requirements describe what needs to be implemented, without detailing the technical side of the solution. What, not how.
Requirements for requirements:
Correctness
unambiguity
Completeness of the set of requirements
Requirements set consistency
Testability (testability)
traceability
Comprehensibility
Bug life cycle
Software Development Stages- these are the stages that software development teams go through before the program becomes available to a wide range of users. Software development begins with the initial development stage (the "pre-alpha" stage) and continues through the stages at which the product is finalized and modernized. The final step in this process is the release to the market of the final version of the software (“public release”).
The software product goes through the following stages:
analysis of project requirements;
design;
implementation;
product testing;
implementation and support.
Each stage of software development is assigned a specific serial number. Also, each stage has its own name, which characterizes the readiness of the product at this stage.
Software Development Life Cycle:
pre-alpha
Alpha
Beta
Release Candidate
Release
post-release
decision table is a great tool for streamlining complex business requirements that need to be implemented in a product. Decision tables represent a set of conditions that, when met simultaneously, must result in a specific action.
Test on the subject "Modeling of production and economic processes"
Option №3 specialty 3706002
1. The list is ....
Organized information;
Structured data;
Description of information about the object;
A collection of objects ordered by links.
Brief description of the properties of the object.
2. The queue is called ...
A list that needs to be reduced according to some criteria;
The length of the object is gradually decreasing
An ordered collection of objects;
Objective ability to solve the problem.
A list that allows you to implement the first choice from the queue of an object that was included in the list earlier than others;
3. According to the type of object, models are distinguished:
Information processes, technological processes.
Technological processes, work packages, enterprises, associations and industries.
Technological processes, mass processes.
Correlation processes, work packages, information processes.
Mathematical processes, optimization processes.
4. The effectiveness of the operation depends on two groups of factors:
Conditions of the task and the method of obtaining.
Efficiency criterion and solution elements.
Evaluation of their compliance and effectiveness of the operation.
The conditions for the operation and the method of organization, the parameters of the operation.
The extreme value of the function and the efficiency of the operation.
5. The criterion for the effectiveness of the operation is:
Function of given conditions and solution elements.
Managed and unmanaged variables.
The presence of restrictions.
Finding the extreme value of the objective function.
Achievement of the set goal.
6. The decision-making process consists of ….. stages
7. Managed variables include:
Possible values.
Elements of problem solving.
Quantities, the value of which must be found in the process of solving the problem.
unknown factors.
Random variables with known (defined) distribution laws.
8. The process of mathematical modeling includes .... stages(stage)
9. Dynamic programming is
Problems that have a large dimension and their solution requires complex computational steps.
Solving multidimensional and multi-stage problems.
Optimization of objective functions of any type.
Block programming.
A method of planning a multi-stage process that can be divided into a number of successive stages.
10. Model is...
Using the methods of mathematics for the most effective solution of problems that arise in the field of economics.
Description of the real object.
phenomenon or object.
A mentally represented or materially realized system, which, displaying or reproducing the object of study, is able to replace it in such a way that its study provides new information about this object.
Virtual environment.
11. Management is….
Signals aimed at changing the structure or set of system states.
An input or signal that causes the system to behave in a given way.
Structure of a hierarchical warehouse.
A system in which there is a hierarchy.
The relationship of elements of a complex system.
12. System analysis is ...
Science that involves various solutions.
A science that makes a choice of convenient options for solving problems.
Science following the analytical way of thinking.
The science that deals with the problem of decision making in the conditions of analyzing a large amount of information of various nature.
Science that fulfills all the requirements of the model.
13. The task of linear integer programming (CLP) is ...
A mathematical programming problem in which variables can take values equal to 0 or 1.
The problem of taking into account the conditions of integer variables.
A task that takes into account various labor indicators.
A problem of a mathematical type that offers solutions using 3 variables.
A mathematical programming problem in which all or some of the variables must take only integer values.
14. The transport network is ...
A set of vertices or nodes and transport communications or links connecting them.
Operational transport management.
A set of tools and methods for network planning.
A system that facilitates simple management in production.
The totality of relationships on which work is built at the enterprise.
15. If two linear programming problems have an interrelation, whereby one of them is the original one, and the other:
Transport.
Distribution.
Dual.
Linear.
Differential.
16. The algorithm for solving the transport problem by the potential method consists of two stages:
Analytical and statistical.
preliminary and complex.
Complex and analytical.
preliminary and general.
General and group.
17. The main idea of solving linear integer problems by the cutoff method, originally proposed by:
J. Danzig, D. Fulkerson and S. Johnson.
S. Johnson and M. Gauss.
Joseph Louis Lagrange and Gruwitz.
J. Danzig and Niklaus Wirth.
Joseph Louis Lagrange and D. Fulkerson.
18. The branch and bound method was first proposed for solving linear integer problems:
Hurwitz and J. Dantzig.
Wald and Joseph Louis Lagrange.
D. Fulkerson.
A. Doig.
A. Land and A. Doig.
19. Queuing theory is ...
a field of applied mathematics that deals with the analysis of processes in production, service, and control systems in which homogeneous events are repeated many times.
Mathematical statement of the problem solving a number of production problems.
The scope of which is the service sector.
A science that studies the needs of an enterprise.
A science that helps to answer a number of questions regarding the enterprise and production planning.
20. The Monte Carlo method is...
Method for solving problems of planning management.
numerical method for solving mathematical problems by modeling random numbers.
A method that helps to find the answer to duality in problems.
One of the methods for solving non-linear programming problems.
Model creation method.
21. The main elements of the network model are:
dependency and expectation.
Fictitious work and events.
Work and events.
event and expectation.
work and waiting.
22. According to the law of change in output variables, models are classified into:
Real, static, mathematical, linear.
Dynamic, stationary, economic.
Linear, dual, transport, economic.
Stationary, non-stationary, dynamic, linear, non-linear.
Transport, stationary, linear, quadratic.
23. The network is called -
Mathematical foundations of network methods.
The basis of network planning and management methods.
A graph consisting of vertices - "events" and directed arcs - "works" or "operations".
A representation of a program in the form of a network model or network, which reflects the order relation that exists on the set of program operations.
A directed connected graph without a boundary in which there is only one vertex with no incoming arcs and only one vertex with no outgoing arcs.
24. The dynamic programming method is used to solve problems:
Resource allocation, inventory management, equipment repair replacement.
Linear, dual.
Transport, games with nature.
Inventory management, games with nature.
Resource allocations, dual problems.
25. Solving the problem includes the following steps:
Problem statement, system approach, system synthesis, problem solution.
Problem statement, system synthesis, system approach, program debugging.
Problem statement, systematic approach, systematic.
Problem statement, system synthesis, problem solution.
Answers to test 3
MOSCOWuySTATEthuniversitytechnology and management
(formed in 1953)
Department of Physics and Higher Mathematics
A.R. Sadykova
THEORY OF DECISION MAKING.
SYSTEM THEORY AND SYSTEM ANALYSIS
Educational - practical guide
for students of specialty 2202
all forms of education
www. msta. en
Moscow - 2004 4093
© Sadykova A.R. Theory of decision making. Theory of systems and system analysis. Textbook for students of specialty 2202, all forms of education. – MGUTU, 2004
The manual contains a summary of the main theoretical information and specific methods of decision-making necessary for practical application in professional activities.
The issues under consideration correspond to state educational standards.
Specific questions and tests proposed in the manual will help students to independently study the sections "Decision Making Methods" and "Systems Theory and System Analysis".
The manual is intended for students studying in the specialty 2202.
Reviewers: Assoc. C.T.N. Latysheva E.I., Assoc. C.T.N. Deniskin Yu.D.
Editor: Sveshnikova N.I.
© Moscow State University of Technology and Management, 2004
109004, Moscow, Zemlyanoy Val, 73
Goals and objectives of discipline 4
Chapter I. Basic concepts and definitions 4
1.1 Decision making as a human activity 4
1.2 Mathematical models of decision making 6
self-test questions for chapter 9
Chapter 9 test
2. ChapterII. Mathematical models of resource optimization and
decision making 10
2.1 General case of mathematical formulation of the optimization problem 10
2.2 Optimization methods and task-based resource allocation
linear programming 11
2.3 Methods of multivariable optimization in processes
planning, management and decision making 12
2.4 Problems of linear programming in operational control
production and decision making 14
chapter 17 self-test questions
Chapter 17 Test
3. ChapterIII. Problems of Nonlinear Programming in the Process of Optimization
decision-making resources 18
3.1 Analytical methods for solving problems of unconstrained optimization 19
3.2 Problems of conditional optimization and methods for their solution 20
chapter 21 self-test questions
Chapter 21 test
4. ChapterIV. Theoretically - game models of decision making 22
4.1 Matrix games 22
4.2 Positional games 25
4.3 Bimatrix games 27
chapter 30 self-test questions
Chapter 31 Test
5. ChapterV. Operations Research 31
5.1 Dynamic programming 31
5.2 Elements of the theory of inventory management 35
5.3 Queuing theory 37
chapter 42 self-test questions
Chapter 42 Test
6. discipline test 42
7. Self-test questions 43
8. Glossary of basic concepts 44
9. Literature 45
10. Answers to tests 46
Goals and objectives of the discipline.
Decision theory.
Objectives - to familiarize students with the content of the decision-making task, its place and role in the management process. Along with mastering the basic concepts, they will study the basic, classical problems of decision theory and methods for solving them, which are the foundation for the further development of decision making methods, and also serve as a practical tool for solving many applied management problems.
Objectives: To have an understanding of the concepts - a decision-making function; decision making process; the general task of making a decision and its content; methods of change in decision theory; main goals; methods for solving basic problems.
Know - the basic concepts, methods and rules for solving decision-making problems. Acquire the skills of solving problems and evaluating the correctness of the results obtained.
Theory of systems and system analysis.
Objectives - the study and development of the basic concepts and laws of systems theory and system analysis.
The student must know:
Basic principles for compiling mathematical models for making optimal decisions in a conflict;
Mathematical apparatus of systems theory and system analysis: methods for solving differential and integral equations; combinatorics; probability theory and mathematical statistics;
Types and provisions of game theory.
Explore the simplest problems of systems theory;
Find a connection in the problems of systems analysis with the methods of the concept of cybernetics and informatics;
Reducing the simplest problems of game theory to problems of linear programming.