Famous in England (1642-1660) is known in our country under this name thanks to Soviet textbooks, which focused on the class struggle in English society of the 17th century. At the same time, these events in Europe are known simply as the "civil war". It became one of the key phenomena of its era and determined the vector of development of England over the following centuries.

Dispute between king and parliament

The main cause of the war was the conflict between the executive and On the one hand was King Charles I of the Stuart dynasty, who ruled England as an absolute monarch, depriving the citizens of their rights. It was opposed by the parliament that had existed in the country since the 12th century, when the Magna Carta was granted. The House of Representatives of different estates did not want to put up with the fact that the king takes away her powers and conducts a dubious policy.

The bourgeois revolution in England also had other important prerequisites. During the war, representatives of various Christian movements (Catholics, Anglicans, Puritans) tried to sort things out. This conflict was an echo of another important European event. In 1618-1648. The Thirty Years' War raged in the Holy Roman Empire. It began as a struggle for Protestants for their rights, which was opposed by Catholics. Over time, all the strongest European powers, except for England, were drawn into the war. However, even on an isolated island, a religious dispute had to be resolved with the help of weapons.

Another feature that distinguished the bourgeois revolution in England was the national opposition of the British, as well as the Scots, Welsh and Irish. These three peoples were subjugated by the monarchy and wanted to achieve independence by taking advantage of the war within the kingdom.

The beginning of the revolution

The main causes of the bourgeois revolution in England, described above, must sooner or later lead to the use of weapons. However, this required a good reason. He was found in 1642. A few months earlier, a national uprising began in Ireland, the local population of which did everything to expel the English interventionists from their island.

In London, they immediately began to prepare to send an army to the west in order to pacify the disaffected. But the start of the campaign was prevented by a dispute between parliament and the king. The parties could not agree on who would lead the army. Under recent laws, the army was subordinate to Parliament. However, Charles I wanted to seize the initiative in his own hands. In order to intimidate the deputies, he decided to suddenly arrest his most violent opponents in parliament. Among them were political figures such as John Pym and Denzil Hollis. But they all fled from the guards loyal to the king at the last moment.

Then Charles, frightened that because of his mistake he himself would become a victim of a backlash, fled to York. The king remotely began to test the waters and convince moderate members of parliament to go over to his side. Some of them really went to Stuart. The same applied to part of the army. Representatives of the conservative nobility, who wanted to preserve the old ways of absolute monarchy, turned out to be the layer of society that supported the king. Then Charles, believing in his own strength, went to London with an army to deal with the rebellious parliament. His campaign started on August 22, 1642, and with it the bourgeois revolution began in England.

Roundheads vs. Cavaliers

The supporters of parliament were called roundheads, and the defenders of royal power - cavaliers. The first serious battle between the two warring forces took place on October 23, 1642 near the town of Edgehill. Thanks to their first victory, the Cavaliers managed to defend Oxford, which became the residence of Charles I.

The king made his nephew Rupert his chief military commander. He was the son of the Elector of the Palatinate, Frederick, who started the Thirty Years' War in Germany. In the end, the emperor expelled Rupert's family from the country, and the young man became a mercenary. Before coming to England, he had gained a wealth of military experience through service in the Netherlands, and now the king's nephew led the Royalist troops forward, wanting to capture London, which remained in the hands of the supporters of Parliament. Thus, during the bourgeois revolution, England split into two halves.

The roundheads were supported by the emerging bourgeoisie and merchants. These social classes were the most enterprising in their country. They kept the economy, thanks to them, innovations developed. Due to the indiscriminate internal politics of the king, it became more and more difficult to remain an entrepreneur in England. That is why the bourgeoisie came out on the side of parliament, hoping, in case of victory, to receive the promised freedom in the conduct of their affairs.

Cromwell's personality

He became a political leader in London. He was from a poor landowning family. He earned his influence and fortune thanks to cunning transactions with church real estate. With the outbreak of war, he became an officer in the parliamentary army. His talent as a commander was revealed during the Battle of Marston Moor, which took place on July 2, 1644.

In it, not only the round-headed, but also the Scots opposed the king. This nation has been fighting for its independence from its southern neighbors for several centuries. Parliament in England made an alliance with the Scots against Charles. Thus the king found himself between two fronts. When the Allied armies united, they set off towards York.

The battle of Marston Moor involved a total of about 40 thousand people from both sides. The supporters of the king, led by Prince Rupert, suffered a crushing defeat, after which the entire north of England was cleared of royalists. Oliver Cromwell and his cavalry were nicknamed "iron-sided" for their stamina and endurance at a critical moment.

Reforms in the Army of Parliament

Thanks to the victory at Marston Moor, Oliver Cromwell became one of the leaders within Parliament. In the autumn of 1644, representatives of the counties, who were subjected to the highest taxes (to ensure the normal functioning of the army), spoke in the House. They reported that they could no longer contribute money to the treasury. This event was the impetus for reforms within the Roundhead army.

The first two years the results of the war were unsatisfactory for the Parliament. The success at Marston Moor was the first victory of the Roundheads, but no one could say with certainty that luck would continue to accompany the opponents of the king. The parliamentary army was notable for its low level of discipline, since it was replenished mainly by inept recruits, who, among other things, were also reluctant to fight. Some recruits were suspected of having connections with the Cavaliers and betrayal.

Army of a new type

Parliament in England wanted to get rid of this painful situation in their army. Therefore, in the autumn of 1644, a vote was held, according to the results of which control over the army solely passed to Cromwell. He was instructed to carry out reforms, which was successfully done in a short time.

The new army was called the "army of a new model." It was created on the model of the regiment of "ironsides", which from the very beginning was led by Cromwell himself. Now the parliamentary army was subject to severe discipline (alcohol was forbidden, playing cards, etc.). In addition, the Puritans became its main backbone. It was a reform movement, completely opposed to the monarchical Catholicism of the Stuarts.

The Puritans were distinguished by a harsh life and a sacred attitude to the Bible. In the New Model Army, the reading of the Gospel before battle and other Protestant rituals became the norm.

Final defeat of Charles I

After the reform, Cromwell and his army faced a decisive test in battle against the cavaliers. On June 14, 1645, the Battle of Nesby took place in Northamptonshire. The royalists suffered a crushing defeat. After this, the first bourgeois revolution in England entered a new stage. The king was not just defeated. The Roundheads captured his convoy and gained access to secret correspondence in which Karl Stuart called for the help of the French. From the correspondence it became clear that the monarch was ready to literally sell his country to foreigners, just to stay on the throne.

These documents soon received wide publicity, and the public finally turned away from Karl. The king himself first fell into the hands of the Scots, who sold him to the English for a large sum of money. At first, the monarch was kept in prison, but he had not yet been formally overthrown. They tried to negotiate with Charles (parliament, Cromwell, foreigners), offering different conditions for returning to power. After he escaped from the cell, and then was captured again, his fate was sealed. Carl Stewart was put on trial and sentenced to death. On January 30, 1649, he was beheaded.

Pride purge of parliament

If we consider the revolution in England as a conflict between Charles and Parliament, then it ended as early as 1646. However, a broader interpretation of this term is common in historiography, which covers the entire period of the unstable state of power in the country in the middle of the 17th century. After the king was defeated, conflicts began within the parliament. Different groups fought for power, wanting to get rid of competitors.

The main feature by which politicians were divided was religious affiliation. Presbyterians and Independents fought among themselves in Parliament. These were representatives of different people. On December 6, 1648, the Pride purge of parliament took place. The army supported the Independents and expelled the Presbyterians. A new parliament, called the Rump, briefly established a republic in 1649.

War with the Scots

Large-scale historical events lead to unexpected consequences. The overthrow of the monarchy only increased national strife. The Irish and Scots tried to achieve independence with the help of weapons. Parliament sent an army against them, led again by Oliver Cromwell. The reasons for the bourgeois revolution in England also lay in the unequal position of different peoples, therefore, until this conflict was settled, it could not end peacefully. In 1651, Cromwell's army defeated the Scots at the Battle of Worcester and ended their struggle for independence.

Cromwell's dictatorship

Thanks to his success, Cromwell became not only popular, but also an influential politician. In 1653 he dissolved Parliament and established a protectorate. In other words, Cromwell became the sole dictator. He assumed the title of Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland.

Cromwell managed to calm the country for a while thanks to his harsh measures against opponents. In fact, the republic found itself in a state of war, which was the result of the bourgeois revolution in England. The table shows how the power in the country changed over the long years of the civil war.

End of the Protectorate

In 1658, Cromwell died suddenly of typhus. His son Richard came to power, but he was the complete opposite of his strong-willed father in character. Under him, anarchy began, and the country was filled with various adventurers who wanted to seize power.

Historical events happened one after another. In May 1659, Richard Cromwell voluntarily resigned, yielding to the demands of the army. Under the circumstances of chaos, Parliament began to negotiate with the son of the executed Charles I (also Charles) to restore the monarchy.

Restoration of the monarchy

The new king returned to his homeland from exile. In 1660, he became the next monarch from the Stuart dynasty. Thus ended the revolution. However, the restoration led to the end of absolutism. The old feudalism was completely destroyed. The bourgeois revolution in England, in short, led to the birth of capitalism. It enabled England (and later Great Britain) to become the world's leading economic power in the 19th century. Such were the results of the bourgeois revolution in England. An industrial and scientific revolution began, which became a key event for the progress of all mankind.

ENGLISH REVOLUTION 17th century , the conflict between absolutism and the commercial and industrial strata of the population, whose interests it violated; was accompanied by the struggle of the lower classes for their rights.

It was caused by the absolutist policy of the Stuarts - James I and Charles I, which ran counter to the interests of the bourgeoisie and noble entrepreneurs. They are represented in the House of Commons of the English Parliament. significantly strengthened by the 17th century. and sought through him to defend their interests. The crown, without the consent of parliament, collected taxes, sold trade and industrial monopolies to individual entrepreneurs, etc.

Those dissatisfied with absolutism broke with the Anglican Church, the head of which was the king himself, and secretly became Puritans. Puritanism became the ideology of the revolution. He allowed to believe that if the policy of the king is contrary to the good of the people, his power is contrary to God and illegal.

In November 1640, Charles, in need of money, after 11 years of sole rule, convened a Long Parliament. This was the start of a revolution. Parliament insisted on limiting the power of the crown. From now on, it was convened regularly and could not be dissolved by the king. Monopolies, illegal requisitions, tribunals that punished the Puritans were abolished.

In January 1642, the king, not resigned to the rebellion of parliament, unsuccessfully tried to arrest the main oppositionists. In August, he declared war on parliament, which ended in 1646 with the defeat of the royalists and the capture of Charles.

In 1643 Parliament replaced the Anglican Church with the Presbyterian Church. In 1646 he abolished the duties of the vassals of the crown, laws against enclosures. In 1646, in the camp of opposition to the king, a split occurred between the Presbyterians and the Independents who made up the army. The first wanted the restoration of Charles without a serious restriction of his power, the second wanted the continuation of the revolution, up to the establishment of a republic in which even the poor would receive voting rights. In 1647 an army led by Oliver Cromwell expelled the Presbyterians from Parliament, and in 1648 finally defeated the Royalists and their Scots allies. In 1649 the king was executed.

In May 1649 England became a republic. She was far from the ideals of the Levellers, since the supreme power passed to the remnants of the Long Parliament. In a country devastated by the war, the selfishness of the "rump", the lower ranks of the people and royalists could rise up. Cromwell and the top of the army in April 1653 dispersed the "rump" and convened a parliament of zealous Puritans. In December, it was dissolved, frightening the officers with democratic projects.

The army elite established a protectorate regime. Cromwell became Lord Protector - dictator. Parliament as an institution survived without playing a real role. After Cromwell's death, his son Richard took over. In the spring of 1659 the republic was restored. turned out to be unviable. In 1660, England accepted the restoration of Charles II.

English bourgeois revolution of the 17th century and its consequences

General conditions for economic and political development England before the revolution. England had a number of historically important advantages:

1. Favorable position on trade routes.

2. Wars did not ruin England.

3. Didn't need ground troops.

4. The expansion of the internal market and the early disappearance of the personal serfdom of the peasants from the landowners.

5. Strived to capture the colonies and create a powerful fleet.

6. The time of absolutism in England was relatively weaker than in France or Austria.

Reasons for the revolution:

1. Industry and trade.

capitalist manufacture. From the 16th century in England there was a rapid growth of cloth-making. The export of cloth accounted for more than 4/5 of all English exports. In 1614, the export of raw wool abroad was strictly prohibited.

Sheep breeding was profitable for selling wool to the market. Often large pasture farms were set up, resorting to the forcible seizure and fencing of lands and the removal of peasants from them.

Enclosures that covered by the middle of the XVII century. a number of central and southeastern counties of England, led to the ruin of many copyholder peasants and their drive from the land. It is no coincidence that therefore the peasants in these areas often raised uprisings.

2. Class contradictions in England on the eve of the revolution.

The development of the capitalist structure in England led to an aggravation of class contradictions: 1) the highest aristocracy, received their income from the collection of old feudal rents in the preservation of the feudal order; The old nobility” was especially influential in the northwest of the country. The ideal of the old nobility was absolute monarchy. An alliance with the bourgeoisie of a large part of the nobility. Small and medium nobles in the southeastern part of the country were engaged in the sale of wool and bread. 2) The “new nobility” bought up land and expanded their commercial income. The new nobles sought to: a) abolish the knighthood, b) ensure freedom of enterprise, c) speed up the enclosing, d) limit royal power.

A more democratic and hostile force to absolutism were small and medium merchants who did not use royal patents.

The leading role belonged to various groups of the new nobility, but the main force of the broad sections of the people - peasants, small artisans and apprentices, hired workers and farm laborers - was the urban and rural poor.

Historical Significance of the English Revolution

Revolutionary events of the 17th century. were the historical result of those shifts in the economy and in the balance of class forces that had been outlined even before the revolution. Bourgeois revolution of the 17th century. destroyed the feudal system and put an end to the feudal system in England, at the same time it established the bourgeois system and was the beginning of the domination of a new, capitalist mode of production in one of the most developed countries in Europe.

Having abolished feudal ownership of land, the revolution, however, preserved large-scale landownership and established bourgeois ownership of land. As a result of the agrarian legislation of the Long Parliament, the peasantry did not receive land, but the gentry strengthened their positions even more. They continued their enclosures, which resulted in the disappearance of the English peasantry in the 18th century. The English Revolution did little to alleviate the plight of the plebeian masses and the urban petty bourgeoisie.

The English Revolution was a bourgeois revolution. Having eliminated the monarchy and estates in 1649, it began to take on a bourgeois-democratic character, but did not follow this path to the end, for it retained noble land ownership and did not create a democratic republic.

The main driving forces of the revolution were the peasantry and the plebeian masses of the cities. The English Revolution won because it was propelled by the masses of the people, by their participation in the revolution they contributed to its deepening, they gave it a wide historical scope. It was the union of the urban plebs with the democratic peasantry that gave scope and strength to the English revolution of the 17th century, the French of the 18th century, V. I. Lenin noted.

The English peasantry took an active part in the agrarian uprisings, but they did not have such force and did not lead to such results as the agrarian movement during the French Revolution. The English peasantry bore the struggle against feudalism on their shoulders, but they were unable to carry it through to the end. Already in the course of the revolution, the stratification of the peasantry, as well as the peculiar alignment of class forces in England, made itself felt strongly. In this country, the bourgeoisie did not act in alliance with the people, as in the French Revolution of the 18th century. and in the block with the new nobility. The bourgeois-noble bloc, which played the role of hegemon in the revolution, prevented the implementation of deep socio-economic transformations, it sought to give the revolution a conservative character. This feature of the English revolution explains the fact that the bourgeois-noble bloc came to an agreement with the feudal lords, this also explains the restoration of the Stuarts, as well as the compromise that was reached between the bourgeoisie and the new nobility in 1688.

The historical significance of the revolution of the XVII century. in that it put an end to the feudal-absolutist system in England and led to the victory of the new, at that time progressive bourgeois order. The revolution freed the country's productive forces from their former fetters and gave a new impetus to the development of capitalism in England.

The English Revolution was the first bourgeois revolution on a European scale. It had direct echoes in France during the Fronde period in the 40-50s of the 17th century. it influenced the North American and French revolutions of the late 18th century. she was the prototype of the French Revolution.

Results of the English Revolution

English bourgeois revolution lasted almost two decades. It began as a confrontation between the king and parliament. it escalated into a civil war that claimed the lives of almost 100,000 people. Most of them died not from bullets, but from army fever, which was a type of typhus.

For almost two decades, the country was at war, but the main political reason for this revolution, to limit the absolutist power of the king, was achieved.

After the end of the war between King Charles and Parliament, which ended in the defeat of the king and his execution, a constitutional monarchy was proclaimed in England.

The royal power was limited by a strong parliament, and this allowed the emerging bourgeois class to gain access to the government. Therefore, the main task of the revolution was completed.

Destroying absolutism. the revolution dealt a crushing blow to feudal property, intensifying the legislative development of bourgeois capitalist relations.

The revolution proclaimed freedom for trade and enterprise, which accelerated the development of capitalism. The adopted legislative acts relating to international trade have also improved the flow of taxes to the state treasury. In addition, they significantly weakened Holland, which was England's main rival in international trade.

As a result of the revolution in England, the rule of law and a democratic civil society began to take shape. It implied a republican structure, the involvement of all segments of the population in government, the equality of all before the law.

The English bourgeois revolution of the 17th century had a strong influence on the history of not only European, but also many world states.

Sources: www.history-names.ru, vsemirnaya-istoriya.ru, tourism-london.ru, 2mir-istorii.ru, padabum.com

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• contradictions between the emerging capitalist and the old feudal order;
• dissatisfaction with the policies of the Stuarts;
• contradictions between the Anglican Church and the ideology of Puritanism.

The main driving forces of the revolution: the urban lower classes and the peasantry, led by the new bourgeois nobility - gentry.

Cause of revolution: dissolution of the "Short Parliament" by Charles I.

Background of the English bourgeois revolution

The prerequisites for the English bourgeois revolution were economic and political crisis in England in the 17th century.

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Economic crisis:

1. Fencing.
2. The introduction of new kings without the permission of Parliament.
3. king for the production of sale of certain goods within the country.
4. Illegal charges.
5. Monopoly trade.
6. Rising prices.
7. Disorder of trade and industry.
8. Increasing emigration.

Political crisis:

1. Change of the ruling dynasty.
2. Confrontation between king and parliament.
3. Embezzlement.
4. shortsighted foreign policy.
5. Marriage of Charles I to a Catholic.
6. Dissolution of Parliament by Charles I.
7. Persecution of the Puritans.
8. Tightening censorship.

The main stages of the bourgeois revolution in England

1. Civil wars. Change of forms of government (1640-1649).
2. Republican government (1650 - 1653).
3. Military dictatorship - Cromwell protectorate (1653-1658).
4. Restoration of the monarchy (1659 - 1660).

In the English bourgeois revolution, for the first time, the main patterns of development of the bourgeois revolutions of modern times were clearly manifested, which made it possible to call it the prototype of the Great French bourgeois revolution.

The main features of the bourgeois revolution due to a peculiar, but historically natural for England, the alignment of socio-political forces. The English bourgeoisie came out against the feudal monarchy, the feudal nobility and the ruling church not in alliance with the people, but in alliance with the "new nobility". The split of the English nobility and the transfer of its greater, bourgeois part to the camp of the opposition made it possible for the English bourgeoisie, still insufficiently strong, to triumph over absolutism.
This union gave the English revolution an unfinished character and led to the limited socio-economic and political gains.

The preservation of the large landownership of the English landlords, the solution of the agrarian question without allocating land to the peasantry - the main indicator of the incompleteness of the English revolution in the economic sphere.

In the political sphere, the bourgeoisie had to share power with the new landed aristocracy, with the latter playing a decisive role. The influence of the aristocracy affected the formation in England of such a variety of bourgeois, constitutional monarchy, which, along with the representative body, retained feudal institutions, including strong royal power, the House of Lords, and the Privy Council. Followed in the XVIII and XIX centuries. the agrarian and industrial revolutions ultimately ensured the dominance of capitalist production relations and the leadership of the industrial bourgeoisie in the exercise of political power. During this time, the semi-feudal, aristocratic political system of Britain slowly and gradually turned into a bourgeois-democratic one.

Political Currents During the Bourgeois Revolution in England

On the eve of and during the revolution, two camps were defined, representing opposing political and religious concepts, as well as different social interests:

• representatives of the "old", feudal nobility and the Anglican clergy (support of absolutism and the Anglican Church);
• the camp of opposition to the regime (the new nobility and the bourgeoisie under the general name "Puritans").

Opponents of absolutism in England advocated bourgeois transformations under the banner of "purification" of the Anglican Church, the completion of the Reformation and the creation of a new church independent of royal power. The religious shell of the socio-political demands of the bourgeoisie, many of which were purely secular in nature, was largely explained by the special role of the Anglican Church in defending the foundations of absolutism and in suppressing opposition by the church bureaucratic apparatus.

At the same time, the revolutionary camp was not united either socially or religiously. In the course of the revolution in the camp of the Puritans, three main currents were finally determined:

• Presbyterian (wing of the revolution, big bourgeoisie and top gentry);
• independents (middle and petty nobility, middle strata of the urban bourgeoisie);
• levellers.

Max Requirement presbyterian there was a restriction of royal arbitrariness and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy with a strong power of the king. The religious and political program of the Presbyterians provided for the cleansing of the church from the remnants of Catholicism, its reform according to the Scottish model and the approval of presbyters from the most wealthy at the head of the church administrative districts. The Prosbyterians seized and held power during the period 1640-1648, which was accompanied at first by a peaceful or "constitutional" development of the revolution, and then by the transition to civil war.

Independents, whose political leader was O. Cromwell, sought, at a minimum, the establishment of a limited, constitutional monarchy. Their program also provided for the recognition and proclamation of the inalienable rights and freedoms of subjects, primarily freedom of conscience (for Protestants) and freedom of speech. The Independents put forward the idea of ​​abolishing the centralized church and creating local religious communities independent of the administrative apparatus. The Independent Current was the most varied and heterogeneous in composition. The "Independent", radical, stage of the revolution (1649-1660) is associated with the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of the Republic (1649-1653), which then degenerated into a military dictatorship (1653-1659), which, in turn, led to to the restoration of the monarchy.

In the course of the revolution, the so-called levellers who began to enjoy the greatest support among artisans and peasants. In their manifesto "People's Agreement" (1647), the Levellers put forward the ideas of popular, universal equality, demanded the proclamation of a republic, the establishment of universal male suffrage, the return of fenced lands to the hands of the communities, and the reform of the complex and cumbersome system of "common law". The ideas of the Levellers occupied an important place in the further ideological and political struggle against the feudal system. At the same time, speaking in favor of immunity, the Levellers bypassed the main demand of the peasantry to abolish the copyhold and the power of the landlords.
The most radical part of the Levellers were diggers representing the poorest peasantry and the proletarian elements of the city and countryside. They demanded the abolition of private ownership of land and consumer goods. The socio-political views of the diggers were a kind of peasant utopian communism.

The beginning of the revolution. "Long Parliament". With the activities of the "Long Parliament" begins the first stage of the revolution - constitutional.

In general, the history of the English bourgeois revolution is usually divided into four stages:

2) the first civil war (1642 - 1646);

3) the second civil war or the struggle for the establishment of the republic (1646 - 1649);

4) independent republic (1649 - 1653).

Having heeded the "advice" of his inner circle, on November 3, 1640, the king opened the session of Parliament. And although the parliamentary elections did not give a composition of parliament favorable for the monarch, Charles I hoped for a successful solution to the financial issue.

However, in order to protect itself from an unexpected dissolution, the Long Parliament adopted a number of important acts.

This so-called triennial act(“Act for the Prevention of Inconveniences Occurring as a Result of Long Intervals between Convocations of Parliaments” dated February 15, 1641). It was established that non-parliamentary government could last no more than three years. If this rule is ignored by the king and his government, the initiative of the elections passes to the sheriffs, and if the latter are inactive, then to the population. It was established that Parliament could not be dissolved or adjourned earlier than 50 days from the beginning of the session. And the act according to which Parliament could not be dissolved except by its own decision.

Parliament, taking advantage of the favorable moment, takes away the command of the army from the king, passes a law on the betrayal of Earl Strafford, the royal favorite, and his execution is obtained.

By a special act, the Act on the regulation of the activities of the Privy Council and the abolition of the court, commonly referred to as the "Star Chamber" of July 5, 1641, such important instruments of royal absolutism as the Star Chamber and the High Commission were liquidated. Legal courts were declared "courts of common law" (and the chancellor's court). The independence of judges from the crown and their non-removability were proclaimed.

December 1, 1641 Parliament passed Great Remonstrance (protest). The Remonstrance began by pointing out the danger hanging over the kingdom, the source of which was a "malicious party" in its desire to change the religion and political system of England. The actions of this "party" explained the wars with Scotland, and the uprising in Ireland, and the constitutional conflict between the king and parliament. In the Remonstrance, demands were made to remove bishops from the House of Lords and reduce their power over subjects. To this end, it was proposed to carry out a complete reformation of the church. Responsibility of ministers to parliament was introduced. All dignitaries - ministers, privy councillors, ambassadors - must enjoy parliamentary confidence. Many articles of the Remonstrance are devoted to the issues of the inviolability of property, both movable and immovable. The illegality of the fencing of communal lands and the ruin of the cloth industry were also noted. A number of articles pointed to the destruction and impossibility of arbitrariness in the collection of taxes on the part of royal power and non-parliamentary government.

The House of Commons approved the Great Remonstrance with a majority of just 11 votes. The discussion of this document in Parliament showed how deep the differences were in the House of Commons itself on issues not related to the immediate existence of Parliament itself.

All the documents adopted by the Long Parliament limited the royal power and contributed to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.

Charles I approved all constitutional acts, this was due to his fear of a crowd of armed Londoners. The threatening behavior of the crowd was the decisive argument of the House of Commons in the implementation of the most important acts of the constitutional period of the revolution.

However, the king tries to use force against the parliamentarians. So on January 4, 1642, Charles I appears in the House of Commons, with the intention of arresting the opposition leaders Pym and Hampden, but they manage to escape. Parliament and London are in revolt. The king was forced to leave the capital and take refuge in provincial Oxford.

The constitutional conflict was not resolved, and by the autumn of 1642 it escalated into an armed conflict.

In the course of the civil war, two stages can be distinguished: 1) when the military leadership was in the hands of the Presbyterians and 2) when this leadership passed to the Independents.

At the first stage of the war, the advantage is on the side of the royal army, better trained and armed. The failures of the parliamentary army forced it to be reorganized according to the plan proposed by General O. Cromwell (1599 - 1658). As a result of the reform, an army called the "new model" was created. Soldiers began to be recruited from people of military origin, the army was subordinated to a single command, capable people from the people were promoted to command positions. Cromwell, being an Independent, secured a leading role in the army for members of the Independent communities. To eliminate aristocrats from the military leadership, the "Bill of Self-denial" was adopted, according to which members of parliament could not hold command positions in the army. An exception was made for Cromwell.

In 1645, the royal troops were defeated, and the king fled to Scotland, where he was handed over to Parliament.

Conflict between parliament and the army. By this time, the differences between Parliament and the army of Presbyterians who sat in Parliament were becoming clearer and the revolution, in fact, was completed. They were quite satisfied with the idea of ​​the supremacy of the parliament, which exercises power in the country together with the king, that is, the idea of ​​a political system similar to a constitutional monarchy. The Independents, and especially the Levellers, demanded more radical reforms. They concluded the so-called "People's Agreement", which included a whole program of actions: the dissolution of the Long Parliament; new elections involving all men; equal representation from the counties in parliament; equality of all before the law, etc.

The struggle between the Independents and the Prosbyterians escalated in the spring of 1648 - a second civil war broke out, unleashed by the king and the Presbyterian parliament. Only the support of the Levelers ensured the victory of the Independent army, within which a split occurred between the top commanders (giants) and the rank and file.

After the victory, Cromwell removed active Prosbyterian members from Parliament (purge of Colonel Pride). Of the 90 "cleaned" 40 were arrested. In the end, only 100 deputies obedient to the army (Independents) remained.

In the same year, in December, a bill was submitted to the House on the trial of the king, who was accused of violating the laws of the country, of waging war against the people, etc. The Lords (that is, that part of the upper house that remained in London) unanimously rejected this bill.

Then the lower house adopts on January 4, 1649 a resolution ( Ordinance of the House of Commons declaring itself the supreme authority of the English state). Its essence lies in the recognition of the supremacy of the lower house over the upper house and over all authorities in general (including the king).

Following this, a decision is made to create a special supreme court of 135 people, which is entrusted with deciding the fate of Charles I ( Oronance establishing the trial of the king, January 8, 1649).

Independent Republic. After the execution of the king on January 29, 1649, the title of king of the English nation was abolished by special acts ( Act for the abolition of the royal title, March 17, 1649) The House of Lords was abolished Act of Abolition of the House of Lords, March 19, 1649.), and the House of Commons declared itself the supreme power. England was proclaimed a republic The act of declaring England a free state (Commonwealth) of May 19, 1669) The State Council became the supreme executive body. His tasks included: opposition to the restoration of the monarchy, the management of the country's armed forces, the establishment of taxes, the management of trade and the country's foreign policy.

Owing its establishment to the masses of the people, the republic, nevertheless, did nothing for them. This is the main reason for her weakness, and this predetermined her death.

Cromwell protectorate. Cromwell's power increasingly acquired the character of a personal dictatorship. Having not received support in Parliament, Cromwell dispersed it in 1653.

At the end of 1653, a constitution was introduced, called the Form of Government of the States of England, Scotland and Ireland and the possessions belonging to them (“Instrument of Government”) of December 13, 1653, which consolidated the military dictatorship of Cromwell.

Under the new constitution, the supreme legislative power was concentrated in the hands of the Lord Protector and Parliament. Parliament was unicameral. Participation in elections was limited to a rather high property qualification, which was 100 times higher than that existed before the revolution.

The supreme executive power was vested in the Lord Protector and the Council of State, which consisted of not less than 13 and not more than 21 members. The appointment of councillors depended on the Lord Protector.

Between sessions of Parliament, the Lord Protector commanded the armed forces, carried out diplomatic relations with other states, and appointed senior officials.

The constitution directly declared Cromwell Lord Protector for life, thus securing his personal dictatorship.

Soon Cromwell stopped convening Parliament, he appointed members of the Council of State at his own discretion. In 1657 the upper chamber was restored. Local government was concentrated in the hands of the generals of the Cromwellian army.

The “instrument of government” contained monarchical principles, although this constitutional act reflected the class interests of the bourgeoisie, the new nobility, who were interested in preventing the restoration of the monarchy. “The instrument of administration consolidated the regime of sole power, in terms of the breadth of powers corresponding to the monarchy. The Lord Protector had legislative power, but it was believed that he shared it with Parliament. The Lord Protector had executive power (although he had to reckon with the opinion of the Council of State). The courts actually depended on him. Since that time, the movement back gradually begins - from a republic to a monarchy.

General history. History of the New Age. Grade 7 Burin Sergey Nikolaevich

§ 12. Causes and first stages of the English Revolution

England at the beginning of the 17th century

After the death of the Spanish "Invincible Armada" before England opened the way to dominance on the sea trade routes. British ships increasingly appeared off the coast of India and other lands that attracted European merchants. Already in the first decade of the XVII century. the British began the colonization of North America (for details, see § 23). Thus, the first steps were taken towards the creation of a powerful colonial empire.

In England, domestic and foreign trade developed rapidly. The isolated, insular position of the country helped transform its entire territory into a single market. Foreign trade was monopolized by a number of companies: East India, Levantine, African, Moscow, etc. Taking advantage of the weakness of competitors, such large companies, like magnets, attracted capital not only from all over England, but also from abroad. The lion's share of these capitals was invested in the further expansion of production.

What, besides strong monopoly companies, helped England to strengthen its position in foreign trade?

At the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. in England, such branches of the economy as cloth-making, metallurgy, shipbuilding, etc., actively developed. Mining continued to strengthen: in the first decades of the 17th century. England produced about 80% of all European coal.

But on the whole, England still continued to be an agrarian country. In the first half of the XVII century. its population was about 5 million people, and only a quarter of them lived in cities.

Festive festivities on the banks of the Thames

Aggravation of social contradictions

Relations in the village changed rapidly. Differences deepened between the traditional "old nobility", which was gradually losing its former influence and trying to compensate for its losses in the royal service, and the gentry, or "new nobility". Gentry sought to extract from their possessions the maximum profit. They bought up or seized neighboring lands, actively introduced improvements and innovations, set up manufactories, and invested in trade. Many gentry, in fact, turned into capitalist entrepreneurs.

At the same time, many peasants were ruined or simply driven off the land as a result of fencing and other actions of landlords who sought to take over the peasant holdings, and then rebuild their economy on a new basis so that it would bring more income. And the former peasants became hired agricultural workers or turned into beggars and vagabonds, joining the ranks of the discontented.

How difficult it is to be a peasant! Artist D. Morland

It was not easy for most peasants and representatives of the urban lower classes to understand what the changes would bring in the end - an improvement in life or a deterioration in it. In conditions of uncertainty about the future, many common people were attracted by the views of Puritans - English Calvinists. By the end of the XVI century. Puritanism won many adherents.

The Puritans advocated a "cleansing" of the Anglican Church of overly pompous rites. They insisted on the abolition of the subordination of the Church to the king and the transfer of its management to elected colleges. The Puritans encouraged their co-religionists to be diligent and extremely thrifty. Their clothes differed sharply from the expensive outfits of the court aristocracy: a strict black suit or a black dress. Puritans cut their hair "under the pot." It is because of this haircut that they were nicknamed "round-headed". Theater, dancing, music and other entertainments were considered sinful by the Puritans. Already by the beginning of the XVII century. The Puritans divided into two camps. The former were called presbyterians: they advocated the replacement of bishops by presbyters (i.e., elected elders). Another wing of Puritanism was represented by the Independents (i.e., independents), who aspired to complete self-government of church communities. Their teaching attracted active, energetic people.

The ranks of the Independents were joined by the common people of the city and the countryside, medium and small entrepreneurs, and the less wealthy part of the gentry.

What were the main differences between the "old nobility" and the "new nobility"?

Causes and the beginning of the conflict between the king and parliament

The first kings of the Stuart dynasty - James I (reigned 1603-1625) and Charles I (reigned 1625-1649) - sought to consolidate their power even more actively than their predecessors. They wanted to weaken the role of parliament, to make it a secondary authority, completely dependent on the monarch. However, under the Tudor kings, as we remember, the relationship between the sovereign and parliament was built differently, and the actions of the Stuarts were perceived as a violation of English traditions.

House of Lords building in London

The Stewarts were in a difficult position. Under the conditions of the “price revolution”, traditional taxes, which did not require the consent of parliament, were constantly lacking, and in order for the increase in previous taxes or the introduction of new ones to be perceived by the population of the country as necessary and justified, it was necessary to negotiate with parliament. However, neither James I nor Charles I wanted to compromise, while in the lower house of parliament - the House of Commons - the voices of the opposition sounded louder and louder. The most resolute deputies already sought to control the expenses of the monarchy, influence the appointment of officials and religious policy. The reform attempts that the Stuarts made from time to time were perceived as a violation of the rights of subjects and met with resistance. In fact, all the main contradictions in English society were concentrated in the conflict between the king and parliament.

In June 1628, Parliament strongly demanded that the king respect the privileges of legislators. In words, the king promised to respect the rights of parliament, but already in March 1629 he dissolved it.

Charles I. Artist A. van Dyck

Having eliminated Parliament, Charles I Stuart introduced new taxes. The harsh measures of the monarch infringed on the interests of almost all groups of the population. Peasant unrest broke out in different parts of the country. It was also unsettled in the cities. Increasingly, demands were made to restore parliament in all its rights.

War with Scotland and the beginning of the revolution

From 1603, Scotland was in a personal union with England: the Stuart dynasty simultaneously ruled in both countries. But most of the Scots wanted to break the union. In 1637 the Scots revolted. The reason was an attempt to forcibly introduce in Scotland, where the Scottish Presbyterian Church had already established itself, Anglican rites and the Anglican prayer book. The rebellion quickly escalated into an Anglo-Scottish war. The local nobility who led the uprising demanded the complete independence of Scotland.

Charles I did not have large forces to fight the rebels. And the Scots, having gathered an army of 22,000, crossed the border in February 1639 and occupied almost the entire north of England. In June 1639, England had to sign a peace treaty. The union was maintained, but Charles I promised the Scots complete freedom in ecclesiastical and secular affairs.

Soon the king decided to raise a new army, but this needed funds. And then he had to remember the parliament: after all, without his consent, Charles I would not have been able to introduce new taxes and replenish the empty treasury. On April 13, 1640, after an 11-year break, the king again convened parliament, apparently hoping that for the sake of war with Scotland, parliament, despite all the contradictions, would rally around the monarch. But the parliamentarians refused to approve taxes for a new war with the Scots and put forward the old demands for the observance of their rights and privileges. The enraged king already on May 5 again dissolved the parliament, which was called the Short. Across the country, speeches began in defense of parliament.

The Scots, having learned that the king was preparing to violate the peace treaty, decided to get ahead of him and in August launched a new powerful offensive. They defeated the English army at Newburn. Charles I had to call Parliament again (November 1640). This decision turned out to be a fatal mistake.

The new parliament was called Long, as it lasted more than 12 years. The House of Commons repeated all its demands and achieved the arrest for "high treason" of the closest assistants to the king, Strafford and Lod. At the same time, the king yielded not only to Parliament, but also to the people, whose crowds, armed with swords, clubs and stones, came to support the House of Commons. On May 12, 1641, with a huge gathering of Londoners, the royal favorite Strafford was beheaded. Later, Lod was also executed.

In the fall, on November 22, Parliament adopted the Great Remonstrance (ie, protest, objection) - a set of accusations and complaints about the abuses and miscalculations of royal power. Charles I rejected the Remonstrance and on 4 January 1642 tried to arrest the leaders opposition. But they managed to escape, and ordinary people rose to defend the parliament.

The king fled from the capital to the north, where the counties that remained loyal to him were located. There he began to gather detachments of his supporters, who were increasingly called cavaliers. In the rest of the country, power actually passed into the hands of parliament. Thus ended the first, peaceful (parliamentary) stage (1640-1642) of the English Revolution, the beginning of which is considered to be the conflict between the king and the Long Parliament.

The initial period of the war

The second stage of the English Revolution was Civil War, more precisely, two civil wars with a short break between them. In 1642, Charles I raised the royal flag in Nottingham, which, according to English tradition, meant a declaration of war. The country split into supporters of the king and supporters of parliament. Moreover, both were present in all social groups and in all regions of the country; it even happened that father and son ended up in different camps. Nevertheless, the Puritans were much more likely to support parliament than the king, and Catholics (by this time few in number) usually took the side of the monarch. The southeastern and central counties, the most economically developed, stood for parliament, while the supporters of the king were more in the comparatively backward northern and western counties.

In the hands of Parliament were the fleet and the main harbors of the country. The king therefore found himself, as it were, locked up in the north. But on the other hand, the army of Charles I was better trained and more experienced than the hastily assembled parliamentary militia. And therefore the beginning of the war was unsuccessful for the parliament.

The reason for these failures was primarily that the parliamentary troops were weaker than the royal ones, worse equipped. The generals who commanded them avoided decisive action. In addition, the leadership of the army of Parliament split into Independents and Presbyterians. The first called for the most decisive action, and the second - for reconciliation with the king. The contradictions between them grew.

Among the gentlemen, on the contrary, no one doubted the correctness of their cause, they had a clear and clear goal - to pacify the "rebels".

Were there other (besides those named in the textbook) reasons for the failure of the army of parliament at the beginning of the war?

Fracture entry of the war

Suffering defeats, the parliamentary army gained experience, learned to act more decisively and in an organized manner. Parliament was helped by their conclusion of a union treaty with Scotland on September 25, 1643, after which the powerful Scottish army actually moved into the camp of the rebels. In 1644, the Scottish army entered the northern regions of England. As early as 1643, Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658), a prominent figure in the parliamentary opposition, began to form combat detachments in the east of England. Growing up in a Puritan environment, Cromwell was as ambitious and practical as most Puritans.

Oliver Cromwell

In 1640, when the Long Parliament was convened, Cromwell's decisiveness made him one of the leaders of the parliamentary opposition. During the years of the civil war, his talent as a commander and organizer was clearly manifested.

Strict discipline reigned in Cromwell's army, he himself monitored the combat training and equipment of the soldiers (they were nicknamed "iron-sided" for their modest but reliable metal armor). Peasants and people from the city's lower classes willingly went to Cromwell's army, many of whom he appointed to officer positions for military merit. Cromwell's soldiers were distinguished by a fanatical faith in God.

On July 2, 1644, in an important battle on the Marston Heath, the troops of Parliament defeated the Cavaliers for the first time. Particularly distinguished "iron-sided" Cromwell. Soon he managed to achieve a parliamentary decision on the creation of a unified army of the "new model". Its core was made up of commoners. This is the first in the history of England regular army in terms of its combat effectiveness, it was not inferior to the best armies in Europe. It was headed by a young Presbyterian, Thomas Fairfax, who soon became an Independent. Cromwell himself led the cavalry.

The army of the "new model" in the most stubborn battle at Neisby on June 14, 1645 destroyed the backbone of the royal troops. Charles I fled to Scotland. But the Scots in February 1647 actually sold the king to Parliament for 400,000 pounds. Military operations stopped for a while. Thus ended the First Civil War.

Aggravation of the struggle between the Independents and Presbyterians

If the army as a whole was in the hands of the Independents, then in Parliament the Presbyterians were stronger at that time. The political struggle between these two forces intensified. They played an important role in it pamphlets, designed to attract as many supporters as possible to each of the groups. Particularly popular were the pamphlets of John Lilburn (1614-1657), the leader of the Levellers (i.e. equalizers), who advocated the equality of the rights of all people. The Levellers demanded the abolition of monopolies, lower taxes on the "poor and middle people", the introduction of broad suffrage, the abolition of royal power and the House of Lords with the transfer of their powers to the House of Commons. The Levellers were supported by small entrepreneurs and a significant part of the common people, as well as many soldiers in the army of parliament, in which there were more and more people from the bottom, Oliver Cromwell feared that the Presbyterians would collude with the king. He ordered Charles I to be taken out of the castle, where he was kept as a prisoner of parliament, and transferred to the protection of the army (February 1647).

John Lilburn in prison. Engraving of the 17th century.

In June 1647, the Army Council was created, which consolidated the position of the army as an independent political force. And two months later, the army, having occupied London, demanded that Parliament be dissolved and continue to convene it every two years for four months. Then there were clashes between the Independents and the Levellers in the army. As a result, Cromwell dissolved the Army Council and began persecuting the Levellers.

But all the contradictions soon faded into the background. In the spring of 1648, revolts of supporters of the king broke out in different parts of England. And he himself, while in captivity, managed to collude with the Scots and give them a number of promises. In July, the Scottish army again invaded the north of England, but this time to protect the king. The Second Civil War began.

The end of the civil war and its results

Hostilities resumed. The powerful, battle-hardened army of Oliver Cromwell acted against the scattered troops of the king and the Scots. By the end of the summer, she defeated both the Cavaliers and the Scots, finally crushing them at the battle of Preston (August 17-19, 1648). The actual removal of the king from power and the end of the Second Civil War drew a line under the second stage of the revolution. Its third stage, the republican stage, has begun.

Parliament (and not for the first time) tried to dissolve the army - the main pillar of Cromwell. In response to this, on December 6, 1648, Cromwell sent an armed detachment to the House of Commons. Its leader, Colonel Pride, let the Independents into the meeting room, leaving the Presbyterians outside. After the "Pride Purge" of Parliament, Cromwell's power was noticeably strengthened. But such a "purge" of Parliament was, of course, an act of lawlessness and a triumph of the right of the strong, or, as Colonel Pride cynically put it, "the right of the sword."

Another important event was the trial of the king. Under pressure from Cromwell, on January 1, 1649, the House of Commons accused Charles I of unleashing a civil war, conspiring with foreign powers, and betraying the English people. To try the king, the Supreme Tribunal was created, which, after persistent debate, sentenced him to death as "a tyrant, a traitor, a murderer and an enemy of the state." On January 30, 1649, with a large gathering of people, Charles I was beheaded. The execution of the king, as it were, legitimized the use of any means in the struggle for a cause declared “just”, “universal”, etc. But at the same time, the principle of the supremacy of the people and their will over any power was also confirmed.

In England, in fact, a republic arose. By a decision of Parliament, it was proclaimed on May 19, 1649. By that time, only the House of Commons remained in Parliament: two months earlier, the House of Lords was abolished as "useless and dangerous." And the royal power was replaced by the Council of State, made up of the leadership of the army and the leaders of the independents. Formally, he was subordinate to the House of Commons, but in reality a military dictatorship Cromwell, who relied, in addition to the army, on the entrepreneurial strata and gentry.

English revolution

Find on the map where the Levellers perform. What do you think is the reason that these places were in a rather limited area?

Summing up

In the middle of the XVII century. the confrontation between the royal power and parliament in England led to a revolution. As a result of the civil wars in England, not only the monarchy was destroyed, but the monarch himself. The country was proclaimed a republic, although in fact the monarchy was replaced by the military dictatorship of Oliver Cromwell.

Opposition - political groupings (or parties) that oppose the groupings and parties that dominate the state and its authorities.

Civil War - war between compatriots.

Equipment - uniforms, equipment, clothes of the army or specially organized groups - police, firefighters, doctors, rescuers, etc.

Regular army - an army created on a permanent legislative basis, providing for its organization, the procedure for formation, replenishment, training, service life, etc.

Pamphlet - an expository essay.

Dictatorship - unlimited power.

1640 - convocation of the Long Parliament. Beginning of the English Revolution. “... It has been established and now recognized by experience that the office of king in our country and Ireland and the power associated with it in the hands of one person are not necessary and extremely burdensome and dangerous to the freedom, security and common interests of the whole people ...”

(From the Act of Parliament for the abolition of the royal power, adopted in March 1649.)

1. What were the main features of the development of the economy of England at the beginning of the 17th century?

2. Why did Puritanism become so popular among English business people? Why didn't they like Anglicanism? Justify your answer.

3. Why did the king's attempt to arrest the leaders of the parliamentary opposition (in January 1642) provoke such a strong protest? Why were the encroachments of kings on the rights of parliament (and even its dispersal) relatively calm before?

4. Whose interests did the Levellers represent? Who do you think was not satisfied with their program and why?

1. In the Great Remonstrance, the parliamentarians listed their accusations and reproaches against the royal power. In particular, they wrote that as a result of the pernicious policy of Charles I, “a large number of people left the kingdom to avoid poverty: some to New England and other parts of America, and others to Holland. They also transferred their cloth factories there, and this was not only unprofitable due to the decrease in available capital in the kingdom, but was also a serious disaster.

Explain what kind of disaster you are talking about. Prove that the mass exodus of experienced, skilled workers from the state (not only from England) causes him serious harm.

2. Based on the materials of the textbook, fill in the table "Events of the English Revolution of the 17th century."

3. The military charter of the English army of the “new model” provided for the death penalty for a number of offenses: theft or robbery, “if a thing costs more than 12 pence”; looting and extortion while passing through the counties; causing violence or harm to peasants and their livestock; sleep or drunkenness on duty, etc.

Explain why such a severe punishment was established for less serious crimes.

4. Imagine that you live in England in the summer of 1642, just before the start of the civil war. Give an assessment of the alignment of forces and make a forecast of the outcome of the war (of course, "not knowing" how it ended in reality).

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