First mention of Arthur
In the mythology of old England, there is no more beautiful era than the reign of King Arthur and his valiant knights, when, in the midst of the dark Middle Ages, there came a flowering of nobility and selfless devotion to the crown and his state.
The History of the Britons is the first Latin chronicle, completed in 800 AD. A Welshman named Nennius first mentions the name Arthur as a central character in the folk legends of Wales. The first extended tale of Arthur's life appears in Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain, which combines the History of the Britons with elements of Welsh folklore.
The main prototypes of Arthur are considered to be three historical figures - the Roman commander Lucius Artorius Castus, whose exact dates of life are unknown, the Roman Ambrose Aurelian, who successfully defeated the Saxons in the battle of Badon, and Charlemagne with his 12 Paladins. Based on the fact that Camelot's main enemies, the Saxons, lived in the 450s, and the first indirect mention of Arthur appears in the writings of the Welsh cleric Gildas in the 560s, we can conclude that Arthur probably lived in the 500s years AD The image of the British King Arthur was collected from several biographies and exploits and, supplemented by a chain of interconnected storylines, became a strong framework for the cultural myth about Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table.
Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table
So, the core of the immortal story of Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table are several heroes who influenced the rise and fall of the wonderful British kingdom. King Arthur was the only son of the High King of Britain, Uther Pendragon, who became infatuated with his mother Igraine, wife of the Duke of Gorlois of Cornwall. According to one version of the legend, Gorlois was supposed to kill Uther in order to seize his power, but the opposite happened. Thanks to the wizard Merlin, who foresaw the development of events 200 years in advance, a duel arose in which Uther mortally wounded his opponent, subjugated his army and married Igraine. A year later, from her second marriage, the queen gave birth to Arthur, who was destined to become the great ruler of England.
The wise Merlin was aware of court intrigues and knew well about the people who dreamed of usurping power and depriving the heir of the rightful throne. To prevent this from happening in childhood, he took the boy into his care, later passing him on to his faithful friend, the glorious knight Ector. At the same time, one of Arthur's older sisters - the fairy Morgana - was raised by the Lady of the Lake, learning magic and witchcraft that only the High Priestess of Avalon could possess. After 20 years, Morgana played a fatal role not only in the fate of her own brother, but also in the history of the entire kingdom, however, more on that later.
After Uther's death, Merlin revealed to the 16-year-old heir the secret of his origins and taught him the secrets of military art, which were supposed to help Arthur conquer the country. Merlin, together with the Bishop of Canterbury, presented a magic sword intended for the new king of England at the next meeting in London. Those worthy of the crown had to pull the sword out of the stone, and none of the knights managed to do this except Arthur. After the popular proclamation of Arthur as King of Britain, passions at court subsided for a short time.
In one of the duels with Sir Pellinor, Arthur broke a sword made of stone, and Merlin promised the king a new sword, Excalibur, which the elves of Avalon had forged especially for him. The sword Excalibur had the magic to fight without missing a beat, but one condition was imposed on it: to draw the blade only in the name of a good deed and, when the time comes, Arthur must return the sword to Avalon.
Having become the full-fledged king of Britain, Arthur began to think about an heir to his throne. One day he was introduced to Ginevra, the daughter of King Lodegrance, whom he had once saved. Ginevra was and remains in modern literature a “Beautiful Lady,” an example of immaculate femininity and chastity, so Arthur fell in love with her at first sight. The young married and lived happily in Camelot. True, the couple never had any children, because, according to legend, one evil sorceress, wanting to pass the throne to her son, placed a curse of infertility on Ginevra.
At his court in Camelot, Arthur gathered the bravest and most loyal knights of the kingdom - Lancelot, Gawain, Galahad, Percival and many others. Various sources indicate that the total number of knights reached 100 people. It is separately noted that it was Ginevra who gave Arthur the idea to make a Round Table for the meetings of the knights, so that no one would feel either first or last, and everyone would be equal to each other and before the king.
The wizard Merlin often visited Camelot in order to visit Arthur and at the same time set the knights up for good deeds, so that they would not commit evil, avoid betrayal, lies and dishonor. The Knights of the Round Table became famous for bestowing mercy on the lower classes and always favoring ladies. They defeated dragons, sorcerers and other creatures of hell, saving kings and princesses, freeing their lands from evil and enslavement. The main purpose of their pilgrimage was to search for the Grail, from which Jesus himself drank during the Last Supper and into which his blood was then poured. For many years the knights could not find the holy Chalice. In the end, she was found by the illegitimate son of Lancelot and Lady Elaine, the knight Galahad.
Ginevra's betrayal and the beginning of the Troubles in Britain
It is historically noted that it was Ginevra's adultery that marked the beginning of the unrest in Britain. The Queen could not become pregnant for a long time and give Arthur an heir, which is why the couple constantly quarreled, and none of them even suspected the curse. At the same time, even before her marriage, Ginevra managed to fall in love with one of the knights and Arthur’s best friend, Lancelot, having met him in Camelot a few days before meeting the king.
Lancelot was raised by the Maiden of the Lake, from where he received the nickname "Lake One". Almost the entire meaning of the character Lancelot in the legends of the Arthurian cycle is his immense love for Ginevra and, at the same time, the sin of adultery, which did not give him a chance to find the Holy Grail.
Different legends speak differently about Lancelot’s beloved: for example, the knights of the Round Table, knowing about Lancelot’s sinful relationship with the queen, did not like Ginevra and once even wanted to execute her. Ginevra, feeling guilty before her husband, but unable to give up her love for Lancelot, was constantly angry with her faithful knight and drove him out of the court. Once she arranged a feast for the knights, during which one of them killed another with a poisoned apple, and all suspicion fell on the queen. The knights were about to completely expose the traitor to the crown, but Lancelot rode up and saved her, easily cutting down half of his friends.
Many court ladies, who had a clear interest in Lancelot, were perplexed by the fact that he was unmarried and decided to devote his whole life to unhappy love. Once, in search of the Grail, Lancelot had the honor of visiting King Peles of Corbenic, a relative of Joseph of Arimathea and the keeper of the Grail. The king invited Lancelot to marry his beautiful daughter Elaine, but he found tactful words to refuse such an honor. The court lady Bruzen, knowing who the knight's heart was, cast a spell on Elaine, thanks to which she became like Ginevra. Lancelot spent the night with the princess, and the next morning, when he learned about the deception, it was already too late. 
So Lancelot had an illegitimate and only son, Galahad, the future knight of Camelot.
According to one version of the legend, Ginevra found out about her rival and rejected Lancelot. He lived with Elaine for 14 years at Bliant Castle on the island, and when Galahad grew up, he returned to Camelot, and their relationship with the queen resumed.
However, Arthur himself also had an illegitimate son, Mordred, conceived by his half-sister, the fairy Morgana, during a mysterious ceremony when the wizards Merlin and the Maiden of the Lake had a hand in preventing the brother and sister from recognizing each other and entering into a relationship. Mordred, unlike Galahad, was raised by evil sorceresses and grew up as a treacherous man, dreaming of bloodshed from his father and seizing power.
The Fall of Camelot and the Death of Arthur
The king loved his friend Lancelot very much, as well as his wife Guinevere, and, suspecting their love, did not take any measures to expose the deceivers. Arthur preferred not to see what he did not want, considering peace in the state more important than personal relationships. This played into the hands of his enemies - and, in particular, his son Morder (according to some sources, Mordred was Arthur’s nephew, and since the king had no other relatives, one way or another the crown had to go to him).
Wanting to sting the king with the pain of Ginevra's betrayal, Mordred, along with 12 knights of the Round Table, burst into the queen's chambers, where Lancelot apologized to his lady of his heart for accidentally exposing her and asked for advice on how to behave further. Angry that he was interrupted in such a vile manner, Lancelot killed almost all his comrades, saddled his horses and rode away from Camelot with Ginevra. Arthur, forced by public opinion, rushed after the fugitives across the English Channel, leaving Mordred as his deputy.
Arthur never saw Ginevra again - on the road, the queen realized all her sins and asked Lancelot to take her to the monastery, where she took a monastic vow and dedicated the rest of her life to cleansing her soul and serving God.
Meanwhile, in Arthur's absence, Mordred attempted to seize power and subjugate the people. Realizing that the key figures on whom the calculations had been made for so many years could not ensure peace for England at the decisive moment, Merlin and the Maid of the Lake arrived at the court, as well as other wizards, including the adoptive mother of Mordred himself (in many versions she was the sister The Maiden of the Lake, who set foot on the path of black magic). The wizards entered the fight and were mortally wounded, so that no one could protect Camelot except Arthur himself.
Quite quickly realizing the futility of the search for Lancelot and Genevra, Arthur galloped back to Camelot, where his enemies were already waiting for him. On the coast, he was ambushed by the Saxon army of Mordred (by that time he had managed to acquire like-minded people among the Saxons hostile to Arthur). The king fell at the hands of his own son, having also managed to mortally wound Mordred. They say that in the final battle Lancelot rushed to the aid of Arthur with his small army, but he too was defeated in this battle.
The dying Arthur was taken by the fairy Morgana, along with other sorceresses, in a boat to Avalon, where Arthur threw the sword Excalibur into the lake, thereby fulfilling his duty to the elves. According to some legends, the beautiful story of the most noble king of medieval England did not end there, and currently Arthur is only dozing in Avalon, ready to rise and save Britain in the event of a real threat.
You and I are studying the English language, its grammar, methods of studying and teaching it; we read some texts, do exercises, write essays... What do we know about the country whose language we are studying?
The history of England, the Kingdom of England, dates back to ancient times. This is a very interesting subject for discussion, full of secrets and legends. I would like to leave grammar, phonetics, teaching English for a while and talk about the founding of Britain and the legendary King Arthur, whose reign can be considered the period of the formation of England!
Legendary Arthur - King of the Britons
The British people are the descendants of the tribes of Britons and Anglo-Saxons who inhabited Foggy Albion in ancient times. The exact year of the founding of England is not known, but the 5th century AD is known - the beginning of the landing of the Angles and Saxons on the British shores. And approximately in the V-VI centuries. There was a legendary leader of the Briton tribe - King Arthur.
The tales of King Arthur are a whole literary and historical epic! King Arthur is the central character of numerous chivalric romances, songs, ballads, stories, tales, poems and poems. Monuments and sculptures were erected in his honor. Historians still doubt the existence of such a person in British history. However, this did not stop the people of England from believing in him and creating legends about him. Even if he did not exist in reality, nevertheless, every nation needs its heroes. One thing is certain - this hero had a historical prototype.
Legend has it that King Arthur gathered the best knights at his court in Camelot, who entered the category of the so-called Knights of the Round Table. The most famous of them are Lancelot, Percival, Gawain and others. The exact number of knights is unknown, because different authors give different data: someone talks about twelve, someone mentions sixteen knights, etc.
What did Arthur and his knights do? Of course, first of all, these are feats of arms, battles, duels. They also tried to find the Holy Grail - the legendary cup into which the blood of Christ was collected during the crucifixion. And they were also engaged in rescuing beautiful ladies.
We lift the veil of the legend...
There are many legends about King Arthur, but they all boil down to approximately the same plot.
Uther Pendragon was the king of Britain. And he managed to fall in love with Igraine, the wife of Duke Gorlois of Tintagel Castle (as if there were no unmarried girls at that time!). To spend the night with her, Uther asked the wizard Merlin to give him the guise of the duke, her husband. Merlin agreed on the condition that the born child would be given to him to raise. Uther agreed, and a few years later he was poisoned and anarchy began in the country (this is what happens if you get involved with someone else's wife).
Merlin endowed the newborn Arthur with strength and courage, then gave him to the old knight Sir Ector to be raised. Twenty years later, Merlin presented the knights with a sword stuck in a stone, on which it was written that whoever could pull out the sword would be destined to be king. Guess who managed to pull out the sword? Of course it's Arthur. Merlin revealed to him the secret of his birth and origin. But you can't fool cunning knights! Everyone wanted to be the king of England. Arthur had to win his right to the throne with a sword in his hands.
Legend has it that, having become king, Arthur made the city of Camelot the capital of England, gathering around him the best and strongest knights of the world, who sat with him at the Round Table (oh, that legendary Round Table!). He married the beautiful Queen Guinevere and a happy life began.
As they say, nothing lasts forever under the moon, and the Sword-of-Stone broke in Arthur's duel with Sir Pellinore. But Merlin did not leave his ward in difficult situations; he promised him another sword. The new sword Excalibur struck without a miss. It was forged by the elves of Lake Vatelin, and the Lady of the Lake herself gave it to Arthur with the condition that he would expose it only for a just cause and return it to her when the time came.
But not everything is so rosy! Once, during a walk, the beautiful Guinevere was kidnapped by the scoundrel Melegant. Lancelot, one of Arthur's best knights, without waiting for help, broke into Melegant's castle alone, killed him and freed the queen. Love broke out between them and Guinevere cheated on her husband with Lancelot.
The cunning Mordred, Arthur's nephew and, according to rumors, his illegitimate son, found out about this. He reported the treason to the king. Beside himself with anger, Arthur sent Mordred with a detachment to arrest Guinevere and Lancelot; the queen was in danger of being burned at the stake. But Lancelot freed Guinevere and together they fled across the sea. Arthur went in pursuit of them, leaving the treacherous Mordred as his deputy. He took advantage of the opportunity and seized power.
Having learned about this, Arthur was forced to return and restore order in the country. But the cunning Mordred was not going to give up power. The armies of Arthur and Mordred converged on the Cammlan field. During the battle, Mordred fell, struck by Arthur's spear, but he himself dealt a mortal blow to the king.
At Arthur's request, the sword Excalibur was returned to the Lady of the Lake, and the sad ladies escorted him on a boat to the island of Avalon. Legend has it that he still sleeps on this island, but at the right time he will come to save Britain. Thus ends the heroic tale of King Arthur.
King Arthur in English class
If you have chosen this topic for a lesson or extracurricular activity, then this is a very interesting decision. Holding such an event or lesson will be interesting for both the teacher, the children, and the guests present.
- Since this is the Middle Ages, you can decorate the classroom in the appropriate style. Let your students help you, it's a lot of fun. On the walls there can be images of ancient coats of arms, swords and shields made of cardboard, in general, everything that you consider necessary
- The guys themselves can be heroes of the legend, dressed in appropriate clothes: Arthur, Guinevere, Merlin, Lancelot, etc.
- Organize expressive readings of excerpts from the ballads about King Arthur. To do this, use the works of Alfred Tennyson, Terence White and other authors on this topic
- Perform short theatrical performances and dramatizations using stories from the life of Arthur and his circle, having previously composed dialogues in English
- Include excerpts from King Arthur-themed films or cartoons into your event
- The classroom can also be decorated with children’s drawings and posters. Since the exact year of the king’s birth is unknown, there may be an inscription on the board in English, made in the old style: “Once upon a time, in the Vth century...” (Once upon a time in the fifth century...).
We are writing an essay about a legendary hero!
Whether there was such a character in the history of England, whether it is a collective image or an invention of popular imagination, just a legend - every country needs heroes, those images that you can look up to, from whom you want to take an example. Still, there is reason to believe that such a person existed, because we find partial confirmation of this in English literature.
The story of King Arthur also has instructive sides. She teaches courage, strength, fearlessness, friendship, responsibility for one's duty. This is also an instructive tale about how, sometimes, a woman can become the culprit for everything: power is lost, the country collapses.
The Tale of King Arthur is a great topic for a history lesson, an English lesson, or an integrated English and history lesson. If you have received the task of writing an essay about this king and giving a detailed answer about him, then we bring to your attention how this can be done in English.
I want to tell you about the king Arthur. It is a legendary king of England. We don’t know the exact year of his birth. But we know that he had lived in the Vth century. England is very proud of this king; he is a British historical hero, one of the symbols of the country.
The king Arthur is famous by his strength, courage, justice. Everybody, and not only in England, knows about Camelot, the Knights of the Round table, the queen Guinevere, the knight Lancelot, Merlin, etc. All these personages are the heroes of British epic poems, songs and stories.
Arthur's tutor was the wise magician Merlin. He taught him about strength and wisdom. Arthur became a king after he had pulled the sword from the stone. He gathered the best knights from the entire world. Everybody knows about the Knights of the Round Table. His wife was the beautiful Guinevere.
King Arthur is the main hero of many legends, stories, poems, songs. He is a symbol of courage and wisdom.
This is the kind of essay-story we came up with. And here is his translation:
I want to tell you about King Arthur. This is the legendary king of England. We do not know the exact year of his birth. But we know that he lived in the fifth century. England is proud of its king; he is a British historical hero, one of the symbols of this country.
King Arthur is famous for his courage, strength, and justice. Everyone knows, and not only in England, about Camelot, the Knights of the Round Table, Queen Guinevere, the knight Lancelot, Merlin, etc. All these characters are heroes of British epic poems, songs and stories.
Arthur's mentor was the wise wizard Merlin. He taught him strength and wisdom. Arthur became king after he pulled the sword from the stone. He gathered the best knights from all over the world. Everyone has heard of the Knights of the Round Table. His wife was the beautiful Guinevere.
King Arthur is the main character of many legends, stories, poems, and songs. It is a symbol of courage and wisdom.
You can, of course, tell the legend in full, but it will take a lot of time. It is enough to outline in general terms what this legendary personality is.
King Arthur in cinema
This historical character still excites the minds and hearts of history and art lovers. King Arthur is a hero not only of the historical epic, but also of modern literature and cinema. Until now, many authors write about him, taking the legend of Arthur as a basis, but performing it in their own way. Arthur is also a hero of painting and sculpture. Directors and screenwriters do not ignore this legendary character.
We bring to your attention several films about the legendary king of England, which you can watch in English with Russian or English subtitles, or with Russian translation. These films will not leave you indifferent, but will help you discover something new in the image and character of Arthur.
- So, 1953, the American film “Knights of the Round Table”. You will plunge into the atmosphere of the Middle Ages of England and the court of King Arthur. Wonderful acting and setting.
- The year is 1981, the film "Excalibur". This film is based on the novel by Thomas Malory. The film is stunning in its epicness and believability. Oscar Award and Cannes Film Festival Award. You will get great aesthetic pleasure from viewing.
- 1995 gives us the film “The First Knight”. This is a loose interpretation of the legend of the famous king, and much of the focus is on Lancelot. But the setting, costumes, castles, acting and Richard Gere in the title role do their job.
- Year 1998. A cartoon for children “The Magic Sword: Quest for Camelot” was released. This cartoon can be watched by the whole family. You will be captivated by the adventures and interesting situations that the main characters encounter every now and then.
- The famous 2004 adventure film King Arthur starring Clive Owen and Keira Knightley will keep you in pleasant suspense for two hours. But it's worth it! Beautiful costumes, the atmosphere of the era, a new performance of the legend about the king will help the viewer learn something new regarding this topic.
- Of the most recent works about the legendary king, 2014 should be mentioned, in which the start of filming of a new film on this topic was announced. The director of the film “Knights of the Round Table: King Arthur” will be the famous Guy Ritchie. The film tells the story of Arthur's youth and his rise as king.
We wish you pleasant viewing!
The epic of gloomy medieval England was illuminated by the wonderful era of the reign of King Arthur. The noble knight, wise ruler and valiant commander gave the country years of peace and stability. The character became the embodiment of knightly ideals, uniting the best warriors at the Round Table under the auspices of honor, courage and loyalty to the kingdom. Dozens of books, films, theatrical productions and even musicals are dedicated to the legend of Celtic legends.
Story
The mythology of England is as rich as the collection of legends about the glorious heroes of ancient Scandinavia, Germany, Rus' and Finland. King Arthur, who first appeared in the 600s, has taken a strong place in folk and literary art.
Researchers still cannot agree on who was the prototype of Arthur; they put forward three main versions. Some see the origin of the character in Welsh legends, in which the Welsh-born warrior, although he was seen in battles with the Saxons, never took the throne. Others claim that the prototype was Lucius Artorius Castus, a Roman general. Still others refer to the personality of the Saxon winner in the battle of Badon, Ambrose Aurelian, also a Roman.
Unsteady, but still proof is that the 6th century saw the peak of popularity of the name Arthur, that is, then, most likely, there lived a legendary personality who aroused the sympathy of his contemporaries. Despite the hypotheses about the hero’s roots, it is generally accepted that the British king is a collective image, uniting the biographies of various military men and rulers.
The details of the autocrat’s life also vary among the authors, but in general the main milestones are common. Arthur is the fruit of the adultery of King Uther Pendragon of Britain with Duchess Igraine (another variation of the name is Eigir). A wizard helped the king share a bed with someone else’s wife, turning Uther into the lady’s husband in exchange for taking the child to raise.
The wizard handed the baby over to the kind-hearted and wise knight Ector, who raised the boy as his own son, teaching him military skills.
Uther married his beloved Igraine, but the crowned couple failed to give birth to another son. After the poisoning of the autocrat of England, the question arose of who would take his place. The cunning wizard Merlin came up with a “test” - he sharpened the sword into stone. Whoever pulls him out will be the king. Arthur, who served as a squire to his elder brother, easily took out his weapon and, unexpectedly for himself, ascended the throne. However, the young man learned the truth about his royal origins right there, from Merlin.
King Arthur settled in the legendary Camelot Castle. The building is still sought after by Arthurian fans, but this is pure fiction - the castle was invented by the poet and writer Chrétien de Troyes in the 13th century. Camelot united about a hundred famous knights from all over the world. The list of the ruler's friends was supplemented by the warriors Gawain, Percival, Galahad and, of course, Lancelot.
Glorious men went down in history as defenders of the weak and disadvantaged, patrons of ladies, liberators of the lands of a subject state from barbarians and invaders, conquerors of mythical creatures and evil magicians. They are also famous for the fact that they were obsessed with the idea of finding the Holy Grail, which would grant the owner immortality. As a result, the son of Lancelot managed to find the holy thing from which he drank.
The knights gathered at the Round Table. According to one version, the idea of creating a piece of furniture of this shape belonged to the wife of King Arthur, according to another, a table that equalized the rights and classes of everyone who sat at it was given to the ruler by Merlin. The wizard often came to Camelot, not only to raise the morale of the knights, but also for educational purposes - he encouraged them to do good deeds, urged them to avoid lies and betrayal.
The reign of the noble King Arthur, who managed to save the state from internecine wars, dragged on for many years. But the hero’s life was cut short due to the betrayal of his own family.
Image
In literature, King Arthur appears as the main positive hero, an ideal ruler and a fair knight. The character is endowed with noble qualities: his character harmoniously combines courage, valor, and kindness. He is calm and reasonable, even slow, and will never allow a person to be executed without trial. Arthur's goal is to unite the state and bring it to a new level of development.
Appearance is interpreted differently, even medieval artists were unable to come to a common view on this issue - either the autocrat is depicted as moon-faced, with curly gray hair, or as a thin, dark-haired old man. I would like to believe the authors of novels and films where Arthur is tall and strong, with a wise look.
The magic sword Excalibur, which replaced the “sword of stone,” helped the crowned knight demonstrate his heroic strength. Once, in a duel with Perinor (an enemy who later became an ally), Arthur broke the weapon, thanks to which he ascended the throne. The wizard Merlin promised a wonderful gift and fulfilled his word - the young king received from the hands of the Lake Fairy a sword forged by the elves of Lake Vatelin.
The magical weapon hit the enemy without missing a beat, but the new owner pledged to use the sword only for good deeds, and when the time came, to return it to the lake, which was done after Arthur’s death.
Arthur's conquests
According to legend, Arthur participated in many bloody battles. The author of the first chronicles about the king, the Welsh monk Nennius, describes 12 of the most striking battles with the conquerors. The main triumph of the autocrat was the battle on Mount Badon, where the Britons, led by the king, defeated the Saxons. In this battle, Arthur, using Excalibur, defeated 960 knights of the opposing side.
The ruler of the Britons managed to defeat Glymory's army in Ireland, and England then received tribute. For three days Arthur besieged the Saxons in the Caledonian Forest and eventually escorted the enemies back to Germany. The battle in Pridina also brought victory - Arthur's son-in-law sat on the Norwegian throne.
Family
Having put on the crown, Arthur decided to get married. The choice fell on the beautiful, immaculate and feminine “beautiful lady” Guinevere, daughter of King Lodegrance, once saved by the hands of the autocrat of Britain. The young man’s heart melted from the girl’s charms at first sight. Married life was darkened only by the absence of children - Guinevere bore the curse of infertility received from an evil witch, which the couple did not suspect.
However, King Arthur had an illegitimate son, Mordred, from his half-sister. The wizard Merlin and the Maiden of the Lakes cast a spell on the boy and girl so that they would not recognize each other and would enter into a love affair. The bastard was raised by evil sorcerers, instilling deceit, anger and dreams of power into the boy.
Arthur survived his beloved wife's betrayal with his friend Lancelot. Betrayal marked the beginning of the fall of the wonderful era of the reign of a just king. While the ruler of Britain was resolving personal issues, chasing the fugitives Lancelot and Guinevere, Mordred seized power into his own hands. In the battle on the Cammlan field, the entire army of England fell. Arthur fought with the bastard, but it was a draw - the son, struck by a spear, inflicted a mortal wound on his father.
Books
The reign of the glorious King Arthur is glorified in poetry and novels. The noble autocrat first appeared in Welsh poems in 600 AD. as the main character of Welsh folklore. The Latin chronicle “History of the Britons” was continued in the collection “History of the Kings of Britain” authored by Geoffrey of Monmouth. This is how a full-fledged story about Arthur’s life saw the light.
Since the Middle Ages, the legends of King Arthur and the valiant Knights of the Round Table began to take on modern form, coming from the pens of Chrétien de Troyes, Wolfram von Eschenbach, and then Thomas Malory. The character inspired Alfred Tennyson, Mary Stewart and even co. It is believed that the creators of the fantasy genre started from British mythology.
Let's note the most iconic books based on the Arthurian epic:
- 1590 – “The Faerie Queene”, Edmund Spenser
- 1856-1885 – “Idylls of the King”, Alfred Tennyson
- 1889 – “The Adventures of a Yankee in the Court of King Arthur”, Mark Twain
- 1938-1958 – cycle of stories “The Once and Future King”, Terence White
- 1982 – “The Mists of Avalon”, Marion Zimmer Bradley
- 1975 – “The Mirror of Merlin”, Andre Norton
- 2000 – “Beyond the Distance of the Waves”,
Films and actors
Following the writers, the image of Arthur was picked up by cinema. The first film with the Lord of the Britons was directed by Richard Thorpe in 1954. Knights of the Round Table, in which Mel Ferrer wears Arthur's costume, received critical praise and was nominated for an Oscar and the Grand Prix at the Cannes Film Festival.
TV viewers of the late 70s watched with interest the life of the leader of the knights and the performance of actor Andrew Burt in the adventure series “The Legend of King Arthur.”
Before the start of the new millennium, the film industry gave Arthurian fans seven more films starring different actors:
- 1981 - “Excalibur” (Nigel Terry)
- 1985 - “King Arthur” (Malcolm McDowell)
- 1995 - “The Adventures of a Yankee in the Court of King Arthur” (Nick Mancuso)
- 1995 - “The First Knight” (Sean Connery)
- 2004 - “King Arthur” (Arthur was played by Clive Owen, Guinevere’s makeup and dress were tried on by Keira Knightley, and Ioan Gruffudd appeared as Lancelot)
Then the directors decided to take a break, and by 2017, with renewed vigor, they took up the embodiment of the King of the Britons in cinema. The action film “King Arthur: The Return of Excalibur” was presented by Anthony Smith in early spring. The director of the filming process invited Adam Bayard, Nicola Stewart-Hill, and Simon Armstrong to play the main roles.
Following this premiere, the final trailer for the new film from the director of The Sword of King Arthur was released, which was presented to the viewer in May 2017. This time he appeared in the guise of Arthur. The picture has almost nothing in common with the original concept of the legends about knights. The main character puts on the mask of the leader of a gang of robbers who seeks to overthrow the autocrat Vortigern. The soundtrack for the film was written by Daniel Pemberton, winner of the 2016 Golden Globe for best film music.
The character also took its rightful place in the animation heritage. The cartoon "The Sword in the Stone" based on the book of the same name by Terence White about Arthur's childhood was filmed at the Disney studio. And 30 years later, the hero was portrayed by Warner Bros. artists in the cartoon “The Magic Sword: Quest for Camelot.”
- In the 12th century, during the restoration of Glastonbury Abbey in Somerset (England), they came across a grave on the cross of which the name of King Arthur was allegedly engraved. In the 16th century, the monastery was abolished, and the burial site was hidden under the ruins. Today, a sign reminds tourists of the possible grave of the great ruler.
- In the early 80s, a crater on Mimas, a satellite of the planet Saturn, was named after King Arthur.
- The statistics of the latest film about the valiant knight are impressive. There are 40 Excaliburs used in King Arthur's Sword, only 10 are forged from metal, the rest are made from plastic. 130 horses took part in the main battle, and in Camelot they built a bridge 60 meters long, so strong that it could withstand a dozen horsemen galloping across it at the same time.
P The stories about Arthur have been known for more than a thousand years. They were still told long before the crusaders' campaigns in the Holy Land, Columbus's discovery of America and the appearance of the tragedies of William Shakespeare.
The earliest mention of Arthur's name is in the Welsh poem I Gododdin, written after the Battle of Catraeth around 600. The bard Aneirin reported that a warrior named Gwaurddir cut down many enemies and left them to be devoured by ravens, “though he was not Arthur.” Without a doubt, by the seventh century Arthur was renowned as a knight unrivaled on the battlefield. At least the listeners of Aneirin's poem knew about him.
But who was Arthur? As a historical figure, he raises a lot of questions and doubts. If the early chronicles are anything to go by, he was not a king at all. Arthur fought alongside the kings of the Britons, but the chroniclers represent him as dux bellorum, “chief of the Britons,” that is, military leader. When the Romans withdrew from Britain in the fifth century, the Britons had to fend off invasions by the Saxons, Angles, Jutes, Picts and Scots. The real Arthur is most likely remembered as a great military strategist who led the British fight against the invaders. According to legend, he won many victories in the battles for the independence of his land. Based on fragmentary historical evidence, various versions of Arthur's personality have emerged from time to time. He has been portrayed as a Bronze Age warrior, a Welsh war chief, a Northern Briton trained in the Roman cavalry, a descendant of a Roman Sarmatian warrior, a Roman general who became emperor, and a ruler (or war chief) of the ancient Scottish kingdom of Dal Riada.
However, the name of Arthur was actually immortalized by the Welsh church minister Geoffrey of Monmouth, who wrote about him in 1135, five hundred years after the alleged life of our hero, in the epochal work “Historia Regum Britanniae”, “History of the Kings of Britain”. Geoffrey collected all the known legends and tales about Arthur, reworked them and for the first time created a full-blooded image of King Arthur, as we know him today. In the era of Geoffrey of Monmouth, his work aroused severe criticism as pure fiction and fantasy. Nevertheless, the History of the Kings of Britain gained great popularity and spawned an entire genre of literature in the Middle Ages.
Uther Pendragon was inflamed with passion for Igraine, the wife of Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall, the most beautiful lady in all of Britain. Uther fell madly in love with her, but he could not overwhelm the castle's defenses. Merlin helped him sneak into the citadel under the guise of a duke and spend the night with Igraine. She succumbed to deception, thinking that her husband was next to her, and that night Arthur was conceived. When Arthur was born, Merlin took the child and gave it to Sir Ector, who raised him with his son Kay, passing on the art of knighthood to them.
In the fifteenth century, the epic poem Le Morte d'Arthur was written while in captivity by Sir Thomas Malory. He reworked and rearranged Arthurian legends in his own way, creating a completely original version. His treatment of the story of King Arthur and his knights, in turn, influenced subsequent poets, writers and artists such as Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Mark Twain, Terence White, T.S. Eliot, William Morris, Edward Burne-Jones, Dante Gabriel Rossetti.
The details vary from work to work, but the general outline of the narrative about Arthur’s life remains the same. The birth of Arthur is directly related to the sorcery of the wizard Merlin.
The King of the Britons, Uther Pendragon, gathered all the knights and barons for the Easter celebration. Among the guests was Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall. He brought his beautiful wife Igraine with him to the court, and King Uther, as soon as he saw her, was inflamed with an irresistible desire for intimacy with her. His passion turned out to be so naked that Gorlois was forced to leave the feast, return to Cornwall, hide his wife in Tintagel Castle and prepare for war. King Uther pursued Gorlois and besieged Tintagel Castle.
The fortress was located on a rocky cape protruding far into the sea. The impregnable citadel of Gorlois could be defended by three men against an entire army. Uther, exhausted from passion, begged Merlin to help him. The wizard, using magic, gave the king the appearance of a duke, and Uther easily entered the castle and took possession of Igraine. That night she conceived a child.
Gorlois died, and Uther convinced Igraine to marry him, since he was the father of the unborn child. But Uther also died before his son was born. Arthur was born when a storm broke out and the waves frantically rushed against the rocks that held Tintagel Castle. As soon as the baby was weaned, Merlin took the boy. Igraine remained with her daughter Morgana the Fairy, Arthur's half-sister, to mourn her deceased husbands.
Tintagel, Tintagel, Tint "adjel. With the light hand of translators who do not understand anything about the Cornish language, in Russian it is called Tintagel or Tintagel. In fact, the name of the castle is read as Tint "adjel - with the emphasis on the second syllable. This castle is famous primarily for the fact that it was there that the legendary King Arthur, the son of Igraine and Uther Pendragon, was conceived and born.
Tintagel Castle is located near the town of Tintagel in Cornwall in southwest England. The ruins of the castle are located on a high cliff, which is constantly washed away by the sea. If in past times it simply stood on the edge of a cliff, now the castle is actually located on two separate rocks. The photographs above show the two halves of Tintagel Castle (or rather, what is left of it). The wind is constantly blowing from the sea, and with such force that it seems that you can lie down in the wind! To get to any part of the castle, you need to climb long, steep stairs. But of course, the ruins themselves are very picturesque.
Ruins of Tintagel Castle.
A miraculously preserved doorway with a coat of arms. The castle was built next to a settlement that had existed here since Roman times. The remains of this settlement are also decorated in the form of neat ruins, and any dangerous places are surrounded by a fence. For example, there is a tunnel in the rock. They're not allowed there, but it's easy to imagine Merlin and Uther sneaking through it to do their dirty deed :)
The wizard gave Arthur to be raised in the house of the noble Sir Ector. Arthur grew up with Kay, the son of Hector, and learned the science of knighthood. At that time, Britain was going through difficult times and had no sovereign. Petty princes and barons fought with each other, and the people waited for the appearance of a real king, capable of drawing a sword from a stone. The sword in the stone was in a churchyard in London. The weapon was stuck into a heavy blacksmith's anvil and pierced the stone that lay beneath it. Many knights and barons tried to pull the blade out, but could not. Only young Arthur managed to do this. When he pulled the sword from the stone, he was proclaimed king.
Having become sovereign, Arthur gathered the most valiant knights to fight the enemies of the Britons. When his sword broke, the Maiden of the Lake gave him the magical blade Excalibur. Many rulers and lords of Britain swore allegiance to Arthur, and he built the powerful castle of Camelot. The wizard Merlin created the Round Table, at which Arthur's knights met as equals. The kingdom of the Britons began to live in peace and joy, Arthur ruled it with justice and law. His lands prospered and the people were happy. Arthur wanted love, and he married the maiden Guinevere. The noble Sir Lancelot, Arthur's best friend, became a knight of Guinevere, and a secret love affair began between him and the queen. This secretive affair later led to the collapse of the Round Table and the fall of King Arthur.
Arthur removes the sword from the stone. Excalibur.
On Trinity Day, when King Arthur and his knights gathered at the Round Table, a miraculous vision of the Holy Grail appeared before them. Arthur ordered the knights to find the sacred object, and the legendary journeys and searches for the Holy Grail began. The names of Sir Percival, Sir Gawain, Sir Lancelot and Sir Galahad are primarily associated with them. Sir Percival met the Fisher King and watched a mysterious procession with the Holy Grail in his castle. Sir Gawain crossed the Sword Bridge and passed the test of the Bed of Death. Sir Lancelot succumbed to the charms of the sorceress and made love to Elaine of Corbenic, mistaking her for Guinevere. Elaine is the daughter of the Grail King Pelles, a descendant of Joseph of Arimathea. Lancelot and Elaine had a son, Galahad, who was destined to become a perfect knight, king of the city of Sarras and achieve the Grail.
The story of King Arthur ended tragically. Arthur's other half-sister, Morgause, appeared at the court of Camelot and seduced the king. She gave birth to a son, Mordred. Fairy Morgana began to plot against Arthur so that the throne would pass to Mordred. Thanks to Morgana's intrigues, Arthur learned about his wife's amorous relationship with Lancelot, and the queen was accused of treason. She was sentenced to be burned at the stake. At the last moment, Lancelot appeared at the execution site and saved Guinevere from the fire. Lancelot, making his way to her, was forced to fight with his fellow knights and killed Sir Gawain's brothers. Guinevere was saved, but exhausted by remorse and repentance, she left Lancelot and Arthur and retired to a monastery. King Arthur pursued Lancelot, and a war broke out between them; Taking advantage of the moment, the treacherous Mordred tried to usurp his father's throne.
The last and bloodiest battle took place. The Knights of the Round Table, loyal to Arthur, fought with the army of Mordred. Below Camlan the field was strewn with dead bodies and dying knights; son and father did not yield to each other and fought to the end. Mordred mortally wounded Arthur, but the king managed to finish off his usurper son. Alfred, Lord Tennyson, described the battle this way:
So the thunder of battle rumbled all day long
By the winter sea, among the hills,
And to the paladins of the Round Table
The land of Lyonesse became the grave.
Mortally wounded king
The brave Bedivere took him in his arms -
Sir Bedivere, last among the living, -
And he carried it to a chapel at the edge of the fields.
Ruined altar and ancient cross
The wasteland was black; ocean
Stretched out to the right, the lake lay down
Levey; the full moon was shining.
In the twelfth century, the monks of Glastonbury Abbey in Somerset claimed to have found the tomb of Arthur and his queen. They excavated the ground between two stone pyramids and discovered an ancient lead cross with the inscription "Rex Arturius"("King Arthur"). Beneath the cross was a hollowed-out oak trunk containing the remains of a tall man and woman.
The Welsh, descendants of Arthur's Britons, believe that Arthur neither died nor was buried. In Wales they say about something unreal or meaningless: "As unreasonable as Arthur's grave." This reflects the long-standing stereotype that Arthur is alive and will one day appear and lead the Britons against the enemy if danger threatens them again.
Some believe that Arthur rests on the enchanted island of Avalon. According to legends told throughout Britain, King Arthur and his knights sleep in a hollow hill awaiting the call to battle. The legendary Arthur is a tragic character, “a king once and a king to come.”
King Arthur is one of the most famous mythological heroes in human history. He is known all over the world. Thousands of books have been written about the adventures of Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. Tales about them are depicted in paintings, stained glass windows, frescoes, films, musical works, dramatizations and shows, television series, plays, cartoons, comics, computer games and websites. Theme parks, attractions, tourist attractions, pizzerias, children's toys and board games, and thousands of other consumer products bear the name of King Arthur. He became an idol of the mystical New Age movement. Places associated with Arthur and his knights, such as Glastonbury and Stonehenge, have become centers of modern pilgrimage where people go in search of their Grail. The legendary Arthur acquired such magical popularity that a knight of the Dark Ages could not even imagine.
Glastonbury: Church of the Holy Virgin Mary.
The side arches of the cathedral are the hallmark of Glastonbury Abbey.
Among the patchwork colors of fields and green hills of Somerset, the small English town of Glastonbury is lost; according to legend, it is there that the legendary “Isle of Avalon” is located. The city is very old, people have been living in this place for more than two thousand years. Every year thousands of pilgrims, believers and non-believers, travel to Glastonbury in search of the mystical Isle of Avalon, the Grail and Arthurian legends. Two parallel worlds coexist at Glastonbury: a modern twenty-first century town with a typical rural lifestyle, and a haven for fans of New Age ideas, along with tourists hanging around vegetarian cafes and alternative bookshops.
The city itself is a village around a hill called Glastonbury Tor. In the middle of the city, like broken gravestones, stand the ruins of Glastonbury Abbey. According to legend, in the place where the Chapel of Our Lady is now located, Joseph of Arimathea built the first Christian church in all of Britain. Joseph, having left the Holy Land, went to France along with Mary Magdalene, Lazarus, Martha, Mary of Bethany and their maid Marcella. Joseph then sailed to Britain. Joseph of Arimathea was a rich and noble member of the Sanhedrin, from the city of Arimathea and one of the first ascetics of Christ. After the crucifixion, it was Joseph who asked Pilate for the body of the executed Jesus, and received permission to take it down from the cross. He gave his tomb for the burial of Jesus, collected his blood from the Last Supper in a chalice, and it is believed that it was he who brought the Holy Grail to England - that very chalice, and hid it - in a source called Chalice Well in Glastonbury.
In those distant times, Glastonbury did not look like an ordinary hill, as it does now, but was an island surrounded by lakes and swamps. The ship of Joseph and his companions landed at the nearby hill of Wearioll. Here the holy father lay down to rest, sticking his staff into the ground. And when he woke up, he saw a miracle: the staff took root in the ground, branches, leaves, flowers appeared, and a thorn tree grew from the staff. Thus began the tradition of the Glastonbury Sacred Thorn. A new one is planted from cuttings of an old tree. At Christmas time, a branch of Glastonbury thorn is sent to the current British monarch.
Glastonbury: The first photo shows the place where the monks found the burial place of the legendary King Arthur and his wife Guinevere. The find was reburied on the territory of the cathedral itself (second photo), and now there is a memorial sign in this place (far sign in the ground). This is the place behind the altar, where, as a rule, the most honorable grave in the cathedral was located. In 1184, a fire caused enormous damage to the abbey, destroying the Old Church and many valuable relics that attracted pilgrims from near and far, which provided considerable income for the monks. Fortunately, they soon received good news: King Henry II announced the mortal remains of King Arthur and Guinevere resting in the abbey. Henry learned about this from a Welsh bard: the royal couple were allegedly buried in a church cemetery between two stone pyramids. The monks found the pyramids, set up a pavilion and began digging. They actually managed to open the grave, where, as the brothers said, lay the bones of Arthur, Guinevere and a golden, elegantly braided lock of hair. The remains were located in a hollowed out oak trunk, and there the holy fathers discovered a lead cross, which served as a memorial identification sign. On it was inscribed: “Hic Iacet Sepultus Inclitus Rex Arturius In Insula Avalonia” (“Here on the Isle of Avalon, the famous King Arthur is buried”). The monks made their amazing discovery at the beginning of the winter of 1191. The discovery contributed not only to the survival, but also to the rapid revival of Glastonbury Abbey. Almost simultaneously, the necessary sacred relics were found. Glastonbury instantly became a center of medieval pilgrimage. At Easter 1278, King Edward I and Queen Eleanor visited Glastonbury. Arthur's bones were wrapped in precious linen, and Edward, with all the honors due to the relics of saints, placed them in a casket with the royal seal. Eleanor did the same with Guinevere's remains. They left the skulls and knee joints for public worship. Arthur and Guinevere were then placed in a spacious tomb of black marble, decorated with images of the lion and King Arthur, and placed before the high altar in Glastonbury Abbey. It must be admitted that the Glastonbury monks showed themselves to be outstanding forgers. The discovery of Arthur's tomb was beneficial for the abbey, as it had suffered significant losses due to the fire. The brothers' discovery also played into the hands of the monarchs. Both Henry II and Edward I were greatly annoyed by Welsh rebels. In Wales they firmly believed that Arthur was alive and was about to come to their aid. Henry II obtained evidence that Arthur was dead and buried. Edward I reinforced this impression with a royal reburial ceremony and a massive black marble tomb. The cross as an identification mark was needed as proof that the discovered bones belonged to Arthur and Guinevere. The real Arthur cannot be called Rex Arturius, King Arthur, because he was not such. The lead cross is an elementary medieval forgery, and the discovery of the tomb of Arthur and Guinevere is a skillful and very successful falsification. The story of the tomb of Arthur and Guinevere began under one Henry and ended under another. When Henry VIII declared the dissolution of the monasteries, vandals sacked the abbey and destroyed the tomb. The bones of Arthur and Guinevere are missing; The lead cross miraculously survived, but was last seen in the eighteenth century. |
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Glastonbury Tor ("tor" translated from Celtic, "hill").
Now visitors can use a quite comfortable stone path along a gentler slope to the top. Tower of St. Michael.
Glastonbury Tor's location is amazing: it lies on the so-called "St Michael's Lane" - a straight line connecting St Michael's Church in Cornwall, the Tor and the circle of stones at Avebury. The Tor itself is a stone hill of natural origin, on which layers of hard and soft stone alternate, and in order to preserve the hill, many, many years ago it was given a stepped shape. Once upon a time, its slopes were one of the few places in the surrounding area that did not flood in winter. Since then, gardens have been laid out on it, and the top has traditionally been used by various cults for rituals. The surviving ruins are St. Michael's Tower, the remains of a 14th-century church built on the site of a previous one destroyed by an earthquake in 1275. It stood for about 100 years when the Dispersal of the Monasteries occurred in 1539, and suffered the same fate as Glastonbury Abbey.
However, it is believed that in earlier times Druids gathered here, and another name for the hill - Inis Vitrin - is also familiar to those interested in the stories of Arthur and Merlin. The glass island is the same one on which Arthur received his famous sword Excalibur, the same one on which King Melvas hid Arthur's wife Guinevere, who was later rescued by Lancelot.
King Arthur- the legendary leader of the Britons of the 5th-6th centuries, who defeated the Saxon conquerors; the central character of the British epic and numerous chivalric romances. Until now, historians have not found evidence of the historical existence of Arthur, although many admit the existence of his historical prototype.
Arthur is the son of the King of Britain. Uther was inflamed with love for the beautiful wife of the old duke from the castle. To spend the night with her, the king asked the wizard to give him the appearance of the Duke of Tintagel. As payment, Merlin demanded that the baby be given to him to raise when he was born. Merlin cast a spell on the boy, giving him strength and courage. Then the sorcerer gave Arthur to be raised by the old knight Sir Ector. A few years later, Uther was poisoned by those close to him, and the country plunged into anarchy and civil strife.
Twenty years later, Merlin and the Bishop of Canterbury in London presented to the assembled knights a sword stuck in a stone, on which was the inscription: “Whoever pulls this sword out from under the anvil is, by right of birth, king over all the land of England.” It was accidentally taken out by young Arthur, who was looking for a sword for his named older brother, Sir. Merlin revealed to the young man the secret of his origin and proclaimed Arthur king. However, the rulers of the appanage kingdoms, aiming for the throne of Uther, refused to recognize him and went to war against young Arthur. Calling upon the overseas kings-commanders Ban and Bors for help, Arthur defended his throne and began to rule.
Arthur made the city his capital and gathered the best knights of the Earth at one table. To prevent discord between them over high and low places, Merlin gave the king the Round Table. Arthur married the beautiful daughter of King Lodegrance, but their marriage was childless.
After the Sword-of-Stone broke in Arthur's duel with Sir Pellinore, Merlin promised the young king a new miracle sword. It was forged by the elves of Lake Vatelin, and she handed the sword to Arthur with the condition: to draw it only in the name of a just cause and return it to her when the time comes. The sword, called Excalibur, struck without a miss, and its scabbard protected better than any armor.
One day, Guinevere was kidnapped by Melegant while walking. , without waiting for help, burst into Melegant's castle, freed the queen and finished off the villain. An affair broke out between him and the rescued lady, and Guinevere cheated on her husband.
Arthur's nephew found out about this. He reported the treason to the king. Arthur sent Mordred with a detachment to arrest Lancelot and Guinevere. The queen was threatened with execution at the stake for her sin, but Lancelot freed the queen from custody, at the same time mistakenly killing the unarmed nephews of the king and Gaheris. Lancelot and Guinevere fled across the sea, Arthur went after them, leaving Mordred as governor. Taking advantage of the opportunity, the treacherous bastard usurped power and proclaimed himself king. Sir, who tried to restore order, was killed.
Having learned about the unrest in Britain, Arthur returned from across the sea. The troops of the king and the impostor met on the Kammlan field for negotiations. But during the meeting, the snake bit one of the knights, and he pulled out his sword, which became a signal for both sides to attack. The entire army of Britain died in the battle. The traitor Mordred fell, pierced by Arthur's spear, but he himself mortally wounded his father.
The dying king asked Sir Bedivere to return the sword Excalibur to the Lady of the Lake. Then the sad ladies took him to the island on a boat. According to legend, Arthur slumbers on Avalon, awaiting the day of great need when he will rise from his sleep to save Britain.
The most ancient legendary sources about Arthur, his family, and the heroes of Arthuriana are considered to be the so-called "Triads of the Isle of Britain"- poetic tercets telling about the traits of a particular character.
Another important source for the Arthurian legends was the collection of Welsh legends -. Almost all the characters in the collection are connected with Arthur in one way or another. The oldest part of the collection is considered "Kiluch and Olwen". The romantic heroes of the story are relegated to the background, giving way to the main role in the story to Arthur, the tribal leader and formidable military leader. Another part of the cycle in which Arthur actively participates is "Robanavi's Dream", where he appears as a feudal lord; this piece is full of fantastic elements.
Sir Thomas Malory (15th century) finally cemented the image of Arthur in literature and popular consciousness in his large-scale epic "Le Morte d'Arthur", in which he combined and literary formulated all the most common legends about Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. It is Malory's book that is the main source for the entire subsequent "Arthuriana".