What is physiological. What does physiology study

Physiology (from the Greek phýsis - nature and ... Logia)

animals and humans, the science of the vital activity of organisms, their individual systems, organs and tissues, and the regulation of physiological functions. Physics also studies the laws governing the interaction of living organisms with the environment and their behavior under various conditions.

Classification. F. is the most important branch of biology; unites a number of separate, largely independent, but closely related disciplines. A distinction is made between general, particular, and applied physiology. General physiology studies the basic physiological patterns that are common to various types of organisms; reactions of living beings to various stimuli; processes of excitation, inhibition, etc. Electrical phenomena in a living organism (bioelectric potentials) are studied by Electrophysiology. Physiological processes in their phylogenetic development in different types invertebrates and vertebrates are considered by Comparative Physiology. This section of physiology serves as the basis of evolutionary physiology, which studies the origin and evolution of life processes in connection with the general evolution of the organic world. Problems of evolutionary physiology are also inextricably linked with questions of age-related physiology. , investigating the regularities of the formation and development of the physiological functions of the body in the process of ontogenesis - from the fertilization of the egg until the end of life. The study of the evolution of functions is closely related to the problems of ecological physiology, which studies the features of the functioning of various physiological systems depending on living conditions, that is, the physiological basis of adaptations (adaptations) to various environmental factors. Private F. investigates the processes of vital activity in certain groups or species of animals, for example, in the village - x. animals, birds, insects, as well as the properties of individual specialized tissues (for example, nervous, muscular) and organs (for example, kidneys, heart), the patterns of their combination into special functional systems. Applied physiology studies the general and particular patterns of the work of living organisms, and especially man, in accordance with their special tasks, for example, labor physiology, sports, nutrition, aviation physiology, and space physiology. , underwater, etc.

F. subdivide conditionally into normal and pathological. Normal physiology primarily studies the patterns of functioning of a healthy organism, its interaction with the environment, and the mechanisms of stability and adaptation of functions to the action of various factors. Pathological physiology studies the altered functions of a diseased organism, the processes of compensation, the adaptation of individual functions in various diseases, the mechanisms of recovery and rehabilitation. A branch of pathological F. is clinical F., elucidating the occurrence and course of functional functions (for example, blood circulation, digestion, higher nervous activity) in diseases of animals and humans.

Communication of physiology with other sciences. F. as a branch of biology is closely connected with the morphological sciences - anatomy, histology, cytology, because. morphological and physiological phenomena are interdependent. Physics makes extensive use of the results and methods of physics, chemistry, and also cybernetics and mathematics. The patterns of chemical and physical processes in the body are studied in close contact with biochemistry, biophysics and bionics, and evolutionary patterns - with embryology. The function of higher nervous activity is associated with ethology, psychology, physiological psychology, and pedagogy. F. s.-x. animals is of direct importance for animal husbandry, animal husbandry and veterinary medicine. Physiotherapy has traditionally been most closely associated with medicine, which uses its achievements to recognize, prevent, and treat various diseases. Practical medicine, in turn, puts before F. new research tasks. The experimental facts of F. as a basic natural science are widely used by philosophy to substantiate the materialistic worldview.

Research methods. F.'s progress is inextricably linked with the success of research methods. “... Science moves in jolts, depending on the progress made by the technique. With each step of the methodology forward, we seem to rise a step higher ... ”(Pavlov I.P., complete collection soch., v. 2, book. 2, 1951, p. 22). The study of the functions of a living organism is based both on physiological methods proper and on the methods of physics, chemistry, mathematics, cybernetics, and other sciences. Such an integrated approach makes it possible to study physiological processes at various levels, including cellular and molecular ones. The main methods of understanding the nature of physiological processes, the patterns of work of living organisms are observations and experiments carried out on different animals and in various forms. However, any experiment performed on an animal under artificial conditions has no absolute significance, and its results cannot be unconditionally transferred to humans and animals under natural conditions.

In so-called. acute experiment (see. Vivisection) artificial isolation of organs and tissues is used (see. Isolated organs) , excision and artificial stimulation of various organs, removal of bioelectric potentials from them, etc. Chronic experience allows you to repeatedly repeat studies on one object. In chronic experiment in F. use various methodological techniques: imposition of fistulas, removal of the studied organs into the skin flap, heterogeneous anastomoses of the nerves, transplantation of various organs (see. Transplantation) , implantation of electrodes, etc. Finally, in chronic conditions, complex forms of behavior are studied, for which they use the methods of conditioned reflexes (See Conditioned reflexes) or various instrumental methods in combination with stimulation of brain structures and registration of bioelectrical activity through implanted electrodes. The introduction into clinical practice of multiple long-term implanted electrodes, as well as microelectrode technology for the purpose of diagnosis and treatment, has made it possible to expand research on the neurophysiological mechanisms of human mental activity. Registration of local changes in bioelectrical and metabolic processes in dynamics created a real opportunity to elucidate the structural and functional organization of the brain. With the help of various modifications of the classical method of conditioned reflexes, as well as modern electrophysiological methods, success has been achieved in the study of higher nervous activity. Clinical and functional tests in humans and animals are also one of the forms of physiological experiment. A special type of physiological research methods is the artificial reproduction of pathological processes in animals (cancer, hypertension, Graves' disease, peptic ulcer, etc.), the creation of artificial models and electronic automatic devices that imitate the brain and memory functions, artificial prostheses, etc. Methodological improvements have fundamentally changed the experimental technique and methods of recording experimental data. Mechanical systems have been replaced by electronic converters. It turned out to be possible to more accurately study the functions of the whole organism by using the methods of electroencephalography, electrocardiography, electromyography (See electromyography), and especially biotelemetry (See Biotelemetry) in animals and humans. The use of the stereotaxic method made it possible to successfully study deeply located brain structures. To record physiological processes, automatic photography from cathode ray tubes onto film or recording with electronic devices is widely used. The registration of physiological experiments on magnetic and perforated tape and their subsequent processing on a computer is becoming more and more widespread. The method of electron microscopy of the nervous system made it possible to more accurately study the structure of interneuronal contacts and determine their specificity in various brain systems.

Historical essay. The initial information from the field of physiology was obtained in ancient times on the basis of empirical observations by naturalists and physicians, and especially anatomical autopsies of animal and human corpses. For many centuries, the views on the body and its functions were dominated by the ideas of Hippocrates and (5th century BC) and Aristotle (See Aristotle) ​​(4th century BC). However, the most significant progress in physics was determined by the widespread introduction of vivisection experiments, which were initiated in ancient Rome by Galen (second century BC). In the Middle Ages, the accumulation of biological knowledge was determined by the demands of medicine. During the Renaissance, the development of physics was facilitated by the general progress of the sciences.

Physiology as a science originates from the work of the English physician W. Harvey. , which, with the discovery of blood circulation (1628), "...makes science out of physiology (of man and also of animals)" (Engels F., Dialectics of Nature, 1969, p. 158). Harvey formulated ideas about the large and small circles of blood circulation and about the heart as the engine of blood in the body. Harvey was the first to establish that blood flows from the heart through the arteries and returns to it through the veins. The basis for the discovery of blood circulation was prepared by the studies of the anatomists A. Vesalius (See Vesalius) , the Spanish scientist M. Servet a (1553), the Italian scientist R. Colombo (1551), G. Fallopia (See Fallopius), and others. The Italian biologist M. Malpighi , for the first time (1661) who described capillaries, proved the correctness of ideas about blood circulation. The leading achievement of philosophy, which determined its subsequent materialistic orientation, was the discovery in the first half of the 17th century of French scientist R. Descartes and later (in the 18th century) Czech. doctor J. Prohaska (See Prohaska) of the reflex principle, according to which every activity of the body is a reflection - a reflex - of external influences carried out through the central nervous system. Descartes assumed that sensory nerves are actuators that stretch when stimulated and open valves on the surface of the brain. Through these valves, “animal spirits” exit, which are sent to the muscles and cause them to contract. The discovery of the reflex dealt the first crushing blow to the church-idealistic ideas about the mechanisms of the behavior of living beings. In the future, "... the reflex principle in the hands of Sechenov became a weapon cultural revolution in the sixties of the last century, and 40 years later, in the hands of Pavlov, he turned out to be a powerful lever that turned the entire development of the problem of the mental by 180 ° ”(Anokhin P.K., From Descartes to Pavlov, 1945, p. 3).

In the 18th century Physical and chemical research methods are being introduced into physics. The ideas and methods of mechanics were especially actively used. Thus, the Italian scientist G. A. Borelli, at the end of the 17th century. uses the laws of mechanics to explain the movements of animals, the mechanism of respiratory movements. He also applied the laws of hydraulics to the study of the movement of blood in the vessels. The English scientist S. Gales determined the value of blood pressure (1733). The French scientist R. Réaumur and the Italian naturalist L. Spallanzani investigated the chemistry of digestion. Franz. the scientist A. Lavoisier, who studied the processes of oxidation, tried to approach the understanding of respiration on the basis of chemical laws. The Italian scientist L. Galvani discovered "animal electricity," that is, bioelectrical phenomena in the body.

By the 1st half of the 18th century. the beginning of F.'s development in Russia concerns. The department of anatomy and physiology was created in the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, opened in 1725. It was headed by D. Bernoulli , L. Euler , I. Veitbrecht dealt with the biophysics of blood flow. Important for F. were the studies of M. V. Lomonosov, who attached great importance to chemistry in the knowledge of physiological processes. The leading role in the development of physiology in Russia was played by the medical faculty of Moscow University, opened in 1755. The teaching of the fundamentals of physiology, together with anatomy and other medical specialties, was started by S. G. Zybelin. An independent department of physiology at the university, headed by M. I. Skiadan and I. I. Vech, was opened in 1776. The first dissertation on physiology was written by F. I. Barsuk-Moiseev and was devoted to respiration (1794). The St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy (now the S. M. Kirov Military Medical Academy) was founded in 1798, where phlebotomy subsequently developed significantly.

In the 19th century F. finally separated from anatomy. The achievements of organic chemistry, the discovery of the law of conservation and transformation of energy, the cellular structure of the organism, and the creation of a theory of the evolutionary development of the organic world were of decisive importance for the development of physics at that time.

At the beginning of the 19th century believed that chemical compounds in a living organism are fundamentally different from inorganic substances and cannot be created outside the body. In 1828 it. chemist F. Wöhler synthesized an organic compound, urea, from inorganic substances, and thereby undermined vitalistic ideas about the special properties of chemical compounds in the body. Soon German. the scientist J. Liebig, and then many other scientists, synthesized various organic compounds found in the body and studied their structure. These studies marked the beginning of the analysis of chemical compounds involved in the construction of the body and metabolism. Studies of the metabolism and energy in living organisms were developed. Methods of direct and indirect calorimetry were developed, which made it possible to accurately measure the amount of energy contained in various nutrients, as well as released by animals and humans at rest and during work (works by V. V. Pashutin and , A. A. Likhachev in Russia, M. Rubner a in Germany, F. Benedict, W. Atwater a in the USA, etc.); nutritional norms were determined (K. Voit and others). F. of neuromuscular tissue has received significant development. This was facilitated by the developed methods of electrical stimulation and mechanical graphic recording of physiological processes. German scientist E. Dubois-Reymond proposed a sledge induction apparatus, German. the physiologist C. Ludwig invented (1847) a kymograph, a float manometer for recording blood pressure, a blood clock for recording blood flow velocity, etc. The French scientist E. Marey was the first to use photography to study movements and invented a device for recording movements of the chest, the Italian scientist A. Mosso proposed a device for studying the blood filling of organs (see Plethysmography) , a device for the study of fatigue (Ergograf) and a weight table for studying the redistribution of blood. The laws of the action of direct current on excitable tissue were established (German scientist E. Pfluger , Russian – B. F. Verigo , ), the rate of conduction of excitation along the nerve was determined (G. Helmholtz). Helmholtz also laid the foundations for the theory of vision and hearing. Using the method of telephone listening to an excited nerve, Rus. The physiologist N. E. Vvedensky made a significant contribution to understanding the basic physiological properties of excitable tissues and established the rhythmic character of nerve impulses. He showed that living tissues change their properties both under the influence of stimuli and in the process of activity itself. Having formulated the doctrine of the optimum and pessimum of irritation, Vvedensky was the first to note reciprocal relationships in the central nervous system. He was the first to consider the process of inhibition in genetic connection with the process of excitation, he discovered the phases of transition from excitation to inhibition. Studies of electrical phenomena in the body, initiated by Italian. scientists L. Galvani and A. Volta, were continued by him. scientists - Dubois-Reymond, L. German, and in Russia - Vvedensky. Rus. scientists I. M. Sechenov and V. Ya. Danilevsky were the first to register electrical phenomena in the central nervous system.

Research has begun on the nervous regulation of physiological functions with the help of methods of transection and stimulation of various nerves. German the scientists brothers E. G. and E. Weber discovered the inhibitory effect of the vagus nerve on the heart, Rus. physiologist I. F. Zion – the action of the sympathetic nerve that speeds up heart contractions, IP Pavlov - the amplifying effect of this nerve on heart contractions. A. P. Walter in Russia, and then K. Bernard in France, discovered sympathetic vasoconstrictor nerves. Ludwig and Zion discovered centripetal fibers coming from the heart and aorta, reflexively changing the work of the heart and vascular tone. F. V. Ovsyannikov discovered the vasomotor center in the medulla oblongata, and N. A. Mislavsky studied in detail the previously discovered respiratory center of the medulla oblongata.

In the 19th century ideas have developed about the trophic role of the nervous system, that is, about its influence on metabolic processes and the nutrition of organs. Franz. In 1824, the scientist F. Magendie described pathological changes in tissues after nerve transection; Bernard observed changes in carbohydrate metabolism after an injection into a certain area of ​​the medulla oblongata (“sugar prick”); R. Heidenhain established the influence of sympathetic nerves on the composition of saliva; nerves to the heart. In the 19th century the formation and deepening of the reflex theory of nervous activity continued. The spinal reflexes have been studied in detail and the reflex arc analyzed (See Reflex arc) . Shotl. scientist C. Bell in 1811, as well as Magendie in 1817 and German. scientist I. Muller studied the distribution of centrifugal and centripetal fibers in the spinal roots (Bella - Magendie law (See Bell - Magendie law)) . Bell in 1826 suggested that there are afferent influences coming from the muscles during their contraction into the central nervous system. These views were later developed by the Russian scientists A. Volkman and A. M. Filomafitsky. The work of Bell and Magendie served as an impetus for the development of research on the localization of functions in the brain and formed the basis for subsequent ideas about the activity of physiological systems according to the feedback principle (See Feedback). In 1842 the French physiologist P. Flourens , investigating the role of various parts of the brain and individual nerves in voluntary movements, he formulated the concept of the plasticity of nerve centers and the leading role of the cerebral hemispheres in the regulation of voluntary movements. The work of Sechenov, who discovered the process of inhibition in 1862, was of outstanding importance for the development of physics. in the central nervous system. He showed that stimulation of the brain under certain conditions can cause a special inhibitory process that suppresses excitation. Sechenov also discovered the phenomenon of summation of excitation in the nerve centers. The works of Sechenov, who showed that "... all acts of conscious and unconscious life, according to the method of origin, are reflexes" ("Reflexes of the brain", see in the book: Selected philosophical and psychological works, 1947, p. 176) , contributed to the establishment of materialistic F. Under the influence of Sechenov’s research, S. P. Botkin and Pavlov introduced the concept of Nervism a , i.e., the idea of ​​the primary importance of the nervous system in regulating physiological functions and processes in a living organism (arose as a contrast to the concept of humoral regulation (See Humoral regulation)). The study of the influence of the nervous system on the functions of the body has become a tradition in Rus. and owls. F.

In the 2nd half of the 19th century. With the widespread use of the method of extirpation (removal), the study of the role of various parts of the brain and spinal cord in the regulation of physiological functions was begun. The possibility of direct stimulation of the cerebral cortex was shown to him. scientists G. Fritsch and E. Gitzig in 1870, and the successful removal of the hemispheres was carried out by F. Goltz in 1891 (Germany). An experimental surgical technique was widely developed (works by V. A. Basov, L. Tiri, L. Vell, R. Heidenhain, Pavlov, etc.) for monitoring the functions of internal organs, especially the digestive organs, Pavlov established the basic patterns in the work of the main digestive glands, the mechanism of their nervous regulation, changes in the composition of digestive juices depending on the nature of food and rejected substances. Pavlov's research, awarded the Nobel Prize in 1904, made it possible to understand the work of the digestive apparatus as a functionally integral system.

In the 20th century a new stage in the development of F. began, feature which was the transition from a narrowly analytical understanding of life processes to a synthetic one. The work of I. P. Pavlov and his school on the physics of higher nervous activity had a huge impact on the development of domestic and world physics. Pavlov's discovery of the conditioned reflex made it possible, on an objective basis, to begin studying the mental processes underlying the behavior of animals and humans. During a 35-year study of higher nervous activity, Pavlov established the basic patterns of the formation and inhibition of conditioned reflexes, the physiology of analyzers, types of the nervous system, revealed features of the violation of higher nervous activity in experimental neuroses, developed a cortical theory of sleep and hypnosis, laid the foundations for the doctrine of two signal systems . Pavlov's works formed a materialistic foundation for the subsequent study of higher nervous activity; they provide a natural scientific justification for the theory of reflection created by V. I. Lenin.

A major contribution to the study of the physiology of the central nervous system was made by the English physiologist C. Sherrington. , who established the basic principles of the integrative activity of the brain: reciprocal inhibition, occlusion, convergence (See Convergence) of excitations on individual neurons, etc. Sherrington's work enriched the F. of the central nervous system with new data on the relationship between the processes of excitation and inhibition, on the nature of muscle tone and its disturbance, and had a fruitful influence on the development of further research. Thus, the Dutch scientist R. Magnus studied the mechanisms of maintaining a posture in space and its changes during movements. Owls. the scientist V. M. Bekhterev showed the role of subcortical structures in the formation of emotional and motor reactions in animals and humans, discovered the pathways of the spinal cord and brain, the functions of the visual tubercles, etc. Owls. scientist A. A. Ukhtomsky formulated the doctrine of the dominant (See Dominant) as a leading principle of the brain; this doctrine significantly supplemented the ideas about the rigid determination of reflex acts and their brain centers. Ukhtomsky found that the excitation of the brain caused by the dominant need not only suppresses less significant reflex acts, but also leads to the fact that they enhance the dominant activity.

Significant achievements have enriched F. physical direction of research. The use of a string galvanometer by the Dutch scientist W. Einthoven , and then by the Soviet researcher A.F. Samoilov made it possible to register the bioelectric potentials of the heart. With the help of electronic amplifiers, which made it possible to amplify weak biopotentials hundreds of thousands of times, the American scientist G. Gasser, English - E. Adrian and Russian. physiologist D. S. Vorontsov registered the biopotentials of the nerve trunks (see Bioelectric potentials). Registration of electrical manifestations of brain activity - electroencephalography - was first carried out in Rus. physiologist VV Pravdich-Neminsky and continued and developed by German. researcher G. Berger. The Soviet physiologist MN Livanov applied mathematical methods to analyze the bioelectric potentials of the cerebral cortex. The English physiologist A. Hill registered heat generation in the nerve during the passage of an excitation wave.

In the 20th century studies of the process of nervous excitation by methods of physical chemistry began. The ionic excitation theory was proposed by Rus. scientist V. Yu. Chagovets (See Chagovets) , then developed in the works of him. scientists Yu. Bernshtein, V. Nernst and Rus. researcher P.P. Lazarev a. In the works of the English scientists P. Boyle, E. Conway and A. Hodgkin a , A. Huxley and B. Katz developed the membrane theory of excitation. The Soviet cytophysiologist D. N. Nasonov established the role of cellular proteins in the processes of excitation. The development of the theory of mediators, i.e., chemical transmitters of nerve impulses in nerve endings, is closely connected with research on the process of excitation (Austrian pharmacologist O. Loewy (See Lay) , Samoilov, I. P. Razenkov , A. V. Kibyakov, K. M. Bykov , L. S. Stern , E. B. Babsky, Kh. S. Koshtoyants in the USSR; W. Cannon in the USA; B. Mintz in France, etc.). Developing ideas about the integrative activity of the nervous system, the Australian physiologist J. Eccles developed in detail the doctrine of the membrane mechanisms of synaptic transmission.

In the middle of the 20th century American scientist H. Magone and Italian - J. Moruzzi discovered nonspecific activating and inhibitory effects of the reticular formation (See Reticular formation) on various parts of the brain. In connection with these studies, classical ideas about the nature of the propagation of excitations through the central nervous system, about the mechanisms of cortical-subcortical relationships, sleep and wakefulness, anesthesia, emotions and motivations, have significantly changed. Developing these ideas, the Soviet physiologist P. K. Anokhin formulated the concept of the specific nature of the ascending activating influences of subcortical formations on the cerebral cortex during reactions of various biological qualities. The functions of the limbic system have been studied in detail (See Limbic system) brain (Amer. scientist P. McLane, Soviet physiologist I. S. Beritashvili, etc.), its participation in the regulation of autonomic processes, in the formation of emotions (See Emotions) and motivations (See Motivations) was revealed , processes of memory, the physiological mechanisms of emotions are studied (Amer. researchers F. Bard, P. McLane, D. Lindeli, J. Olds; Italian - A. Zanchetti; Swiss - R. Hess, R. Hunsperger; Soviet - Beritashvili, Anokhin, A.V. Valdman, N.P. Bekhtereva, P.V. Simonov and others). Studies of the mechanisms of sleep have received significant development in the works of Pavlov, Hess, Moruzzi, fr. researcher Jouvet, owls. researchers F. P. Mayorov, N. A. Rozhansky, Anokhin, N. I. Grashchenkov a and etc.

At the beginning of the 20th century there was a new doctrine about the activity of the endocrine glands - Endocrinology. The main violations of physiological functions in lesions of the endocrine glands were elucidated. Ideas about the internal environment of the body, a single neurohumoral regulation (See Neurohumoral regulation), Homeostasis e , barrier functions of the body (the work of Kennon, the Soviet scientists L. A. Orbeli, Bykov, Stern, G. N. Kassil, and others). The studies of Orbeli and his students (A. V. Tonkikh, A. G. Ginetsinsky and others) on the adaptive-trophic function of the sympathetic nervous system and its effect on skeletal muscles, sensory organs and the central nervous system, as well as the school of A. D. Speransky (See Speransky) – the influence of the nervous system on the course of pathological processes - Pavlov's idea of ​​the trophic function of the nervous system was developed. Bykov, his students and followers (V. N. Chernigovsky , I. A. Bulygin, A. D. Slonim, I. T. Kurtsin, E. Sh. Airapetyants, A. V. Rikkl, A. V. Solovyov and others) developed the theory of cortico-visceral physiology and pathology. Bykov's research shows the role of conditioned reflexes in the regulation of the functions of internal organs.

In the middle of the 20th century significant success has been achieved by F. nutrition. The energy consumption of people of various professions was studied and scientifically based nutritional norms were developed (Sov. scientists M. N. Shaternikov, O. P. Molchanova, German researcher K. Voit, American physiologist F. Benedikt, and others). In connection with space flights and exploration of the water space, space and underwater physics developed. In the second half of the 20th century. The physics of sensory systems is being actively developed by the Soviet researchers Chernigovskii, A. L. Vyzov, G. V. Gershuni, and R. A. Durinyan; the Swedish researcher R. Granit; and the Canadian scientist V. Amasyan. Owls. researcher A. M. Ugolev discovered the mechanism of parietal digestion. Central hypothalamic mechanisms for the regulation of hunger and satiety were discovered (American researcher J. Brobek, Indian scientist B. Anand, and many others).

A new chapter was the doctrine of vitamins, although the need for these substances for normal life was established as early as the 19th century. - the work of the Russian scientist N. I. Lunin.

Major advances have been made in the study of the functions of the heart (the works of E. Starling, T. Lewis in Great Britain; K. Wiggers in the USA; A. I. Smirnov, G. I. Kositsky, F. Z. Meyerson in the USSR; and others), blood vessels (the work of H. Goering in Germany; K. Geymans in Belgium; V. V. Parin, Chernigovsky in the USSR; E. Neal in Great Britain; and others) and capillary blood circulation (the work of the Danish scientist A. Krogh, owls. physiologist A. M. Chernukh and others). The mechanism of respiration and transport of gases by blood was studied (works by J. Barcroft and , J. Haldane a In Great Britain; D. Van Slyke in the USA; E. M. Kreps a in the USSR; and etc.). The regularities of functioning of the kidneys have been established (studies by the English scientist A. Keshni, the American scientist A. Richards, and others). Owls. physiologists generalized the patterns of evolution of the functions of the nervous system and the physiological mechanisms of behavior (Orbeli, L. I. Karamyan, and others). The development of F. and medicine was influenced by the work of the Canadian pathologist G. Selye , who formulated (1936) the concept of stress as a non-specific adaptive reaction of the body under the action of external and internal stimuli. Since the 60s. A systematic approach is increasingly being introduced in physics. The achievement of the owls F. is the theory of the functional system developed by Anokhin, according to which various organs of the whole organism are selectively involved in system organizations, ensuring the achievement of final, adaptive results for the body. The systemic mechanisms of brain activity are being successfully developed by a number of Soviet researchers (M. N. Livanov, A. B. Kogan, and many others).

Modern trends and tasks of physiology. One of the main tasks of modern physiology is to elucidate the mechanisms of the mental activity of animals and humans in order to develop effective measures against neuropsychiatric diseases. The solution of these issues is facilitated by studies of functional differences between the right and left hemispheres of the brain, elucidation of the finest neural mechanisms of the conditioned reflex, the study of brain functions in humans using implanted electrodes, and artificial modeling of psychopathological syndromes in animals.

Physiological studies of the molecular mechanisms of nervous excitation and muscle contraction will help to reveal the nature of the selective permeability of cell membranes, create their models, understand the mechanism of transport of substances through cell membranes, and elucidate the role of neurons, their populations and glial elements in the integrative activity of the brain, and in particular in memory processes. The study of various levels of the central nervous system will make it possible to find out their role in the formation and regulation of emotional states. Further study of the problems of perception, transmission and processing of information by various sensory systems will make it possible to understand the mechanisms of formation and perception of speech, recognition of visual images, sound, tactile, and other signals. F. of movements, compensatory mechanisms for restoring motor functions in various lesions of the musculoskeletal system, as well as the nervous system, are actively developing. Research is being carried out on the central mechanisms of regulation of the vegetative functions of the body, the mechanisms of the adaptive-trophic influence of the autonomic nervous system, and the structural and functional organization of the autonomic ganglia. Studies of respiration, blood circulation, digestion, water-salt metabolism, thermoregulation and the activity of the endocrine glands make it possible to understand the physiological mechanisms of visceral functions. In connection with the creation of artificial organs - the heart, kidneys, liver, etc. F. must find out the mechanisms of their interaction with the body of recipients. For medicine, F. solves a number of problems, for example, determining the role of emotional stress in the development of cardiovascular diseases and neuroses. Important areas of F. are age physiology and gerontology. Before F. page - x. animals are faced with the task of increasing their productivity.

Evolutionary features of the morpho-functional organization of the nervous system and various somato-vegetative functions of the body, as well as ecological and physiological changes in the body of humans and animals, are intensively studied. In connection with scientific and technological progress, there is an urgent need to study human adaptation to working and living conditions, as well as to the action of various extreme factors (emotional stress, exposure to various climatic conditions, etc.). An urgent task of modern physiology is to elucidate the mechanisms of a person's resistance to stressful influences. In order to study human functions in space and underwater conditions, work is being carried out on modeling physiological functions, creating artificial robots, etc. In this direction, self-controlled experiments are gaining wide development, in which, with the help of a computer, various physiological parameters of the experimental object are kept within certain limits, despite various influences on it. It is necessary to improve and create new systems for protecting a person from the adverse effects of a polluted environment, electromagnetic fields, barometric pressure, gravitational overloads, and other physical factors.

Scientific institutions and organizations, periodicals. Physiological research is carried out in the USSR in a number of large institutions: the Institute of Physiology. IP Pavlov Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Leningrad), Institute of Higher Nervous Activity of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Moscow), Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry. I. M. Sechenov Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Leningrad), Institute of Normal Physiology. P. K. Anokhin Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR (Moscow), Institute of General Pathology and Pathological Physiology of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR (Moscow), Institute of the Brain of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR (Moscow), Institute of Physiology. A. A. Bogomolets Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR (Kyiv), Institute of Physiology of the Academy of Sciences of the BSSR (Minsk), Institute of Physiology. I. S. Beritashvili (Tbilisi), Institute of Physiology. L. A. Orbeli (Yerevan), Institute of Physiology. A. I. Karaev (Baku), Institutes of Physiology (Tashkent and Alma-Ata), Institute of Physiology. A. A. Ukhtomsky (Leningrad), the Institute of Neurocybernetics (Rostov-on-Don), the Institute of Physiology (Kyiv), and others. IP Pavlov, uniting the work of large branches in Moscow, Leningrad, Kyiv and other cities of the USSR. In 1963, the Department of Physiology of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR was organized, which led the work of physiological institutions of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and the All-Union Physiological Society. Approximately 10 journals are published on F. (see Physiological journals). Pedagogical and scientific activities are carried out by the departments of F. medical, pedagogical and agricultural. institutions of higher learning and universities.

Since 1889, every 3 years (with a break of 7 years in connection with the first and 9 years in connection with the second world wars), international physiological congresses have been convened: the first in 1889 in Basel (Switzerland); 2nd in 1892 in Liege (Belgium); 3rd in 1895 in Bern (Switzerland); 4th in 1898 in Cambridge (Great Britain); 5th in 1901 in Turin (Italy); 6th in 1904 in Brussels (Belgium); 7th in 1907 at Heidelberg (Germany); 8th in 1910 in Vienna (Austria); 9th in 1913 in Groningen (Netherlands); 10th in 1920 in Paris (France); 11th in 1923 in Edinburgh (Great Britain); 12th in 1926 in Stockholm (Sweden); 13th in 1929 in Boston (USA); 14th in 1932 in Rome (Italy); 15th in 1935 in Leningrad-Moscow (USSR); 16th in 1938 in Zurich (Switzerland); 17th in 1947 at Oxford (Great Britain); 18th in 1950 in Copenhagen (Denmark); 19th in 1953 in Montreal (Canada); 20th in 1956 in Brussels (Belgium); 21st in 1959 in Buenos Aires (Argentina); 22nd in 1962 in Leiden (Netherlands); 23rd in 1965 in Tokyo (Japan); 24th in 1968 in Washington (USA); 25th in 1971 in Munich (FRG); 26th in 1974 in New Delhi (India); 27th in 1977 in Paris (France). In 1970, the International Union of Physiological Sciences (JUPS) was organized; print organ - Newsletter. In the USSR, physiological congresses have been convened since 1917: the first in 1917 in Petrograd; 2nd in 1926 in Leningrad; 3rd in 1928 in Moscow; 4th in 1930 in Kharkov; 5th in 1934 in Moscow; 6th in 1937 in Tbilisi; 7th in 1947 in Moscow; 8th in 1955 in Kyiv; 9th in 1959 in Minsk; 10th in 1964 in Yerevan; 11th in 1970 in Leningrad; 12th in 1975 in Tbilisi.

Lit.: Story- Anokhin P.K., From Descartes to Pavlov, M., 1945; Koshtoyants Kh. S., Essays on the history of physiology in Russia, M. - L., 1946; Lunkevich V.V., From Heraclitus to Darwin. Essays on the history of biology, 2nd ed., vol. 1–2, M., 1960; Mayorov F.P., History of the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, 2nd ed., M. - L., 1954; Development of biology in the USSR, M., 1967; History of biology from ancient times to the beginning of the 20th century, M., 1972; History of biology from the beginning of the 20th century to the present day, M., 1975.

Collections of works, monographs- Lazarev P. P., Works, vol. 2, M. - L., 1950; Ukhtomsky A. A., Sobr. soch., vol. 1–6, L., 1950–62; Pavlov I.P., Complete collection of works, 2nd ed., vol. 1–6, M., 1951–52; Vvedensky N, E., Complete collection of works, vols. 1–7, L., 1951–63; Mislavsky N.A., Izbr. Prod., M., 1952; Sechenov I. M., Izbr. Prod., vol. 1, M., 1952; Bykov K. M., Izbr. Prod., vol. 1–2, M., 1953–58; Bekhterev V. M., Izbr. Prod., M., 1954; Orbeli L. A., Lectures on higher nervous activity, M. - L., 1945; his own, Fav. works, vols. 1-5, M. - L., 1961-68; Ovsyannikov F.V., Izbr. Prod., M., 1955; Speransky A. D., Izbr. works, M., 1955; Beritov I.S., General physiology of the muscular and nervous system, 3rd ed., vol. 1–2, M., 1959–66; Eccles J., Physiology of nerve cells, trans. from English, M., 1959; Chernigovsky VN, Interoreceptors, M., 1960: Stern L, S., Immediate nutrient medium of organs and tissues. Physiological mechanisms that determine its composition and properties. Fav. works, M., 1960; Beritov I. S., Nervous mechanisms of behavior of higher vertebrates, M., 1961; Goffman B., Cranefield P., Electrophysiology of the heart, trans. from English, M., 1962; Magnus R., Setting the body, trans. from German., M. - L., 1962; Parin V. V., Meyerson F. Z., Essays on clinical physiology of blood circulation, 2nd ed., M., 1965; Hodgkin A., Nerve impulse, trans. from English, M., 1965; Gelhorn E., Lufborrow J., Emotions and emotional disorders, trans. from English, M., 1966; Anokhin P.K., Biology and neurophysiology of the conditioned reflex, M., 1968; Thin AV, Hypothalamo-pituitary region and regulation of the physiological functions of the body, 2nd ed., L., 1968; Rusinov V. S., Dominant, M., 1969; Eccles J., Inhibitory pathways of the central nervous system, trans. from English, M., 1971; Sudakov K. V., Biological motivations, M., 1971; Sherrington Ch., Integrative activity of the nervous system, trans. from English, L., 1969; Delgado H., Brain and Consciousness, trans. from English, M., 1971; Ugolev A. M., Membrane digestion. Polysubstrate processes, organization and regulation, L., 1972; Granit R., Fundamentals of regulation of movements, trans. from English, M., 1973; Asratyan E. A., I. P. Pavlov. Moscow, 1974. Beritashvili I.S., Memory of vertebrates, its characteristics and origin, 2nd ed., M., 1974; Sechenov I. M., Lectures on Physiology, M., 1974; Anokhin P.K., Essays on the physiology of functional systems, M., 1975.

Tutorials and guides- Koshtoyants Kh. S., Fundamentals of Comparative Physiology, 2nd ed., vol. 1–2, M., 1950–57; Human Physiology, ed. Babsky E. B., 2nd ed., M., 1972; Kostin A.P., Sysoev A.A., Meshcheryakov F.A., Physiology of farm animals, M., 1974; Kostyuk P. G., Physiology of the central nervous system, K., 1971; Kogan A. B., Electrophysiology, M., 1969; Prosser L., Brown F., Comparative animal physiology, trans. from English, M., 1967; Iost H., Physiology of the cell, trans. from English, M., 1975.

Physiology guides- Physiology of the blood system, L., 1968; General and private physiology of the nervous system, L., 1969; Physiology of muscular activity, labor and sports, L., 1969; Physiology of higher nervous activity, parts 1–2, L., 1970–71; Physiology of sensory systems, parts 1–3, L., 1971–75; Clinical neurophysiology, L., 1972; Physiology of the kidney, L., 1972; Physiology of respiration, L., 1973; Physiology of digestion, L., 1974; Grachev I. I., Galantsev V. P., Physiology of lactation, L., 1973; Khodorov B. A., General physiology of excitable membranes, L., 1975; Age physiology, L., 1975; Physiology of movements, L., 1976; Physiology of speech, L, 1976; Lehrbuch der Physiologic, Hrsg. W. Rudiger, B., 1971; Ochs S.. Elements of neurophysiology, N. Y. - L. - Sydney, 1965; Physiology and biophysics, 19 ed., Phil. – L., 1965; Ganong W. F., Review of Medical physiology, 5 ed., Los Altos, 1971.

- (from Greek φύσις nature and Greek λόγος knowledge) the science of the essence of living things and life in normal and pathological conditions, that is, about the patterns of functioning and regulation of biological systems of different levels of organization, about the limits of the norm ... ... Wikipedia

Subject physiology, its content is the study of general and particular mechanisms of activity of the whole organism and all its organs and systems.

Ultimate a task physiology - such a deep knowledge of the functions of the body, which would provide the possibility of active influence on them in the desired direction.

According to I.P. Pavlova, medicine, only being constantly enriched, day by day, with new physiological facts, will finally, someday, become what it should ideally be, i.e. the ability to repair the spoiled mechanism of the human body on the basis of its exact knowledge, to be applied knowledge of physiology. It is no coincidence that physiology first began to develop as a medical science. According to C. Bernard's definition, physiology is the scientific core on which all sciences rest; in essence, there is only one science in medicine: the science of life, or physiology. At the present stage, physiology poses the following tasks: learning function:

• a healthy body as a whole;
• various systems, organs, tissues, cells; study of mechanisms:
• interactions of various organs and systems in the whole organism;
• regulation of the functioning of organs and systems;
• the interaction of the organism with the environment.

According to I.P. Pavlov, the task of physiology is to understand the work of the human body, to determine the significance of each of its parts, to understand how these parts are connected, how they interact, and how, as a result of their interaction, a gross result is obtained - the overall work of the body.

The very first , used in physiology were observation and inference, which, however, have not lost their significance even at the present stage. But the physiologist cannot be satisfied with observation alone, since it only answers the question, what's happening in the body. It is also important to find out how and why physiological processes take place. For this, it is necessary experience, experiments, those. influences that are artificially created by the researcher himself.

Experiments are either acute (vivisection or live cutting) or chronic; their main advantages and disadvantages are presented in Table. one.

Studies performed on humans, as a rule, are carried out in sin options that allow you to evaluate various aspects of the functioning of the body:

• in a state of physiological rest - the norm of functioning;
• reaction to optimal loads - reaction rate;
• reactions to maximum loads - assessment of reserve capabilities.

At the same time, the biological optimum of life processes is considered the physiological norm.

Table 1. Comparison of acute and chronic experiment

The main stages in the development of physiology as a science associated with a change in the methods used:

• the pre-experimental period (ancient and middle ages), when the main methods were observations and conclusions, which often led to erroneous conclusions (the heart is the organ of the soul, the spirit is mixed through the arteries, and the blood is mixed through the veins);
• 1628 W. Harvey. "Teaching about the movement of the heart and blood in the body" - the introduction of acute experiments in physiological research;
• 1883 I.P. Pavlov. "Centrifugal nerves of the heart" - the introduction of a chronic experiment technique;
• the current stage is the integration of research at the molecular-cellular and systemic (organismal) levels, which makes it possible to combine ideas about cellular processes and their regulation at the level of the whole organism.

Basic principles of physiology:

• organism is a single system that unites various organs in their complex interaction between themselves;
• the principle of structurality (integrity) - physiological processes can be carried out with the anatomical and functional integrity of all elements that provide these processes;
• “an organism without an external environment supporting its existence is impossible. Therefore, the scientific definition of an organism must also include the environment that influences it” (I.M. Sechenov, 1861);
• “all physiological mechanisms, no matter how different they may be, have only one goal - to maintain the constancy of the conditions of life in the internal phase” (K. Bernard, 1878), or homeostasis (according to Cannon);
• the principle of determinism - any activity of the organism and its organs and systems is causally determined;
• adaptation - a set of mechanisms that ensure the adaptation of the body to constantly changing environmental conditions;
• the integrity of the organism and its connection with the external environment, provided by neuro-humoral mechanisms;
• homeostasis and adaptation are the main mechanisms for ensuring life;
• the principle of reliability of biological systems: the body and its systems have a safety margin, which is provided by the following components:
  • redundancy of functioning elements (for example, 25% of lung tissue is quite enough for external respiration);
  • function reservation (out of 1 million nephrons present in the kidney, only a part of them function at the same time, the rest remain in reserve);
  • the frequency of functioning of all elements (for example, opening and closing, i.e. flickering, capillaries); duplication of functions (the heart pump has assistants in the form of peripheral hearts - skeletal muscles, the contraction of which pushes blood through the venous vessels).

Physiology of man and animals

Physiology- the science of the vital functions of the body and its structures, the mechanisms of their implementation and the laws of regulation.

In its most general form, the definition of physiology is as follows: it is the science of nature, the essence of life processes. The name physiology comes from the Greek words physis meaning nature and logos meaning science.

Physiology studies the manifestations of vital functions, ranging from the molecular level to the vital activity of the whole organism, including its behavioral reactions, consciousness and thinking. It considers the sources of energy and the role of various substances in life, the mechanisms of cell interconnection, combining them into tissues, organs, physiological systems and the whole organism, as well as the ways the organism interacts with the environment, its response to the effects of this environment, the mechanisms of adaptation to adverse conditions and maintaining health.

The term "physiology", used in the broad sense of the word, denotes a huge amount of knowledge about the essence of life processes. Since these processes are largely different in plant and animal organisms, plant physiology and human and animal physiology are distinguished.

Physiology and animals are also subdivided. Along with the fact that vertebrates and humans have many similarities in the functioning of internal organs, there are also huge differences between them, primarily in the nature and level of mental functions. This main difference is reflected in the name homo sapiens - a thinking person. The volume of the subject of research has led to the fact that in physiology they began to single out its parts as special academic disciplines: physiology of the cell, heart, blood, blood circulation, respiration, nervous system (neurophysiology), sensory systems, etc. Some sections of physiology studied in universities of biological and medical profile as separate academic disciplines are given below:

• age physiology studies age-related features of human life, patterns of formation, development and extinction of body functions;
• physiology considers the impact labor activity a person on life processes, develops methods and means of providing labor that help maintain a person’s ability to work at a high level;
• aviation and space physiology studies the reactions of the human body to the impact of atmospheric and space flight factors in order to develop means for ensuring human life and health in conditions of low atmospheric pressure and space;
• physiology ecological reveals the features of the influence of climatic and geographical conditions and a specific habitat on the body and ways to improve the quality of adaptation to adverse environmental influences;
• physiology evolutionary and comparative examines the patterns of evolutionary development of physiological processes, mechanisms, regulations, as well as their similarities and differences in organisms at different levels of phylogenesis.

In educational institutions of a medical profile, in a single course of physiology, only some of the materials from the above specialized courses are considered. Medical school programs are course-oriented human physiology(they often use the general name of physiology).

From a single science of human physiology in a number of countries ( former USSR, post-Soviet republics, some European countries) was singled out as a separate subject pathological physiology - a science that studies the general patterns of the occurrence, course and outcome of pathological processes and diseases. In contrast, the study of the life processes of a healthy organism began to be called normal physiology. In higher medical educational institutions of Belarus, these subjects are studied separately at the departments of normal and pathological physiology. In some countries they are grouped under the name medical physiology.

Physiology has a close relationship with other fundamental theoretical medical sciences: anatomy, histology, biochemistry. Physiology, as it were, unites these sciences, uses their knowledge and creates a commonality - the foundation of biomedical knowledge, without which it is impossible to master the medical profession.

For example today major problem medicine is the treatment and prevention of diseases of the cardiovascular system. What knowledge does physiology give to solve this problem? The section on cardiac physiology studies the main function of the heart as a pump and regulator of blood flow; The mechanisms of implementation of this function are elucidated: the processes of automatic generation of excitation, its conduction through specialized structures, the mechanism of heart contraction and expulsion of blood into the vascular system. Particularly much attention is paid to the study of the mechanisms of regulation of the work of the heart, its adaptation to the changing needs of blood flow in various organs. Biophysical and molecular mechanisms of control of excitability, conductivity and contractility of the heart muscle are being studied. Based on these data, modern biochemistry and pharmacology synthesize medicinal substances that provide the possibility of treating heart disorders. The subject of physiology is also the development and study of methods for studying the functions and condition of the heart. From the above materials, it becomes obvious that without knowledge of physiology, it is impossible not only to treat, but also to diagnose diseases.

A very important task of physiology is also to ensure the assimilation of knowledge about the interconnections of life processes, organs and systems, the formation of a holistic reaction of the body to various influences and the general principles of regulation of such reactions. All this should lay the foundation for the "functional thinking" of the future physician, his ability, on the basis of individual symptoms, to mentally model possible relationships and mechanisms that cause the appearance of these symptoms, to find the root cause and ways to eliminate pathological processes.

It is also important to teach future doctors to observe and study the indicators of physiological functions, to instill skills in performing diagnostic and medical manipulations.

The subject of human physiology also faces the task of determining the reserves of physiological systems, assessing the level of human health and developing ways to increase its resistance to adverse factors that occur in the labor sphere, the natural and domestic environment.

The concept and types of physiology

Physiology(from the Greek physis - nature, logos - teaching) - the science of the vital functions of the body and its structures, the mechanisms for the implementation of these functions and the laws of their regulation.

Animal physiology- a biological science that studies the vital activity of an organism, its constituent organs and tissues in relation to the external environment.

The subject of physiology is the life processes of the organism and its individual organs in connection with individual development and adaptation to environmental conditions. The problems under study include: regularities of biological processes at different structural levels, the formation of physiological functions in different age periods, the mechanisms of interaction of individual body systems with the environment, the features of the mechanisms of regulation of life processes in various species, methods of purposeful influence on certain physiological systems.

Under physiological function understand the manifestation of the vital activity of a cell (for example, contraction of a muscle cell), an organ (for example, the formation of urine by the kidney), a system (for example, the formation and destruction of blood cells by the hematopoietic system).

Physiology studies the manifestations of vital functions at various levels of organization of the living: molecular, cellular, organ, systemic and holistic organism, including its behavioral reactions, consciousness and thinking. Physiological science provides answers to the questions: what is the source of energy, what is the role of various substances in life, how cells interact and unite into tissues, organs, physiological systems and an integral organism. Physiology studies the ways in which an organism interacts with its environment, its reactions to changes in the environment, mechanisms for adapting to adverse conditions and maintaining health.

Used in a broad sense, the term physiology denotes a huge amount of knowledge about the essence of life processes. Since these processes are largely different in plant and animal organisms, plant physiology and human and animal physiology are distinguished.

The physiology of man and animals is also subdivided. Along with the fact that vertebrates and humans have many similarities in the functioning of internal organs, there are also huge differences between them, primarily in the nature and level of mental functions.

A huge amount of knowledge in various areas of physiological science has led to the fact that physiology began to single out its parts as special academic disciplines: cell physiology, physiology of the heart, blood, blood circulation, respiration, nervous system (neurophysiology), physiology of sensory systems, etc. In institutions of higher education of a biological profile, age-related physiology is studied as separate academic disciplines; physiology of labor, sports; aviation, space, evolutionary physiology, etc.

normal phytology- a science that studies the basic laws and mechanisms of regulation of the functioning of the body as a whole and its individual components in interaction with the environment, the organization of life processes at various structural and functional levels. The main task of physiology is to penetrate into the logic of the life of the organism.

General physiology- a section of the discipline that studies the fundamental patterns of the body's response to the impact of the environment, its main processes and mechanisms.

private physiology- a section that studies the patterns and mechanisms of functioning of individual systems, organs and tissues of the body.

cell physiology- a section that studies the basic patterns of cell functioning.

Comparative and evolutionary physiology- a section that explores the features of the functioning of different species and the same species at different stages of individual development.

environmental physiology- a section that studies the features of the functioning of the body in various physical and geographical zones, in different time periods, the physiological foundations of adaptation to natural factors.

Physiology of labor activity- a section that studies the patterns of functioning of the body when performing physical and other work.

sports physiology- a section that studies the patterns of functioning of the body in the process of practicing various types of physical culture at an amateur or professional level.

Pathological physiology - the science of the general patterns of the emergence, development and course of disease-causing processes in the body.

Physiology literally means the study of nature. This is a science that studies the life processes of an organism, its constituent physiological systems, individual organs, tissues, cells and subcellular structures, the mechanisms of regulation of these processes, as well as the effect of environmental factors on the dynamics of life processes.

History of the development of physiology

Initially, ideas about the functions of the body were formed on the basis of the works of scientists of Ancient Greece and Rome: Aristotle, Hippocrates, Gallen, and others, as well as scientists from China and India.

Physiology became an independent science in the 17th century, when, along with the method of observing the activity of the body, the development of experimental research methods began. This was facilitated by the work of Harvey, who studied the mechanisms of blood circulation; Descartes, who described the reflex mechanism.

In the 19th and 20th centuries physiology is developing rapidly. So, studies of tissue excitability were carried out by K. Bernard, Lapik. A significant contribution was made by scientists: Ludwig, Dubois-Reymond, Helmholtz, Pfluger, Bell, Langley, Hodgkin and domestic scientists: Ovsyanikov, Nislavsky, Zion, Pashutin, Vvedensky.

Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov is called the father of Russian physiology. Of outstanding importance were his works on the study of the functions of the nervous system (central or Sechenov inhibition), respiration, fatigue processes, etc. In his work “Reflexes of the Brain” (1863), he developed the idea of ​​the reflex nature of the processes occurring in the brain, including thought processes. Sechenov proved that the psyche is determined by external conditions, i.e. its dependence on external factors.

An experimental substantiation of Sechenov's provisions was carried out by his student Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. He expanded and developed the reflex theory, investigated the functions of the digestive organs, the mechanisms of regulation of digestion, blood circulation, developed new approaches to conducting physiological experience "methods of chronic experience". For work on digestion in 1904 he was awarded the Nobel Prize. Pavlov studied the main processes occurring in the cerebral cortex. Using the method of conditioned reflexes developed by him, he laid the foundations of the science of higher nervous activity. In 1935, at the World Congress of Physiologists I.P. Pavlov was called the patriarch of the physiologists of the world.

Purpose, tasks, subject of physiology

Animal experiments provide a lot of information for understanding the functioning of the body. However, the physiological processes occurring in the human body have significant differences. Therefore, in general physiology, a special science is distinguished - human physiology. The subject of human physiology is a healthy human body.

Main goals:

1. study of the mechanisms of functioning of cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, the body as a whole;

2. study of the mechanisms of regulation of the functions of organs and organ systems;

3. identification of the reactions of the body and its systems to changes in the external and internal environment, as well as the study of the mechanisms of emerging reactions.

Experiment and its role.

Physiology is an experimental science and its main method is experiment:

1. Sharp experience or vivisection ("live cutting"). In its process, under anesthesia, a surgical intervention is performed and the function of an open or closed organ is examined. After the experience, the survival of the animal is not achieved. The duration of such experiments is from several minutes to several hours. For example, the destruction of the cerebellum in a frog. The shortcomings of the acute experience are the short duration of the experience, the side effects of anesthesia, blood loss and subsequent death of the animal.

2. chronic experience is carried out by carrying out surgical intervention at the preparatory stage to access the organ, and after healing, they begin research. For example, the imposition of a salivary duct fistula in a dog. These experiences last up to several years.

3. Sometimes isolated subacute experience. Its duration is weeks, months.

Experiments on humans are fundamentally different from classical ones:

1. most studies are carried out in a non-invasive way (ECG, EEG);

2. studies that do not harm the health of the subject;

3. clinical experiments - the study of the functions of organs and systems in case of their damage or pathology in the centers of their regulation.

Registration of physiological functions carried out by various methods:

1. simple observations;

2. graphic registration.

In 1847, Ludwig proposed a kymograph and a mercury manometer for recording blood pressure. This made it possible to minimize experimental errors and facilitate the analysis of the obtained data. The invention of the string galvanometer made it possible to record the ECG.

At present, registration of the bioelectric activity of tissues and organs and the microelectronic method are of great importance in physiology. The mechanical activity of organs is recorded using mechano-electrical transducers. The structure and function of internal organs are studied using ultrasonic waves, nuclear magnetic resonance, and computed tomography.

All data obtained using these methods are fed to electric writing devices and recorded on paper, photographic film, in computer memory and subsequently analyzed.

Physiology(Greek physis - nature) is a science that studies the functions of the human body, its organs and systems, as well as the mechanisms of regulation of these functions.

Together with anatomy, physiology is the main branch of biology.

Modern physiology is a complex set of general and special scientific disciplines, such as:

• general physiology,
• human physiology, normal and pathological,
• age physiology,
• animal physiology,
• psychophysiology, etc.

Physiology studies the vital processes that take place in the body at all its structural levels:

• cellular,
• fabric,
• organ,
• systemic,
• hardware,
• organismic.

It is closely related to the disciplines of the morphological profile: anatomy, cytology, histology, embryology, since the structure and function mutually determine each other. Physiology widely uses the data of biochemistry and biophysics to study the functional changes that occur in the body and the mechanism of their regulation. Physiology also relies on general biology and evolutionary science as the basis for understanding general patterns.

For psychologists, the study of physiology is of great theoretical and practical importance. Their work cannot be complete if they do not know well functional features nervous system and patterns of higher nervous activity of a person.

Physiology as a science is inextricably linked with other disciplines. It is based on the knowledge of physics, biophysics and biomechanics, chemistry and biochemistry, general biology, genetics, histology, cybernetics, anatomy. In turn, physiology is the basis of medicine, psychology, pedagogy, sociology, theory and methodology of physical education. In the process of the development of physiological science, various subsections of general physiology emerged from general physiology: physiology of labor, physiology of sports, aerospace physiology, physiology of underwater labor, developmental physiology, psychophysiology, etc.

General physiology is the theoretical foundation of sports physiology. It describes the basic regularities of the activity of the body of people of different ages and gender, various functional states, the mechanisms of operation of individual organs and systems of the body and their interaction.

Its practical significance lies in the scientific substantiation of the age stages of the development of the human body, the individual characteristics of individuals, the mechanisms for the manifestation of their physical and mental abilities, the features of control and the ability to control the functional state of the body. Physiology reveals the implications bad habits in humans, substantiates ways to prevent functional disorders and maintain health.

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Physiology is the science of how the organs and systems of living organisms function.

What does the science of physiology study? More than any other biological science, it studies biological processes at an elementary level in order to explain how each individual organ and the whole organism works.

The concept of "physiology"

As one famous physiologist Ernest Starling said, physiology of today is the medicine of tomorrow.

Human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical and biochemical functions of man. It is the science that serves as the basis for modern medicine. As a discipline, it is relevant to areas such as medicine and health care and provides a foundation for understanding how the human body adapts to stress, disease, and physical activity.

Modern research in the field of human physiology contributes to the emergence of new ways to ensure and improve the quality of life, the development of new medical methods of treatment.

The main principle, which is the basis for the study of human physiology, is the maintenance of homeostasis through the functioning of complex control systems, covering all levels of the hierarchy of human structure and functions (cells, tissues, organs and organ systems).

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human physiology

Human physiology as a science deals with the study of the mechanical, physical and biochemical functions of a person in good health, his organs and the cells of which they are composed.

The main level of attention of physiology is the functional level of all organs and systems. Ultimately, science provides insight into the complex functions of the organism as a whole.

Anatomy and physiology are closely related fields of study, anatomy studies forms and physiology studies functions. What does human physiology study? This biological discipline deals with the study of how the body functions in a normal state, and also explores the possible dysfunctions of the body and various diseases.

What does the science of physiology study?

Physiology provides answers to questions about how the body works, what happens when a person is born and develops, how body systems adapt to stresses such as exercise or extreme environmental conditions, and how bodily functions change. in painful conditions.

Physiology affects functions at all levels, from nerves to muscles, from the brain to hormones, from molecules and cells to organs and systems.

Human body systems

Human physiology as a science studies the functions of the organs of the human body. The physique includes several systems that work together for the proper functioning of the entire body.

Some systems are interconnected, and one or more elements of one system may be part of or serve as another.

There are 10 major body systems:

1) The cardiovascular system is responsible for pumping blood through the veins and arteries. Blood must flow into the body, constantly producing fuel and gas for the organs, skin and muscles.

2) The gastrointestinal tract is responsible for processing food, digesting it and converting it into energy for the body.

3) The reproductive system is responsible for reproduction.

4) The endocrine system consists of all the key glands responsible for producing secretions.

5) The integumentary system is the so-called "container" for the body, to protect the internal organs.

Her main organ, the skin, is covered with a large number of sensors that transmit external sensory signals to the brain.

6) Musculoskeletal system: The skeleton and muscles are responsible for the overall structure and shape of the human body.

7) The respiratory system is represented by the nose, trachea and lungs and is responsible for breathing.

8) The urinary system helps the body get rid of unwanted waste.

9) Nervous System: A network of nerves connects the brain to the rest of the body.

This system is responsible for human senses: sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing.

10) The immune system protects or tries to protect the body from disease and disease. If foreign bodies enter the body, the system begins to produce antibodies to protect the body and destroy unwanted guests.

Who needs to know human physiology and why?

What the science of human physiology studies can be a fascinating topic for physicians and surgeons.

In addition to medicine, other areas of knowledge are also affected. Human physiology data is essential for sports professionals such as coaches and physiotherapists.

In addition, within the framework of the world practice of medicine, various types of therapy are used, for example, massage, where it is also important to know how the body works so that the treatment is as effective as possible and brings only benefit, not harm.

The role of microorganisms

Microorganisms play a key role in nature.

They enable the recycling of materials and energy, they can be used as cellular "factories" for the production of antibiotics, enzymes and foods, they can also cause infectious diseases in humans (for example, foodborne infection), animals and plants. Their existence directly depends on the ability to adapt to a changeable environment, the availability of nutrients and light, the pH factor also plays an important role, such categories as pressure, temperature and many others.

Physiology of microorganisms

The basis of the vital activity of microorganisms and all other living beings is the exchange of substances with the environment (metabolism).

In the study of such a discipline as the physiology of microorganisms, an important role is played by metabolism. This is the process of building chemical compounds in the cell and their destruction in the course of activity to obtain the necessary energy and building elements.

Metabolism includes anabolism (assimilation) and catabolism (dissimilation).

The physiology of microorganisms studies the processes of growth, development, nutrition, ways of obtaining energy for the implementation of these processes, as well as their interaction with the environment.

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Lecture Search

Branches of biology.

1. Anatomy- studies the internal structure of living organisms

2. Physiology - studies the life processes of organisms

3. Histology- a branch of biology that studies the structure, life and development fabrics living organisms

Morphology- the science of the structure and shape of organisms, features of the external structure

5. Microbiology- the subject of study are microorganisms (mainly viruses, bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa) and their biological characteristics and relationships with other organisms.

Mycology - mushroom science

7. Bryology- the science of mosses

8. Ethology - animal behavior science

9. Ichthyology - fish science

10. Orinthology - bird science

11. Zoology - animal science

12. Ecology - the science of the relationship of organisms with each other and with environmental factors

Cytology - cell science

14. evolutionary doctrine- a science that studies the laws of the historical development of the organic world

15. Systematics the science that studies the relationships of organisms

Paleontology- the science of organisms that existed in past geological periods and preserved in the form of fossil remains, as well as traces of their vital activity (remains of extinct organisms)

Biophysics - explores the biological structures and functions of organisms by physical methods

18. Biochemistry - explores the foundations of life processes and phenomena by chemical methods on biological objects

Biotechnology - studies the possibilities of using microorganisms as raw materials

20. Hygiene- a branch of medicine that studies the influence of living and working conditions on human health and develops measures aimed at preventing diseases, ensuring optimal living conditions, strengthening health and prolonging life.

Genetics- the science of the laws of heredity and variability.

22. Psychology- a science that studies the patterns of emergence, development and functioning of the psyche and mental activity of a person and groups of people.

check yourself

What is the name of the science that studies the laws of the historical development of the organic world?

1) anatomy

2) evolutionary teaching

3) genetics

4) ecology

The science of cytology was developed thanks to the creation

1) evolutionary doctrine

2) cell theory

3) reflex theory

4) gene theory

Systematics is the science that studies

1) the functions of organisms in nature

2) family ties of organisms

3) lifestyle of organisms

4) the external structure of organisms

What science studies the process of photosynthesis?

1) genetics

2) physiology

3) ecology

4) taxonomy

The patterns of transmission of hereditary traits are studied

1) genetics

2) anthropology

3) ecology

4) molecular biology

What science studies the fossil remains of extinct organisms?

1) paleontology

2) genetics

3) embryology

4) taxonomy

Which term in Greek means "knowledge of the soul"?

1) anatomy

2) physiology

3) hygiene

4) psychology

What practical science develops methods for maintaining and improving human health?

1) anatomy

2) anthropology

3) veterinary

4) hygiene

When planting plants in your backyard, you are likely to use the knowledge gained from the area

1) medicine

2) evolutionary doctrine

3) agricultural technology

4) molecular biology

What of the p-re-numbers-len-no-go does the science of "physiology" study?

1) structure of insect cells

2) si-ste-ma-ti-ku in roof-to-seed plants

3) pro-processes inside-ri-cle-toch-no-go-dy-ha-niya of fish

4) the structure of the back-of-them-no-stay frogs

What of the p-re-numbers-len-no-go does the science of "cytology" study?

1) si-ste-ma-ti-ku chor-do-vy animals

2) structure of plant cells

3) chi-mi-che-sky reactions of breathing

4) morpho-logo-gyu per-red-them of ko-nech-no-stays of animals

The patterns of pe-re-da-chi on-consecutive signs are studying

1) genetics

2) taxonomy

3) anthropology

4) biochemistry

1) paleontology

2) etymology

3) physiology

4) genetics

Which of the many sciences is not related to biological sciences?

1) anthropology

2) zoology

3) cryptology

4) botany

Which of the following sciences studies the structure of cells of a non-human person?

1) he-not-ti-ka

2) em-bryo-lo-gy

3) cytology

4) physiology

Which of the following sciences studies the structure of a person's ro-dy-sha?

1) qi-to-lo-gy

2) he-not-ti-ka

3) physiology

4) embryologists

The ri-sun-ke shows a fragment of the en-tse-fa-lo-gram-we of a person.

Ras-cipher-ro-vat her pos-vo-lyat knowledge in the field

1) anatomy

2) physiology

3) genetics

4) hygiene

What science studies the structure and races of the ancient ferns?

1) se-lecture

2) eco-logia

3) physiology

4) paleontology

What science studies the vza-and-mo-from-no-she-niya of living or-ga-niz-m and their habitat?

1) fe-no-lo-gia

2) physio-lo-gy

3) taxonomy

4) ecology

Levels of organization of living matter

Molecular - represented by molecules.

Any living system manifests itself at the level of functioning of complex organic compounds that differ in large molecules (biopolymers).

Cellular - represented by cells. The cell is a structural and functional unit, as well as a unit of development of living organisms.

Organismic - a multicellular organism is an integral system of organs for performing various functions, a unicellular organism is an integral living system capable of independent existence.

Population - specific A group of organisms of the same species that share a common habitat.

It is here that the simplest evolutionary transformations take place.

Ecosystem (biogeocenotic)- a set of organisms of different species and factors of their habitat, united by the metabolism and energy into a single natural complex.

Biospheric - higher order system.

At this level, the circulation of substances and the transformation of energy occur, associated with the vital activity of all living organisms living on our planet.

Check yourself.

What level of organization of life is reflected in this photo?

1) molecular genetic

2) organoid-cellular

3) biogeocenotic

4) population-species

What level of organization of life is reflected in this figure?

1) molecular genetic

2) organoid-cellular

3) organismic

4) biogeocenotic

What level of organization of life is reflected in the engraving by I.

Shishkin "Stream in the Forest"

1) biogeocenotic

2) population-species

3) biosphere

4) organoid-cellular

What level of organization of the living is the main object of study of cytology?

1) biogeocenotic

2) population-species

3) cellular

4) biosphere

biology methods

scientific method - a set of techniques and operations used in the construction of a system of scientific knowledge.

Observation - deliberate, purposeful perception of objects and processes in order to realize its essential properties.

The observation method lies at the heart of the descriptive method.

Descriptive method - description of objects and phenomena. It consists in collecting factual material and describing it.

Comparison - comparison of organisms and their parts, finding similarities and differences.

Historical method - comparison of observational results with previously obtained results.

Experiment - purposeful study of phenomena under precisely established conditions, allowing to reproduce and observe these phenomena.

Active influence on the object of study.

Modeling - the use of abstract models, schemes, descriptions, replacing real objects and processes.

Genealogical method - consists in the analysis of pedigrees and allows you to determine the type of inheritance (dominant or recessive, autosomal or sex-linked) of the trait.

Based on the information obtained, the probability of the manifestation of the studied trait in the offspring is predicted.

Pa-le-he-to-lo-gi-che-sky me-to-dy- you-yav-le-tion is-ko-pa-e-my pro-me-zhu-precise forms, re-sta-new-le-ni fi-lo-ge-not-ti-che-sky rows and about-on-ru-the-same-after-to-va-tel-no-sti is-ko-pa-e-my forms.

One of the main methods, which is used in cytology, is method of light-howl micro-ro-sco-pie- ras-smat-ri-va-nie under a microscope.

Scientific knowledge:

An observation is made on an object or phenomenon - based on the data obtained, a hypothesis (assumption) is put forward - a scientific experiment is carried out - the hypothesis being tested in the course can be called a theory or a law.

Theory- doctrine, system of ideas or principles.

It is a set of generalized provisions that describe science or its section.

observed fact- this is a description of what can be observed under certain conditions.

Observation conditions - a description of the conditions under which it is possible to observe the statement described in the first part.

Check yourself.

What bio-logi-che-research can the woman depicted in the Henri Ma-this-s painting “Woman in front of an aquarium” conduct?

1) determine the physical properties of the water in the aquarium

2) compare the composition of the water in the ak-va-ri-um with the water in the river

3) determine the vi-do-howl composition of the obi-ta-te-lei aquarium

4) describe the shape of the aquarium

The fact of the existence of seasonal molting in animals was established

1) microcopy method

2) observation method

3) experimental method

4) hybridological method

It is possible to accurately determine the degree of effect of fertilizers on plant growth using the method

1) experiment

2) observations

3) simulation

4) analysis

What method did I use?

P. Pavlov to establish the reflex nature of the secretion of gastric juice?

1) description

2) observation

3) experiment

4) simulation

The scientist suggested that some insects look like plant branches, because this similarity saves them from predators.

With greater accuracy, he can confirm or refute this assumption by the method

1) measurements

2) descriptions

3) comparisons

4) experiment

An example of the application of the experimental research method can be considered

1) comparison of two slides

2) measurement of the patient's blood pressure

3) formation of a conditioned reflex to a call

4) description of a new type of organisms

The scientist wants to find out the patterns of inheritance of eye color in children in several generations of the same family.

What research method will he use?

1) experimental

2) genealogical

3) observations

4) hybridological

What method will a botanist use when establishing the relationship between plants rye (1) and sweet corn (2)?

1) abstraction

2) comparisons

3) simulation

4) experimental

The creation of diagrams, drawings, objects similar to natural ones belongs to the group of methods

1) simulation

2) measurements

3) observations

4) experimental

The use of ka-ko-go on-uch-no-go me-to-da il-lu-stri-ru-et the plot of the car-ty-ny of the Dutch-go-hoo-doge-no-ka Ya.

Wall "Pulse", on-pi-san-noy in the se-re-di-not of the 17th century?

1) simulation

2) measurement

3) experiment

4) abstraction

Which of the following can be studied with the help of pa-le-he-to-lo-gi-che methods?

1) sexual behavior of amphibians

2) the evolution of mammals

3) the fine structure of the or-ga-no-and-dov cells

4) dependence of the reaction rate on temperature

Which of the following can be studied with the help of observation?

1) dependence of the reaction rate on temperature

2) the fine structure of the or-ga-no-and-dov cells

3) sexual behavior of amphibians

4) the evolution of mammals

What method would you use to study bees?

1) microscopy

2) hybridization

3) autopsy

4) observation

What method would you use to study the structure of plant cells?

1) hybridization

2) autopsy

3) microscopy

4) experiment

What is the method of the house vos-pol-zo-val-sya I.P.

pavlov

1) observation

2) simulation

3) experiment

4) Description

What research method does the girl in the picture use?

1) ex-pe-ri-ment

2) on-blue-de-nie

3) comparison

What method does a zoologist use when establishing kinship between a lake frog (1) and a green toad (2)?

1) ab-stra-gi-ro-va-nia

2) ex-pe-ri-men-tal-nym

3) simulation

4) comparisons

The system of the most general knowledge in a certain field of science is

2) experiment

4) hypothesis

Formulating a hypothesis means

1) collect available facts

2) make a guess

3) confirm the objectivity of the data obtained

4) conduct an experiment

The specialty of a scientist who treats pets is called

1) agronomist

2) livestock specialist

3) breeder

4) veterinarian

The specialty of a scientist who studies the structure and functions of cells is called

1) cytologist

2) embryologist

4) breeder

Which instrument measures the amount of sugar in a person's blood?

1) dynamometer

2) spirometer

3) phonendoscope

4) glucometer

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PHYSIOLOGY is the science of the vital activity of an organism as a whole, its interaction with the external environment, and the dynamics of life processes.

In the course of its development, physiology went through several stages:

empirical, anatomical-functional, functional.

At each stage in the study of a physiological process or phenomenon, there were two directions (approaches) - analytical and systemic.

Analytical direction is characterized by the study of a specific process occurring in any living object (organ, tissue or cell) as an independent, i.e.

i.e. out of its connection with other processes in the object under study. This direction gives a comprehensive idea of ​​the mechanisms of this process.

Systemic the direction aims to study a specific process in its relationship with others occurring at the level of the organism as a whole.

For physiology as a science, both directions are necessary. At different stages of the development of physiology, the ratio of these directions changed: at the early stages of the development of physiology, the analytical direction prevailed, at later stages, the systemic one.

The modern stage is characterized by a further deepening of the analytical approach (the study of processes at the cellular, subcellular and molecular levels). At the same time, it has become customary to correlate these processes with the processes of the whole organism. The discovery of systemic patterns in the activity of living organisms showed that in order to perform certain functions, its individual organs and their systems are selectively combined, which ensures the achievement of a useful adaptive result.

Such associations were named by P. K. Anokhin functional systems.

functional system called a set of central and peripheral formations of the body, the activity of which is aimed at achieving a useful adaptive result.

This set of peripheral and central structures, their processes and mechanisms, which function as a single whole, is formed dynamically, the functional unification of various organs and their systems (i.e., integration of functions) is carried out due to their ability to interact.

This interaction is due to the presence of connections in the body - correlations. There are four types of correlations.

1. Physical correlation - implemented through mechanical, electrical, optical, sound, electromagnetic, thermal and other processes (for example, contraction of a muscle attached to a bone, or filling of heart cavities with blood, leading to stretching of their walls, etc.);

2. humoral correlation carried out through the liquid media of the body with the help of various biologically active substances. Features of this type of correlation:

- also occurs in all organisms;

- has a diffuse (generalized) character, i.e.

e. through liquid media, a substance can reach all organs and tissues;

- relative autonomy;

— relative specificity due to the selective sensitivity of target cells to biologically active substances, including hormones and drugs;

- slow development of its action;

- inertia.

3. neural correlation carried out through the nervous system, has the following features:

- high speed of development of action;

— communication accuracy;

- high specificity - a strictly defined number of components required at the moment participate in the reaction.

neurohumoral correlation. In the process of evolution, the nervous and humoral types of correlations were combined into a neurohumoral form, when the urgent involvement of organs in the process of action by means of nervous correlation is supplemented and prolonged by humoral factors.

Nervous and humoral correlations play a leading role in unification (integration) constituent parts(components) of an organism into a single whole - an organism.

At the same time, they seem to complement each other with their own characteristics. The humoral connection has a generalized character. It is simultaneously implemented throughout the body.

The nervous connection has a directional character, that is, it is the most selective - it is realized in each specific case mainly at the level of certain components of the body.

To achieve a useful adaptive result, the relationship between organs must be of a definite, directed nature, i.e.

e. organs must interact with each other according to certain patterns. Such an interaction in physiology is carried out regulation. Regulation is such a process of changing activity in a certain direction. There are four types of regulation according to the types of correlation: mechanical, humoral, nervous, neurohumoral.

The regulation of functions is the basis for ensuring the constancy of the internal environment of the body and its adaptation to changing conditions of existence. The study of the patterns of maintaining the constancy of the internal environment showed that it is carried out according to the principle of self-regulation through the formation of functional systems.

Under self-regulation understand this type of regulation, when the deviation of the controlled parameter is a stimulus for its restoration.

To implement the principle of self-regulation, the interaction of the following components of functional systems is necessary:

— Regulated parameter (object of regulation, constant).

- Control devices that monitor the deviation of this parameter under the influence of external and internal factors.

- Apparatuses of regulation, providing a directed effect on the activity of organs, on which the restoration of a deviated parameter depends.

- Apparatuses of action - organs and systems of organs, the change in the activity of which in accordance with regulatory influences, leads to the restoration of the initial value of the parameter.

- Reverse afferentation - carries information to the regulatory apparatus about the achievement or non-achievement of a useful result, about the return or non-return of the deviated parameter to the norm.

The central link of any functional system, its a customer-forming factor, is result. The result is constantly under the influence of external and internal factors that can lead to changes in its value, i.

i.e. to a deviation from a constant level, which is immediately captured by control devices, which are represented by various receptors in the body.

Information about the state of the result from the receptors comes through the nervous and humoral pathways to the regulatory apparatus (nerve centers).

In the regulatory apparatuses, the received information about the state of the useful result is evaluated and the corresponding commands are formed to the action apparatuses (effectors), the change in the activity of which leads to the achievement of a useful result, i.e., to the return of the deviated parameter to a constant level (Fig. 1). The theory of functional systems is an important tool in understanding the patterns of formation of one or another type of adaptive activity of the body and its violations.

When a person is ill, an analysis of the components of the functional system, impaired activity will help the doctor most effectively search for the causes of the disease, localize and character of the dysfunction, and outline ways to compensate for the impaired function.

1. General scheme of the functional system.

1 - regulating parameter, system-forming factor, useful adaptive result

2 - control devices (receptors)

3 - metabolic processes

4 — afferent neural pathway

5 - humoral pathway

6 - regulatory apparatus, central nervous system

7 - reaction apparatuses

8 - hormonal regulation

9 - behavior

10 - reverse afferentation

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What does physiology study? This science deals with the study of living organisms, animals or plants, as well as their constituent tissues or cells. Since the middle of the 19th century, this term has meant the use of experimental methods, as well as the techniques and concepts of the physical sciences, the study of the causes and mechanisms of the activity of all living things. Discoveries of the unity of structure and functions common to creatures living on our planet led to the development of the concept of physiology, which is engaged in the search for general principles and concepts.

Physiology — it is the study of how organisms function. "Fizi" - part of the word comes from a Greek root and in a broad sense means "natural origin". When we think about physics today, we think about how matter and energy work, but another way to think about physics is the study of living things.

In this sense, physiology is also the study of how nature functions, in this case in a living organism. This science can be divided into many sections, including plants, animals, bacteria, and more, but most of the early physiological records focused on how human systems work.

Organization levels

What does physiology study? There are different levels of organization, all of which can be studied by physiologists. Numerous organ systems operate in the body, such as the digestive and respiratory systems, which usually consist of several organs and glands. An organ is the ideal starting point of a structure that has a specific function within the body. For example, the stomach is part of the digestive system. There, the food is mechanically and chemically broken down to facilitate the absorption of nutrients.

Organs are made up of one or more tissue types, which are a collection of cells that have similar structures and functions. Smooth muscle is a type of tissue that makes up most of the stomach. On the lowest level organization is a cell, for example, one muscle fiber inside a muscle. Some physiologists study how parts inside a cell work, or how different proteins or chemicals interact inside a cell.

History of physiology

Physiology has long been studied along with anatomy and medicine. In the ancient civilizations of Greece, Egypt, India and China, records were made describing human physiology and the treatment of various diseases. On the new level the study of topics in physiology rose in Europe during the Renaissance from the 16th to the 18th centuries. The influence of classical Greek works of natural philosophers such as Hippocrates, Aristotle and Galen was strongly manifested.

The history of physiology also has its roots in ancient India and Egypt. This medical discipline was carefully studied by the so-called father of medicine, Hippocrates, around 420 BC. This brilliant man once put forward the theory of 4 elements, according to which the human body contains 4 fluids: black bile, sputum, blood and yellow bile. The theory says that any violation of their ratio leads to disease.

The main modifier of Hippocratic theory was the founder of experimental physiology, Claudius Galen, who conducted experiments to gain information about body systems. Others followed. French physicist Jean Fernel (1497-1558) coined the term "physiology", which in ancient Greek means "study of nature, origin".

What does physiology study?

Have you ever wondered why your heart rate increases when you're scared, or why your stomach growls when you're hungry? If you have the answers and know the reasons, you can thank physiology for this knowledge. General physiology is the study of life in all its forms. It is the science of the functions of living organisms and their parts. This means that physiology is a very broad scientific discipline that underlies many related subjects.

The subjects of physiology cover the molecular and cellular level to the level of organs, tissues and the entire system. A bridge is provided between scientific discoveries and their application in medical science. For example, much has been announced about the genetic revolution recent years which included sequencing the human genome. Physiological understanding is behind every major medical breakthrough. for example, the survival of infants born after 24 weeks has been made possible by understanding the physiology of the fetus.

The study of life

What does physiology study? It is the study of life, specifically how cells, tissues, and organisms function. Physiologists are constantly trying to answer key questions in fields ranging from the functions of individual cells to the interactions between human populations and our environment here on Earth, the Moon, and beyond. To answer these questions, physiologists work in laboratories, in libraries, in space.

For example, a physiologist may study how a particular enzyme contributes to the functions of a particular cell or subcellular organelle. He can use simple neural networks found in marine snails to answer questions about the fundamental mechanisms of learning and memory. A physiologist can examine an animal's circulatory system to answer questions about heart attacks and other human conditions.

The study of physiological processes can span a wide range of other disciplines such as neurophysiology, pharmacology, cell biology, and biochemistry, to name but a few. Physiology is important because it is the foundation upon which we build our knowledge of what life is, how to treat disease, and how to deal with the stresses that our body is exposed to in different environments.

What does physiology study? The science of the functioning of living organisms - all about travel to the site