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The direction, apparently, first of all will require reasoning about love. Simply because this is the most common type of relationship between a man and a woman. But there are also variants of hatred, friendship and service relations. It makes no sense to list all possible versions of works that touch on the theme of love. However, it is advisable to take into account when preparing for the final essay that the topic can relate to both mutual, “correct” love, and unrequited or “criminal” love, that is, illegal. It is worth considering in advance how to disclose such topics and on what material. If, for example, the writer intends to consider “criminal” love as a variant of desirable self-expression, then it is worth referring to the novel by M. A. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita” (Margarita is married, but loves the Master); if the graduate considers such love unacceptable, he can refer to the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin".
Linguistic foundations of teaching literacy.
Stages of teaching literacy.
Preparatory stage of teaching literacy.
The main stage of teaching literacy.
Analysis and synthesis are the main types of work in the lesson.
Lesson notes (2 examples for comparison)
Diagnosis of the level of preparation of first-graders for teaching literacy.
Evaluation of the results of literacy training (requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard of the IEO).
1. Linguistic foundations of the methodology for teaching literacy The sound system of the Russian language and its graphics
Russian writing is sound, more precisely, phonemic (phonemic). This means that each basic sound of speech, or each phoneme, in the graphic system of the language has its own sign - its own grapheme.
The literacy teaching methodology, orienting students and teachers to sounds, takes into account the peculiarities of the Russian phonetic system.
It is very important for teaching literacy which sound units in the Russian language perform a semantic function (i.e., they are phonemes, “basic sounds”), and which ones do not perform such a function (variants of “basic sounds” - phonemes in weak positions).
There are 6 vowel phonemes in Russian: a, o, y, s, i, e - and 37 consonant phonemes: solid p, b, m, f, c, t, d, s, z, l, n, w, zh , r, r, k, x, z, soft n", b", m", f", e", ig", d", s", s", l", n", r", long w ", long w", h, and. The phonemes r, k, x appear in their soft variants only before the vowels e, i. Strong positions for vowel phonemes - are under stress, strong positions for consonant phonemes (except for and) - are in front of the vowels a, o, y, and (for paired voiced-deafness and hardness-softness, there are additional cases that are set out in the textbook "Modern Russian language"). The phoneme also stands before stressed vowels "In a strong position, in other cases it appears in a weak position (the so-called non-syllable and: mine - mine).
In weak positions, the phonemes act as options that do not sound distinctly enough (water - o? a?) or turning into the opposite in pairing (frost - at the end of c). It is easy to see that there are a lot of phonemes that appear in weak positions, i.e., sounding unclear, indistinct, in speech, and this cannot be ignored in teaching literacy.
The modern school has adopted the sound method of teaching literacy. Schoolchildren identify sounds, analyze them, synthesize them, and on this basis learn letters and the whole process of reading. In this work, it is necessary to take into account the features of the Russian graphic system, the features of the designation of sounds in writing. The following features of the graphic system of the Russian language are most important for the methodology of teaching literacy:
1. Russian graphics are based on the syllabic principle. It consists in the fact that a single letter (grapheme), as a rule, cannot be read, since it is read taking into account subsequent letters. For example, we cannot read the letter l, because, without seeing the next letter, we do not know whether it is hard or soft; but we read the two letters li or lu unmistakably: in the first case l is soft, in the second - l is hard.
If we see the letter c, then it seems to us that it should be read either as hard or soft. But there are cases when it is necessary to read with as sh - sewed; how u - count; how to wash.
The letter I, taken separately, we will read as ya (two sounds); but in combination with the preceding soft consonant, we read it as a: ball, row.
Since in Russian the sound content of a letter is found only in combination with other letters, then, consequently, letter-by-letter reading is impossible, it would constantly lead to errors in reading and to the need for corrections. Therefore, in teaching literacy, the principle of syllabic (positional) reading is adopted. From the very beginning of reading, students are guided by the syllable as a unit of reading. Those children who have received the skill of letter-by-letter reading as a result of home schooling are relearned at school.
Of course, it is not always possible to immediately achieve the reading of words in accordance with the norms of Russian orthoepy. So, his words that blue children do not immediately learn to read as [evo], [shto], [s "inv]. In such relatively difficult cases, a double reading is recommended: "spelling", and then - orthoepic.
In especially difficult cases, even a letter-by-letter reading is allowed, for example, if a completely unfamiliar word is encountered. However, it should be followed by syllabic reading and whole word reading.
2. Most Russian consonants b, c, g, d, z, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x are both hard and soft and denote two sounds: frame, river.
The letters h, u are unambiguous: they always denote soft sounds, and the letters c, w, w are always hard sounds.
These features are taken into account in the methodology: children first get acquainted only with hard consonants, and later with soft ones. The sounds h, u, ts, zh are studied at relatively late stages of literacy1.
3. The sound b (middle language, always soft consonant) is indicated not only by the letter and, but also by the letters ё, i, e, yu, when they are at the absolute beginning of the word (tree - [yol] ka, Yasha - [ya] -sha ), after vowels in the middle of the word (mine - mo[ya], let's go - after [ye] hali) and after ъ or ъ (vyun - [in "dun", entrance-pode] zd).
The iotized vowels e, i, e, yu are read relatively late in literacy2, and children learn to read them more by guesswork than by theory. They recognize these letters both as e], [|a], [p], y], and as e, a, o, y after soft consonants (without transcription, of course).
4. The softness of consonants is indicated in Russian graphics in several ways: firstly, b (angle - coal), secondly, by subsequent vowels and, e, i, e, u (linden, Lena, soft, flax, Lyuba - [l "and] pa, [L" e] on, [m" a] gky, [l" he], [L" y] ba); thirdly, subsequent soft consonants: [p "es" n "b] . First-graders get acquainted with the first two ways of designating the softness of consonants without theory, practically; the third is not affected at all.
In syllabic reading, the distinction between soft and hard consonants does not cause difficulties for students. The most difficult case is with a soft consonant at the end of the word: horse - horse, angle - coal, and also inside the word: shaft - sluggish, small - crumpled, bed - lying, etc. To learn soft consonants, unlike hard ones, a comparative reading is used and an explanation of the meaning of words that differ only in the softness or hardness of one consonant (cases when hardness-softness acts in a semantic function).
5. The sounds of the Russian language in words are in strong and weak positions. So, for vowels, a strong position is stressed, a weak position is unstressed. Regardless of the strong or weak position, the sound (more precisely, the phoneme) is denoted by the same letter. The discrepancy between the sound and the letter in weak positions must be taken into account in the methodology: at first they try to avoid words with unstressed vowels, with voiced and deaf consonants at the end and in the middle of the word - these spelling difficulties are introduced gradually, comparing weak positions with strong ones (frost - frost, home - house).
6. A serious difficulty for children is the multivariance of sounds. When extracting sounds from a word, we never get exactly the same sound as it was in the word. It is only approximately similar to the sound in the word, where it is influenced by subsequent and previous sounds (sha, sho, shu).
The child must catch the general sound of all variants of the same sound. For this, words with the sound being studied are selected so that it stands in different positions and combinations with other sounds (hut, good, noise).
When teaching literacy, one should, if possible, avoid the sound-letter analysis of such words, where the law of the absolute end of the word operates (a nail is a guest, a breast is sadness, etc.), the law of assimilation by the sonority-deafness of consonants (compress - [zh]t, count - [sh]t, later - after [same], etc.), where consonant combinations are simplified, or there are unpronounceable consonants (sad - “sad”, heart - “heart”, sun - “sun”, etc. .). Children will get acquainted with such phenomena of Russian phonetics later; for example, with unpronounceable consonants - in class II.
7. It should not be forgotten that all letters of the Russian alphabet are used in four versions: printed and written, uppercase and lowercase.
First graders learn capital letters as a "signal" of the beginning of a sentence and as a sign of proper names (the simplest cases). Capital letters differ from lowercase letters not only in size, but often also in style.
For normal reading, it is also necessary to learn some punctograms - a period, question and exclamation marks, a comma, a colon, a dash.
Of no small importance for solving methodological issues is syllable division. A syllable, from the point of view of education, is several sounds (or one sound) pronounced with one expiratory push. In the syllable, the vowel sound stands out as its basis with its greatest sonority (during the pronunciation of the syllable, the vowel plays the role of a “mouth opener”, and the consonants play the role of “mouth closeers”). Syllables are open type sg (consonant + vowel) - ma, closed type gs - am, and type sgs - poppy, as well as the same types with a confluence of consonants: ssg - three, ssg - stro and some others. The difficulty of syllables depends on their structure: the easiest syllables for students are considered to be syllables like sg and gs.
Both reading and writing are complex processes. An adult, experienced reader does not notice the elementary actions that make up the process and writing of reading or writing, since these actions are automated; but a child learning to read or write does not yet merge all elementary actions into one complex one; for him, each element appears as an independent action, often very difficult, requiring great efforts not only of will, intellectual, but even physical.
It is impossible to teach literacy to schoolchildren without presenting reading and writing in the elements that make up these actions. Let's take a look at these elements.
Reading. An experienced reader does not stop looking at each letter and even at each word: 2-3 words immediately fall into his “reading field”, fixed by a brief stop of the eyes. It has been established that the reader's gaze moves along the line in jerks, stopping on the line 3-4 times. Awareness of the text occurs during stops. The number of stops depends not only on the experience of the reader, but also on the difficulty of the text.
An experienced reader grasps words by their general appearance. With the help of a tachistoscope, it was found that an experienced reader reads long and short familiar words almost at the same speed. But if an unfamiliar word is encountered, then he is forced to read by syllables or even by letters, and sometimes, returning his gaze to the beginning of the word, reread it again. Although an experienced reader does not need an auditory analyzer and prefers to read to himself, he often reads a difficult word aloud (or at least “speaks” without sound), since he lacks only a visual analyzer for perception.
An experienced reader does not need to read aloud: quiet reading proceeds 1.5-2 times faster than loud reading, understanding of the text turns out to be even higher, since when reading quietly, the reader has the opportunity to “run” the text much ahead with his eyes, return to individual places of what he read, reread them ( work on readable text).
For the technique and for the consciousness of reading, context plays an important role.
What is the difference between the process of reading for a beginner to learn to read and write?
a) The “reading field” of a novice reader covers only one letter in order to “recognize” it, often he compares it with others; reading a letter arouses in him a natural desire to immediately pronounce a sound, but the teacher requires him to pronounce a whole syllable - therefore, he has to read at least one more letter, keeping the previous one in memory, he must merge two or three sounds. And here for many children lie considerable difficulties.
After all, to read a word, it is not enough to reproduce the sounds that make it up. The process of reading proceeds slowly, since in order to read a word, it is necessary to perform as many acts of perception and recognition as there are letters in the word, and besides, you still need to merge sounds into syllables, and syllables into words.
b) The eyes of a novice reader often lose a line, as he has to go back, reread letters, syllables. His gaze is not yet accustomed to moving strictly parallel to the lines. This difficulty gradually disappears as the scope of the student's attention expands, and he perceives at once a whole syllable or a whole word.
c) A beginner to read does not always easily understand the meaning of what he has read. Great attention is paid to the technical side of reading, to each elementary action, and by the time the word is read and pronounced, the student does not have time to realize it. Understanding the meaning is torn off from reading, "recognition" of the word does not occur simultaneously with its reading, but after. The school pays great attention to the consciousness of reading. It is enhanced by pictures, questions and explanations of the teacher, visual aids; promotes awareness reading aloud: auditory stimulus supports the visual perception of the word and helps to understand its meaning. And yet, poor reading awareness is one of the main difficulties in teaching literacy.
d) It is typical for an inexperienced reader to guess a word either by the first syllable, or by a picture, or by context. However, attempts to guess the words, although they lead to errors in reading, indicate that the student seeks to read consciously. (Guesses are also characteristic of an experienced reader, but his guesses rarely lead to errors.) Errors caused by guesses are corrected by immediate reading by syllables, sound-letter analysis and synthesis.
The greatest difficulty in teaching reading is the difficulty of sound fusion: children pronounce individual sounds, but they cannot get a syllable. It is necessary to consider the physiological basis of this difficulty.
Speech organs (tongue, lips, palate, lower jaw, lungs, vocal cords) when pronouncing each sound, taken separately, are in the position of excursion (exit from immobility); excerpts and recursions.
When two sounds are pronounced together, in a syllable, the recursion of the first sound merges with the excursion of the second. Consequently, to overcome the difficulties of sound fusion, it is necessary that the child pronounce the second sound without allowing recursion on the first sound; schematically it looks like this:
The main and, in fact, the only effective way to overcome the difficulty of sound fusion is syllabic reading. Setting the syllable as the unit of reading can minimize the difficulty of sound fusion.
As you can see, the process of reading for a first grader is a complex, very difficult process, the elements of which are not only very weakly interconnected, but also carry independent, their own difficulties. Overcoming them and merging all the elements into a complex action require great volitional efforts and a significant amount of attention, its stability.
The key to success in learning is the development in the child of such important cognitive processes as perception, memory, thinking and speech.
Such an organization of learning, in which each student is included in an active, largely independent cognitive activity, will develop the speed and accuracy of perception, stability, duration and breadth of attention, the volume and readiness of memory, flexibility, logic and abstractness of thinking, complexity, richness, diversity. and correct speech.
The development of a student is possible only in activity. So, to be attentive in relation to the subject means to be active in relation to it: "What we call the organization of the student's attention is, first of all, the organization of the specific processes of his educational activity" 1. In the modern Soviet school, a sound analytical-synthetic literacy teaching method. Special studies and experience show that children coming to grade 1, especially from kindergarten, in your own way mental development ready for the perception of individual sounds, and for analysis and synthesis as mental actions.
During the period of learning to read and write, great attention is paid to the development of phonemic hearing, that is, the ability to distinguish between individual sounds in a speech stream, to distinguish sounds from words, from syllables. Students must “recognize” phonemes (basic sounds) not only in strong, but also in weak positions, to distinguish between phoneme sound variants.
By the age of two, a child has elementary phonemic hearing: he is able to distinguish words that are similar in sound composition, except for one sound (mother and Masha). But at school, the requirements for phonemic hearing are very high: schoolchildren are trained in decomposing words into sounds, in isolating a sound from combinations with various other sounds, etc.
Phonemic hearing is necessary not only for successful learning, but also for developing a spelling skill: in Russian, a huge number of spellings is associated with the need to correlate a letter with a phoneme in a weak position (Russian spelling is sometimes called phonemic).
The development of phonemic hearing also requires a highly developed auditory apparatus. Therefore, during the period of literacy training, it is necessary to conduct various auditory exercises (development of auditory perceptions).
The basis of teaching both reading and writing is the speech of the children themselves, the level of its development by the time they enter school.
Letter. A long experience has formed a skill, automatism of writing in a literate adult. An adult rarely pays attention to the inscription and connection of letters, to spelling, he even adheres to lines automatically and transfers words, almost without thinking about observing the rules. His focus is on content and partly on style and punctuation. Moreover, he does not think about how to hold a pen, how to put paper, etc. The position of his hands and landing have long been established. In other words, he does not have to expend conscious effort on the graphic, technical side of writing.
The process of writing with a first-grader proceeds in a completely different way. This process breaks up for him into many independent actions. He must take care of himself in order to properly hold the pen, put down the notebook. When learning to write a letter, the student must remember its shape, elements, place it on a line in a notebook, taking into account the line, remember how the pen will move along the line. If he writes a whole word, in addition to that, he must remember how one letter connects to another, and calculate whether the word will fit in a line. He must remember how to sit without bringing the eye of the notebook closer. The child is not yet accustomed to performing these tasks, so all these actions require conscious effort from him. This not only slows down the pace of writing, but also exhausts the child mentally and physically. When a first-grader writes, his whole body tenses up, especially the muscles of the hand and forearm. This is due to the need for special physical exercises during the lesson.
Let's see how the student writes. The pen (more precisely, a ballpoint pen) moves slowly, uncertainly, shudders over the paper; having written a letter, the student breaks away and examines it, compares it with the sample, sometimes corrects it. Hand movements are often accompanied by movements of the head or tongue.
Checking the student's notebooks, we will make sure that the same letter is written differently in different cases. This is a consequence of insufficient skill, fatigue. Rewriting letters and words for students is not a mechanical process, but a conscious activity. The student writes a letter, putting a lot of volitional effort into his work.
Learning to read and write Writing Pre-letter period Testing work No. 1 (28.09) (Vowels: a, o, i, s, y) 1. Choose from the pictures the words whose names contain the studied sounds, combine the letter and the picture. a o and y y 2. Draw a sentence diagram: In the fall, they harvest vegetables. 3. What did Alyosha draw? Write in the form of graphic diagrams, highlight the syllables, put the stress. Alyosha drew: grass, forest, birch, flowers, mushroom, sun. Recording sample: (grass). Note. Students write only word patterns. The text is read by the teacher. Letter period Testing work No. 2 (10.26) topic: “Inscription of lowercase and uppercase letters studied” 1. Write down the first letter of the words: Needles, scissors, cat, Glory, perch, Noyabrsk, tractor, aquarium. 2. Write down the letter that the word ends with (picture dictation): Balls, doves, beetle, doll, daffodil, milk. 3. Write out familiar vowels from a number of letters: m, s, y, f, o, e, f, a, i. 4. Form fusion syllables, write down these syllables: s And o na y 5. Pictures: fish, sled, elk, onion. Write down only the word that fits the scheme: Divide into syllables, put stress. Test work No. 3 (30.10) (Checking skills in making sentences according to schemes, writing words with learned letters) 1. Write down the syllables. Underline the syllable with a soft consonant sound. ly, lo, li, lu 2. Make words from the letters: A, M, R, L, O, Y, Y. 3. Write down sentences under dictation with diagrams. Winter came. duet cold wind . The rivers are frozen. The forest is fluffy and white. He fell asleep until spring. Verification work No. 4 (11.23) (Checking skills in spelling proper names) 1. Write down capital letters. iormal2. Write down the letters that begin with the names of the girls. Larisa, Irina, Anna, Raya, Marina. 3. Add syllables to make words. Neither ... An ... Ro ... And ... 4. Underline the full names of people: Kolya, Zinaida, Masha, Vladimir, Ivan, Nikolai, Nata, Elena. 5. Underline your own names: Irina. City. Barsik. Dog. Volga river. Moscow. Ivanova. Test work No. 5 (27.11) (Checking the ability to write words and sentences with learned letters) 1. Write the text. Mom was at home. She gave Ivan the paper. He drew a rainbow. 2. Put the accent in the first sentence. 3. Separate the words for transfer: gave, paper, rainbow. Verification work No. 6 (16.12) (Formation of proposals in writing) 1. Compose a sentence from words and write it down. y, have, Roma, cat, Murka 2. Write off the sentence from the printed text. Underline the letters of soft consonants, stress, divide words into syllables. Grandma Liza likes to drink tea with milk. Verification work No. 7 (Final for the 1st half of the year) 1. Write down the first letter of the words: brick, Zina, top, Nikolai, Moscow, Volga, sofa, pike, focus, Russia 2. Write down the first syllable of words: snowflake, miracles, jump, cranberry , ate, seagull, hemp 3. Write down the words that fit the scheme: Sledge, pine, roof, runs, crumb, brushes, cats. 4. Write out words consisting of 2 syllables. Divide them into syllables. Game, eat, bear, toys, Olya, wolf, ship, bunny, read. 5. Write down a sentence under dictation, put stress in words. Petya has a dog, Druzhok. Post-letter period Testing work No. 8 (26.02) (Working with a deformed text. Testing the ability to draw up sentences in writing) 1. Determine the number of sentences in the text. 2. Write down the text. spring has come, the sun is shining brightly, and who is roaring in the forest, it is the bear that has woken up Test work No. 9 (05.03) (Working with text. Applying the studied spelling rules) 2. Write out sentences on the topic “Spring” The birches are turning green. Thrushes flew into the grove. Butterflies fly. The squirrel dried the mushrooms. Dry leaves crunch underfoot. Rooks roam the fields. Verification work No. 10 (Checking cheating. Testing skills in copying printed text) Kittens. The cat Musi has kittens. They are small and fluffy. Babies squeak. And Kesha the kitten loves to play. Sleeping kittens in a basket. Test work No. 11 (11.03) (Vocabular dictation. Testing skills in writing words with studied spelling) 1. Write down words from dictation. Pike, Moscow, lilies of the valley, Emma, spring, kidneys, seagull, cat Barsik, squeak. 2. Put stress in words, emphasize spelling. Verification work No. 12 (12.03) (Final dictation) It was a warm day. Dew drops covered the grass. Kolya and Fedya are going to the dacha. There grow pears and plums. 2. In the words of the second sentence, put stress. 3. In the third sentence, underline the letters of soft consonants. 4. Divide the words of the fourth sentence into syllables. Literacy education. Reading. Verification work No. 1 (21.10) Repetition and consolidation of what has been passed. 1. What vowels are missing? Write down these vowels. What words and letters can be omitted from the last column? 2. From the letters written on each line, make up words and write them down. i, r, a, g o, a, s, r o, o, k, n k, e, a, l, b Put the accent mark. Note. The task is given to children who can read. 3. Write out sentences that fit the given scheme. ______ _____ _____ _____. Fluffy snow fell. The boys are playing in the snow. Nina is making a doll out of snow. 4. Write down the words. Underline the letters that represent soft consonants. EAGLE ROLL Checking work No. 2 (04.02) (Evaluation of reading aloud technique, reading comprehension) 1. Listen to the text. There is a garden near the school. This year there was a rich harvest of pears and plums. Our class helped adults. We took off the pears and put them in baskets. Adults removed tender plums and placed them in baskets. Cars carried fruit to the city. In winter, the shops have fruits, compotes, and juices. Tasty! (47 words) 2. Choose a title for the text: “Our class”, “Sweet harvest”, “Orchard”. 3. What fruits did the children pick? Final Verification work for teaching literacy. 1. Compose and write down words from syllables (pay attention that these are proper names, write with a capital letter) Ni - Ms. Ali - ri Ying - on 2. Write sentences under dictation: Vova chopped firewood. Vadim was fishing. 3. Write down only those words whose first sound is a soft consonant, divide them into syllables, put an accent mark: Rimma, mushroom, chopped, Volga, lemon, Miron. 4. Make words from letters and write them down: M, L, I, U, R, B, S
Control write-off
Spring.
The beautiful spring has arrived. The sun began to warm the earth. The first green grass appeared. Ice floes float on the river. Streams murmur joyfully. Children launch boats. Buds opened on the trees. Birds make nests.
Fox and squirrel.
A squirrel lived above the fox hole. She jumped from branch to branch. The cunning fox pretended to be dead. The squirrel began to throw cones at the fox. The fox didn't move. Tired of the squirrel to play. She hid in a hollow. The cunning fox lost its prey.
The beginning of spring.
Winter is leaving. The severe frosts are over. Warm spring days have arrived. I love to be in the grove in the spring. Near the old spruce, the stream gurgled loudly. The dog Zhulka ran through the young grass.
Winter.
There is ice on the river, and snow in the forest. There are snow caps on the tree. Burrow under the tree. A raccoon sleeps there. Under the stump is a fox hole. She is not sleeping. On a cedar branch is a house of crossbills. And then there are moose and deer. Silence around.
Puppy.
Shura has a puppy. The puppy is very small. He has a fluffy tail. The puppy is kind and affectionate. Shura called him Druzhok.
On the topic: methodological developments, presentations and notes
Multi-level tasks for differentiated and individual work during the period of literacy training according to the texts of Bakulina G.A.
Multi-level tasks for differentiated and individual work during the period of literacy training according to the texts of Bakulina G.A. In my practice I use the method of "Intellectual development of primary school...