MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
VLADIVOSTOK STATE UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS AND
SERVICE
INSTITUTE OF INFORMATICS OF INNOVATION AND BUSINESS SYSTEMS
DEPARTMENT OF ECOLOGY AND NATURE MANAGEMENT
020801.65 "Ecology"
Vladivostok
VSUES publishing house
The working program of the academic discipline "Teaching about the biosphere" is compiled in accordance with the requirements of the State Educational Standard of the Higher Professional Education.
Compiled by: , Associate Professor of the Department of Ecology
Approved at a meeting of the EPP department on 01/01/2001, protocol No. 6, edition 2014
© Vladivostok Publishing House
State University
economy and service, 2014
INTRODUCTION
The doctrine of the biosphere is a natural-science discipline aimed at developing a biocentric worldview and the ability to evaluate professional activities from the standpoint of rational use among students of ecologists. natural resources and environmental protection. The natural environment of the biosphere provides a person with raw materials, energy, various materials. The doctrine of the biosphere helps to understand the relationship of organisms, populations with habitats, the relationship of natural and anthropogenic ecosystems, the conditions for the sustainable state of ecosystems, the causes of the ecological crisis, the environmental principles of environmental management that ensure the sustainable development of mankind. Studying the discipline "The Doctrine of the Biosphere", students of ecologists consider the biosphere as a global ecosystem, its composition, structure, internal connections that ensure its functioning and sustainability. They give an assessment of the main sources of pollution, analyze the environmental problems of urban areas. They study ways to protect the biosphere from technogenic impact, consider problems and ways to preserve biodiversity. Particular attention is paid to the problems of human influence on global processes and the climate of the biosphere. The study of various processes of the biosphere allows educating students' environmentally oriented consciousness and forming an "ecological" stereotype of behavior in them. The discipline "Teaching about the Biosphere" is aimed at studying the basic patterns of functioning of natural systems at various levels of the biosphere, the factors that determine its stability, productivity, and energy. The role of living matter in biogeochemical cycles is revealed, a logical connection is shown between traditional studies of the problems of interaction between nature - society - economy and the concept of sustainable development of mankind, striving for constructive solutions to environmental problems. The state of the global ecosystem and ways of stabilizing and improving the modern biosphere are assessed. The study of this course is closely related to such disciplines as "Biology", "Chemistry", "Geography", "Geology", "Soil Science".
A feature of the study of the discipline "Teaching about the biosphere" is an integrated approach to environmental issues, which makes it possible for students of environmentalists to acquire the necessary erudition, to understand the relationship of biogeochemical processes in the biosphere. To master the discipline, basic knowledge of geography, biology, chemistry, geology, ecology, and soil science is necessary.
1. ORGANIZATIONAL AND METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS
1.1. Goals and objectives of the discipline
The purpose of discipline is to familiarize students with the basic concepts, problems and methods of science "Teaching about the biosphere". The discipline is intended for students in the specialty 020801.65 - Ecology. The main tasks of the discipline– formation of skills and abilities in the following areas of activity:
· study of the foundations of the “Teaching about the biosphere”, its boundaries and evolution;
Characteristics of biogenic migration, biogeochemical cycles of substances, spatio-temporal cyclicity chemical elements;
· familiarization with the planetary-space organization of the biosphere;
· consideration of the thermodynamic orientation of the development of the biosphere, the transformation of energy by living matter;
· study of the noospheric concept as the basis of scientific management;
formation of professional competencies.
1.2. The list of competencies acquired while studying the discipline
The discipline forms a professional view of the geochemical, biogeochemical and biological aspects of the biosphere. The concept of the biosphere is aimed at forming a holistic view of the processes and phenomena in the global ecosystem, the mechanisms and patterns of sustainable existence of biological systems of different levels in a complex and dynamic environment. The knowledge gained in the process of studying the discipline forms the ecological, noospheric worldview of the student and develops logical thinking at all levels of the organization of living matter (organismic, population, ecosystem, biospheric).
1.3. The main types of classes and features of their conduct
The total amount of discipline for the specialty 020801.65 Ecology 200 hours, of which 68 hours of classroom work (34 hours of lectures, 34 hours workshops) and 132 hours of independent work. The discipline "The Doctrine of the Biosphere" is studied in the 5th semester, 4 hours a week, of which 2 hours are lectures, 2 hours are practical classes. The course ends with an exam. Main types of occupations: - lectures, which give the main systematized material on the structure, organization, properties and functions of the biosphere; - practical classes contribute to the formation of environmental students' understanding of the relationship of organisms with the environment, the structure of the biosphere, its evolution, global environmental problems. Seminars and practical classes develop the ability to predict the results of professional activity, taking into account direct and indirect consequences for the biosphere; - consultations include assistance in self-learning of the material; - independent work includes: work with educational and scientific literature in preparation for practical seminars, tests and writing term papers. In the course of studying this discipline, students of environmentalists listen to lectures, gain practical skills in practical classes, study independently using scientific literature, library electronic databases and the Internet in preparation for the exam and in defending term papers.
1.4. Types of control and reporting by discipline
The study of the discipline ends with an exam in the 5th semester. The student must show the actual knowledge base of the planetary space organization biosphere, the ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships, formulate conclusions. The following types of control are used: - current certification, including the student's performance of written control tasks, oral questioning, reports at seminars, attending lectures, testing.
1.5 Types of control and reporting by discipline
Control of student progress is carried out in accordance with the rating system of knowledge assessment.
The current progress control contains tasks that contribute to the development of the competencies of the professional activity for which the student is preparing and includes:
Checking the level of independent preparation of the bachelor when performing an individual task, in preparation for lectures and practical work;
Participation of the bachelor in discussions on the main points of the topic being studied;
Microsoft Office (Excel, Word, Power Point, Acrobat Reader), Internet explorer, or similar.
b) technical and laboratory support
Lectures and practical classes are held in classrooms using multimedia equipment
7. GLOSSARY OF BASIC TERMS
Anthropogenesis is the process of historical and evolutionary formation of the physical type of a person, the initial development of his labor activity, speech, and society.
Biosphere- a kind of shell of the Earth, containing the totality of living organisms and that part of the planet's substance that is in continuous exchange with these organisms
biocentrism- a scientific approach to environmental protection, which puts the interests of wildlife (as they appear to man) above all else.
Sustainable development- harmonious (correct, even, balanced) development is a process of change in which the exploitation of natural resources, the direction of investment, the orientation of scientific and technological development, the development of the individual and institutional changes are coordinated with each other and strengthen the current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations.
Ecological catastrophy - this is a sudden event, a fast-moving process that entails serious consequences for ecosystems, their destruction, victims. The reason for such changes can be both an external impact on the system and the discharge of its internal stresses that have exceeded the strength of the structure.
Ecological crisis- a significant regional or local violation of environmental conditions, which leads to a complete or partial violation of local ecological systems.
LIVING SUBSTANCE (LIVING ORGANISMS). BIOMASS
Living matter - the totality and biomass of living organisms in the biosphere.
The concept of "living matter" was introduced into science by V.I. Vernadsky. It is characterized by the total mass, chemical composition, energy.
Living organisms are a powerful geological factor that transforms the face of the Earth. IN AND. Vernadsky stressed that earth's surface there is no force more powerful in its final results than living organisms as a whole. And the atmosphere air envelope), both the hydrosphere (water shell) and the lithosphere (solid shell) owe their current state and inherent properties to the influence that organisms have had on them over billions of years of their existence due to the continuous flow of elements in the biogenic metabolism. Influencing the world and changing it, living matter acts as an active factor that determines its own existence.
The idea of the planetary geochemical role of living matter is one of the main provisions in V.I. Vernadsky. Another important position in his theory is the idea of the biosphere as an organized entity, a product of complex transformations by living matter of the material, energy and informational capabilities of the environment.
The biosphere from modern positions is considered as the largest ecosystem of the planet participating in the global cycle of substances. Under the systems of the biosphere are ecosystems of a lower level. Biogeocenosis is a structural unit of the active part of the modern biosphere.
The biosphere is a product of the long-term evolution of living things and ecosystems of varying complexity, which are in interaction and dynamic balance with each other and with the inert environment.
The amount of living matter of organisms per unit area or volume, expressed in units of mass, is called biomass. The organisms that make up the biomass have the ability to reproduce - multiply and spread around the planet.
The peculiarity of any living organism and biomass as a whole lies in the constant exchange of substances and energy with environment.
Currently, there are more than two million species of organisms on Earth. Of these, about 500 thousand species fall on the share of plants, and more than 1.5 million species fall on the share of animals. The most numerous group in terms of the number of species is insects (about 1 million species).
BIOGENIC CYCLE
Biochemical circulation is the movement and transformation of chemical elements through inert and organic nature with the active participation of living matter. Chemical elements circulate in the biosphere along various paths of the biological cycle: they are absorbed by living matter and charged with energy, then they leave the living matter, giving the accumulated energy to the external environment. Such cycles Vernadsky called biochemical. They can be divided into two main types:
1) circulation of gaseous substances with a reserve fund in the atmosphere and hydrosphere;
2) sedimentary cycle with a reserve fund in the earth's crust.
Living matter plays an active role in all biochemical cycles. The main cycles include the cycle of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus.
FUNCTIONS OF THE BIOSPHERE
Thanks to the biotic cycle, the biosphere performs certain functions.
1. Gas function - carried out by green plants in the process of photosynthesis and by all animals and plants, microorganisms as a result of the biological cycle of substances. Most gases are generated by life. Underground combustible gases are decomposition products of organic substances of plant origin buried in sedimentary rocks.
2. Concentration function - associated with the accumulation of various chemical elements in living matter.
3. Redox function (oxidation of substances in the process of life). Oxides and salts are formed in the soil. Bacteria create limestone, ores, etc.
4. Biochemical function - metabolism in living organisms (nutrition, respiration, excretion) and destruction, decomposition of dead organisms are carried out.
5. Biochemical activity of mankind. It covers an ever-increasing amount of the substance of the earth's crust for the needs of industry, transport, and agriculture.
ORGANIZATION AND STABILITY OF THE BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is a complex organized system functioning as a single entity capable of self-regulation. Its structural unit is biogeocenosis - one of the most complex natural systems, which is a complex of living organisms and an inert environment, which are in constant interaction with each other and are interconnected by the metabolism and energy. The stability of the biosphere is determined by the stability of biogeocenosis - the products of a long natural-historical development of the organic world.
An important property of biogeocenosis is its ability to self-regulate, which manifests itself in its stable dynamic balance. The latter is achieved by the coordination and complexity of those interactions that develop between its components - living and non-living parts. The consumption of the created organic matter occurs in parallel with its production and should not exceed the latter in scale. The more diverse the physical and chemical qualities of the environment, the living conditions within the biotope, the more diverse the species composition of the cenosis, the more stable it is. Deviations of the conditions of existence from the optimum lead to its species impoverishment. The stable state of the cenosis is also determined by the output of gross production, which ensures the flow of energy through the trophic levels and the preservation of all living components connected to each other in the food chain and participating in the general circulation of substances. A balanced relationship between organisms of different trophic levels is one of the conditions for the stability of biogeocenosis.
Under the conditions of the inconstancy of the physical and chemical environment, the reliability of biogeocenosis is ensured by the total redistribution of living matter between its constituent species that can replace each other (or duplicate) within the same level of the ecological pyramid. Under certain conditions, some species feel more comfortable (as a result of which the number of their populations increases) and worse - others that are close to them, but occupy a subordinate position in the biogeocenosis. A change in conditions can negatively affect the former and, on the contrary, contribute to the prosperity of the latter. Depending on the strength and duration of the action of a new natural factor, more or less significant changes in its organization occur within the biogeocenosis. One of the mechanisms that ensure the safety of biocenoses is manifested in the ability to form a different structure under the pressure of external factors with the strengthening of “elements of duplication”.
Separate biogeocenoses are not isolated from each other; they are interdependent and are in constant interaction. Vivid proof of this can be examples of the global circulation of biogenic elements, in which not only individual subsystems, but the entire biosphere and other geospheres of the Earth take part. The balance of the cycles of elements and substances on the planet, especially the cycles of biogenic elements, without which life is impossible, is ensured by the constancy of the entire mass of living matter. A large number of elements pass through living organisms. Photoautotrophs determine the speed of fixing solar energy and providing it to other inhabitants of the planet. Green plants supply the molecular oxygen necessary for the existence of almost all living organisms on Earth; the only exception is anaerobic forms. To ensure the stability of the circulation, in addition to the constancy of the mass of living matter, constancy between producers, consumers and decomposers is necessary. All together they create and stabilize the conditions for the existence of the biosphere as an integral and harmonious entity.
Ecological duplication at the level of species in the biogeocenosis is supplemented in nature by ecological duplication at the level of the cenosis, which manifests itself in the replacement of one biocenosis by another under changing conditions within the integral biosphere.
The total amount of living matter in the biosphere changes noticeably within a sufficiently long geological time (V.I. Vernadsky's law of constancy of the amount of living matter). Its quantitative stability is maintained by the constancy of the number of species, which determines the overall species diversity in the biosphere.
Thus, biogeocenoses are an environment in which various life processes take place on our planet, the cycles of matter and energy caused by the vital activity of organisms and, in total, making up a large biospheric cycle.
Biogeocenosis is a relatively stable and open system that has material-energy "inputs" and "outputs" that connect adjacent biocenoses.
NOOSPHERE
The noosphere (Greek noos - mind + sphere) is the highest stage of development of the biosphere, the sphere of influence of the human mind, the interaction of nature and society. Appearing on Earth, man gradually became a powerful geological force influencing the world around him.
The concept of the noosphere as an ideally thinking shell of the Earth was introduced into science at the beginning of the 20th century. French scientists and philosophers P. Teilhard de Chardin and E. Leroy. P. Teilhard de Chardin considered man as the pinnacle of evolution and the transformer of matter through the inclusion of evolution in creativity. The scientist attached the main importance in evolutionary constructions to the team and the spiritual factor, without belittling the role of technological progress and economic development.
IN AND. Vernadsky, speaking about the noosphere (1944), emphasized the need for a reasonable organization of the interaction between society and nature, which meets the interests of every person, all of humanity and the world around him. The scientist wrote: “Humanity, taken as a whole, becomes a powerful geological force. And before him, before his thought and work, the question of the restructuring of the biosphere in the interests of free-thinking humanity as a single whole was raised. This new state of the biosphere, to which we are approaching without noticing it, is the noosphere.”
Nature bears the traces of human activity in the conditions of different socio-economic formations that succeeded each other. The forms of influence are varied. Its results for the last 100-150 (200) years, especially in the territories of Europe and North America, surpass those for the entire previous history of mankind. With the growth of the population and the increase in its well-being, the pressure on nature became more and more. It is believed that at the beginning of our era there were about 200 million people on Earth. By the millennium, this figure had risen to 275 million; by the middle of the twentieth century. The world's population has almost doubled (500 million). Over 200 years, the figure increased to 1.3 billion, and another 300 million were added in half a century (1.6 billion in 1900). In 1950, there were already 2.5 billion people on Earth, in 1970 - 3.6 billion, by 2025 the figure is expected to be 8.5 billion. Of this number, 83% of the world's population will live in developing countries - in Asia , Africa, South America where the population is still growing. It is necessary to have an idea about the possibilities for the livelihood of the population in order to avoid the catastrophic consequences of the population explosion.
The rapid growth of the planet's population makes the question of the limits of the biological productivity of the Earth's biosphere acute. As a result of active human activity during the period of scientific and technological progress, aimed at raising the material and spiritual level of all mankind, the reserves of non-renewable natural resources have been largely depleted. Self-renewable resources have undergone a global disturbance over vast areas, some of them have lost the ability to self-renewal. Many inland reservoirs have become dead or are on the verge between life and death. The world's oceans are polluted with production waste, oil spills, radioactive substances, and the natural circulation - global and especially local - of a number of vital biogenic elements has been disrupted. Often, the consumers end up with environmentally "dirty" food and poor-quality drinking water.
Environmental pollution and disturbance of the natural habitats of many plant and animal species has led to a reduction in the number of populations or their extinction, and, consequently, to the loss of the gene pool created over millions of years. Under the influence of mutagens that pollute the environment, not only new forms of pests of agrocenoses and natural biocenoses have appeared, but also pathogenic organisms against which protective properties have not been developed either in humans or other inhabitants of the planet.
The ruthless exploitation of nature, subordinated to the satisfaction of momentary needs, does not solve the pressing problems of even today, creating unfavorable prospects for the future. Part of the world's population is malnourished and starving (25% of the total crop is lost annually due to agricultural pests). Many people, among whom children predominate, die every year from diseases caused by the use of poor-quality water. Human health suffers from increased environmental pollution, especially in large industrial cities. Many people are negatively affected not only by the degradation of ecological systems, but also by poverty, the growing disparity between the rich and the poor.
In order to avoid the negative consequences caused by human economic activity and natural disasters, it is necessary to take into account the laws that operate in the nature around us and support its self-renewal. The task of protecting nature and its rational use has become not only a state one, but also an international one, and its solution should be based on knowledge of the laws of life and development of the world around us.
Not only the well-being of people, but also their life depends on the degree of public awareness of the crisis situation in the biosphere and on the speed of its reaction.
"... in fact, we are dealing with a peculiar organization of the biosphere, with a natural planetary body, which we cannot divide without destroying it" V. I. Vernadsky (1977) Levels of organization: spatiotemporal b physical, including thermodynamic, aggregate , energy b chemical, including biogeochemical b biological (structural and functional) b paragenetic
The "planetary biosphere" is a single system, from among those accessible to study, that combines inanimate and living matter, has its own internal environment, different from the external one, thermodynamically non-equilibrium with respect to the environment (Space), independently maintaining this imbalance, exchanging with it (the external environment ) matter, energy and information, which has a pronounced boundary of immiscible media.
Cybernetic principles of biosphere organization Cybernetic systems are complex dynamic systems of any nature (technical, biological, economic, social, administrative) with feedback. Complex dynamic systems are those systems that contain many simpler, interacting with each other systems and elements that change, i.e., under the influence of certain processes, they pass from one stable state to another. Self-organization structure in action.
HOMEOSTASIS. The desire for homeostasis is the most powerful factor in evolution. FEEDBACK. Negative feedbacks maintain homeostasis, positive ones worsen the stability of the system. One of the features of any of the most important evolutionary processes occurring in the living world is the contradiction between tendencies towards stability, i.e., the preservation of homeostasis, and the strengthening of negative feedback, and tendencies to search for new, more rational ways of using external energy and matter, i.e., strengthening positive feedbacks. INFORMATION - a reflected structure that reproduces the structure of the original, determines the purposefulness of the development of a living system (implementation of the genetic program, achievement of species diversity, etc.)
The properties of self-organizing systems maintain the state of thermodynamic equilibrium the non-entropic nature of the action (the use of information) has a functional activity, expressed in counteracting external forces has a choice of a line of behavior and purposefulness of action has a homeostasis and adaptability of the system
Patterns of internal development of systems Law of development vector. Development is unidirectional. The law of irreversibility of evolution (L. Dollo, 1857 1931). The law of complication of systemic organization (K. F. Rul'e, 1814 1858). Law of unlimited progress. The law of the sequence of passing the phases of the system development. systemic law. The law of synchronization and harmonization of subsystems (J. Cuvier, 1769 1832)
Patterns of the internal development of systems The rule of the development of subsystems in large systems at different times (the law of allometry, D. Huxley, 1887 1975) The rule of system dynamic complementarity
Thermodynamics of living systems The principle of energy conduction. Water exchange in a biological individual takes hours, in the aerobiosphere - 8 days, in rivers - 16 days, in lakes - 17 years, in groundwater - 1400 years, in the ocean - 2500 years. The law of conservation of mass. First law of thermodynamics. The second law of thermodynamics: 1. Energy processes can proceed spontaneously only under the condition of energy transfer from a concentrated form to a diffuse one; 2. Losses of energy in the form of heat unavailable for use always lead to the impossibility of one hundred percent transfer of one type of energy (kinetic) to another (potential) and vice versa;
3. In a closed (thermally and mechanically isolated) system, the entropy either remains unchanged (if reversible, equilibrium processes occur in the system) or increases (in non-equilibrium processes) and reaches a maximum in a state of equilibrium. ENTROPY is a measure of the disorder of a system, tending, according to the second principle of thermodynamics, to increase to a state of physical equilibrium, which is irreversible. Order preservation theorem (I. R. Prigogine, 1977). In open systems, entropy does not increase - it falls until a minimum constant value is reached, which is always greater than zero. In this case, the substance in the system is distributed unevenly and is organized in such a way that entropy increases in some places and decreases in other places. In general, using the energy flow, the system does not lose order.
Le Chatelier Brown's principle. The law of minimum energy dissipation (L. Onsager, 1903-1976). Law of maximization of energy and information (Yu. Odum). The principle of power maximization. Basic exchange rule
Spatio-temporal organization Space is understood as a form of existence of matter, characterizing its extension, structure, coexistence and interaction of elements in all material systems. Characteristics of the space of the biosphere: 1. The earth's crust is chemically sharply different from the inner layers of the planet; 2. According to the set of chemical elements in the earth's crust, elements with even serial numbers predominate; 3. The chemical composition of the shells of the Sun and stars corresponds to the composition of the earth's crust; 4. The space of the biosphere is asymmetric and chiral.
Abiogenic symmetry and asymmetry of living matter 1. Hypothesis of holobiosis is a methodological approach based on the idea of the primacy of cellular structures endowed with the ability for elemental metabolism with the participation of the enzymatic mechanism. The appearance of nucleic acids in it is considered the end of evolution, the result of the competition of protobionts. 2. The hypothesis of genobiosis (information hypothesis) is based on the belief in the primacy of the molecular system with the properties of the primary genetic code. 3. Molecular chirality is inherent only in living matter and is its integral property (L. Pasteur, 1860). The transformation of molecularly symmetrical substances of inanimate nature into molecularly dissymmetric living substances is inextricably linked with the origin of living matter. It was carried out by means of special dissymmetric forces causing the dissymmetrization of the molecules of this matter (powerful electric discharges, geomagnetic oscillations, the rotation of the Earth around the Sun, the appearance of the Moon).
Time characterizes the sequence of changing states and the duration of existence of any objects and processes, the internal connection of changing and remaining states. Geological properties Properties of biological time are unidirectional, cyclic, linear, rounded, irreversible, exist irreversibly, always arise, birth, the background for all processes is the flow caused by birth, growth, death and generational change. The movement of time is carried out biologically, it is taken into account by the change of generations of living matter, which determines the "lengthening" of time. Geological time is determined only through biological time. Biological time is an absolute time reference system. In the biosphere, there is a "space-time" category, the basis of which is the existence of life.
Structural and functional organization of the biosphere The food chain is a series of organisms interconnected by the transfer of energy from its source - autotrophs to the consumer - heterotrophs. The links of the food chain formed by organisms similar in type of nutrition are called trophic levels. The energy material for the functioning of the trophic level is the biomass of organisms of the previous trophic level or the products of the destruction of dead remains. There are two main types of food chains: grazing or grazing chains starting with a green plant, and detrital or decay chains.
Energy balance of producers: 1. storage of energy in the process of photosynthesis (114 kcal of energy is stored for each mole of assimilated carbon dioxide); 2. solar energy is stored in a form that is very convenient for biological use - in a molecular form, i.e. in the chemical bonds of sugars, amino acids, proteins; 3. part of the stored energy is used by the producer to build his own organism, part enters the detrital chains and part enters the trophic level of consumers.
Energy balance of consumers: 1. Ingested food is not fully digested, 10-20% (saprophages) up to 75% are carnivorous species; 2. Most of the energy is spent on metabolism - spending on breathing; 3. A smaller part of the energy is spent on plastic processes; 4. The transfer of energy of chemical compounds in the body comes with a loss in the form of heat (low efficiency of animal cells); 5. Energy losses are about 90% for each energy transfer through the trophic level. The energy lost in the food chains can only be replenished by the supply of its new portions. Therefore, biogeocenosis functions only due to a directed flow of energy, its constant supply from outside in the form of solar radiation or ready-made reserves of organic matter.
The interlacing of different food chains in the composition of biogeocenoses form complex combinations of species populations, which are called food cycles or food webs. The principle of food web formation is that each producer has not one, but several consumers. In turn, consumers use not one, but several sources of food.
Paragenetic level of organization Paragenesis is a natural co-occurrence in the earth's crust of minerals related by the general conditions of formation. The study of mineral paragenesis has great importance when searching for and evaluating mineral deposits with a similar geochemical history. biosphere - paragenetic shell reflecting the paragenesis of biospheric matter are its types:
Types of biospheric matter: living matter biogenic matter inert matter bioinert matter in the process of radioactive decay scattered atoms matter of cosmic origin
organization of the biosphere, with a natural planetary body,
which we cannot divide without destroying it"
IN AND. Vernadsky (1977)
Organization levels:
space-time
physical, incl. thermodynamic, aggregate,
energy
chemical, including biogeochemical
biological (structural-functional)
paragenetic "Planetary biosphere" is a single system,
from among those available for study, uniting
inanimate and living matter
own internal environment, different from
external, thermodynamically nonequilibrium in terms of
relation to the environment (Space),
self supporting it
disequilibrium that exchanges with it (external
environment) matter, energy and information,
with a pronounced border
immiscible media.
Cybernetic principles of organization of the biosphere
Cybernetic systems are complex dynamicsystems of any nature (technical, biological,
economic, social, administrative) with the reverse
connection.
Complex dynamical systems are called such
systems that contain many simpler,
systems and elements interacting with each other,
which change, i.e. under the influence of certain
processes move from one stable state to
other.
Self-organization - structure in action. HOMEOSTASIS. The desire for homeostasis is the most powerful
evolution factor.
FEEDBACK. Negative feedbacks
maintain homeostasis, positive - worsen
system stability. One of the features of any of the most important evolutionary processes occurring in living
world, is a contradiction between tendencies towards stability, i.e. maintaining homeostasis, and strengthening negative feedbacks, and tendencies to search for new ones,
more rational ways to use external energy
and substances, i.e. strengthening positive feedback.
INFORMATION is a reflected structure that reproduces
the structure of the original, determines the purposefulness
development of a living system (implementation of the genetic
programs, achieving species diversity, etc.)
Properties of self-organizing systems
maintains the state of thermodynamicequilibrium
negentropic nature of the action
(use of information)
has functional activity
expressed in opposition to external
forces
has a choice of behavior and
purposefulness of action
possesses homeostasis and adaptability of the system
Development vector law. Development is unidirectional.
The law of irreversibility of evolution (L. Dollo, 18571931).
The law of complication of system organization (K.F.
Ruler, 1814-1858).
Law of unlimited progress.
Phase Sequence Law
system development.
systemic law.
The law of synchronization and harmonization of subsystems (J.
Cuvier, 1769-1832)
Patterns of internal development of systems
The Rule of Variation in the Development of Subsystemsin large systems (the law of allometry, D.
Huxley, 1887-1975)
Rule of system-dynamic
complementarity
10. Thermodynamics of living systems
The principle of energy conduction. Water exchange inbiological individual takes hours, in the aerobiosphere - 8 days,
in rivers - 16 days, in lakes - 17 years, in groundwater -
1400 years, in the ocean - 2500 years.
The law of conservation of mass.
First law of thermodynamics.
Second law of thermodynamics:
1. Energy processes can go spontaneously
only under the condition of the transfer of energy from a concentrated
forms into scattered;
2. Loss of energy in the form of unusable heat
always lead to the impossibility of a 100% transition
one form of energy (kinetic) to another (potential)
and vice versa;
11.
3. In a closed (insulated in thermal and mechanicalrelation) to the system, the entropy either remains unchanged (if
reversible, equilibrium processes occur in the system),
either increases (in non-equilibrium processes) and in the state
equilibrium reaches its maximum.
ENTROPY - a measure of the disorder of the system, tending to
according to the second principle of thermodynamics, to increase to
a state of physical equilibrium that is irreversible.
Order preservation theorem (I.R. Prigozhin, 1977).
In open systems, entropy does not increase - it falls
until the minimum constant is reached.
value is always greater than zero. In this case, the substance in the system
distributed unevenly and organized in such a way that
that in places the entropy increases, and in other places
decreases. In general, using the energy flow, the system does not
loses order.
12.
Le Chatelier-Brown principle.The law of minimum energy dissipation (L. Onsager,
1903-1976).
The law of energy and information maximization (Yu.
Odum).
The principle of power maximization.
Basic exchange rule
13. Spatio-temporal organization
Space is understood as a form of existence of matter,characterizing its length, structure,
coexistence and interaction of elements in all
material systems.
Characteristics of the space of the biosphere:
1. The Earth's crust is chemically sharply different from the inner layers
planets;
2. According to the set of chemical elements in the earth's crust,
elements with even serial numbers;
3. The chemical composition of the shells of the Sun and stars corresponds to
the composition of the earth's crust;
4. The space of the biosphere is asymmetric and
chiral.
14.
Abiogenic symmetry and asymmetry of living matter1. The holobiosis hypothesis is a methodological approach based on
the idea of the primacy of structures such as cellular, endowed
ability to elemental metabolism with the participation
enzymatic mechanism. The presence of nucleic acids in it
considered the end of evolution, the result of competition
protobionts.
2. Hypothesis of genobiosis (information hypothesis) - comes from
beliefs in the primacy of a molecular system with properties
primary genetic code.
3. Molecular chirality - inherent only in living matter and
is its essential property (L. Pasteur, 1860).
The transformation of molecularly symmetrical substances into inanimate
nature into molecularly dissymmetric living inextricably
associated with the origin of living matter. It was carried out
through special dissymmetric forces that cause
dissymmetrization of the molecules of this matter (powerful electrical
discharges, geomagnetic fluctuations, rotation of the Earth around
the sun, the appearance of the moon).
15.
Time - characterizes the sequence of changing states andthe duration of existence of any objects and processes, internal connection
changing and persisting states.
Geological properties
Biological properties
time
time
- unidirectional
- cyclical
- linear,
- rounded
- irreversible, exists
- irreversible, occurs with
always,
birth
- background for all processes
- the flow is caused by birth,
growth, death and change
generations.
The movement of time is carried out biologically, it is taken into account
change of generations of living matter, causing the "extension"
time. Geological time is determined only through
biological time. Biological time is absolute
timing system. In the biosphere there is a "space-time" - a category, the basis of which is the existence of life.
16.
Structural and functional organization of the biosphereA food chain is a series of organisms linked together
transfer of energy from its source - autotrophs to
consumer - heterotrophs. links in the food chain
formed by organisms similar in type of nutrition,
called trophic levels.
Energy
material
for
functioning
trophic
level
serve
biomass
organisms
previous trophic level or degradation products
dead remnants.
Two main types of food chains: grazing, or chains
grazing, starting with a green plant, and detrital,
or decomposition chains.
17.
Energy balance of producers:1.storage of energy in the process of photosynthesis (for every mole
assimilated carbon dioxide stores 114 kcal of energy);
2.solar energy storage is very convenient for
biological use form - in molecular, i.e. in
chemical bonds of sugars, amino acids, proteins;
3. part of the stored energy is used by the producer for
building one's own organism, some goes to
detritus chains and part enters the trophic level
consumers.
18.
Energy balance of consumers:1. Absorbed food is not completely digested, 10-20% (saprophages)
up to 75% - carnivorous species;
2.Most of the energy is spent on metabolism - spending on
breath;
3. A smaller part of the energy is spent on plastic processes;
4. Energy transfer of chemical compounds in the body comes with
loss in the form of heat (low efficiency of animal cells);
5.Energy loss is about 90% in each gear
energy through the trophic level. Lost in food chains
energy can only be replenished by the supply of its new
servings. Therefore, biogeocenosis functions only due to
directed flow of energy, its constant flow from outside to
in the form of solar radiation or ready stocks of organic
substances.
19.
Weaving different chainsfood included
biogeocenoses form
complex combinations of species
populations called
power cycles or
food webs. Principle
food web formation
is that each
the producer has not one, but
several consumers. AT
turn consumers
use not one but
multiple sources
nutrition.
20. Paragenetic level of organization
paragenesis - natural jointpresence in the earth's crust of minerals associated
general conditions of education. Study of
paragenesis of minerals is of great importance
when searching for and evaluating mineral deposits
fossils that have a similar geochemical
history.
biosphere - paragenetic shell
reflection of the paragenesis of biospheric matter
are its types:
21. Types of biospheric matter:
living matternutrient
inert substance
bio-inert substance
substance in process
radioactive decay
scattered atoms
matter of cosmic origin
Scientific background Spherical shape of the planet (XYI-XYII, Leonardo da Vinci, J. Bruno, Galileo Galilei) Geological significance of living organisms on the surface of the globe (XYII-XYIII, D. Woodward, J. Buffon, Jean Baptiste Lamarck) 1803 Lamarck : applied the term biosphere to refer to the totality of living organisms (the habitat of living organisms) Starting from the 17th century, not only the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere stand out, but their interpenetration is also noted
Scientific background XIX century: Humboldt - on the interaction of natural phenomena Dokuchaev (Vernadsky's teacher) in "The Doctrine of Natural Zones" about "... a natural connection between dead and living nature, between the plant, animal and mineral kingdoms, on the one hand, man, his way of life and even the spiritual world on the other. E. Suess - 1875 Under the biosphere understands not only the organic world, but also its environment.
The main provisions (empirical generalizations) of Vernadsky's doctrine of the biosphere in 1926 "Biosphere": "Living matter is also distributed concentrically in the earth's crust. The area occupied by it forms a shell, which we call the biosphere. This biosphere covers part of the lithosphere and atmosphere and the entire hydrosphere"
Empirical generalizations Marking the central role of living matter, Vernadsky points out: 1. There is a genetic connection between modern living matter and the living matter of the past, the continuity of the influence of this substance on the environment, the continuity of biogeochemical weathering processes. The principle of actualism is the continuity of the existence of the biosphere “The spreading of life is a movement expressed in the ubiquity of life, it is a manifestation of its internal energy, the chemical work it produces. I will call it the geochemical energy of life."
Empirical generalizations 2. Redi's principle (1712) - all life comes from life. On the scale of geological time, there are no geochemical data for the spontaneous generation of life. Azoic (i.e., devoid of life) geological epochs have never been observed during the entire geological time. 3. Dan's principle (1863) - the direction of the evolutionary process (cephalization). The appearance in the human biosphere is natural. Man has become a geological force on the planet. 4. The radiant energy of the sun, through living organisms, regulates the chemical manifestation of the earth's crust.
Empirical generalizations 6. Living matter is a planetary phenomenon and cannot be separated from the biosphere, of which it is a geological function. 7. Cosmic radiation coming from all celestial bodies, cover the biosphere, penetrate everything in it. The biosphere is an area of transformations of cosmic energy. The substance of the biosphere becomes active thanks to this energy. The face of the Earth is changing, it is not only a reflection of our planet, but at the same time is the creation of external forces of the cosmos.
The place of the biosphere in the planetary system "Earth" (atmosphere) The upper boundary of the biosphere - the upper limits of the field of existence of life - the ozone layer on the border of the troposphere and stratosphere. The upper limit is determined by radiation (at an altitude of 9000 m it is tens of times greater than at sea level, at an altitude of 15 km it is 100 times greater). The concentration of life decreases with distance from the Earth's surface. In 1 cu. m of air contains: Near the soil surface - 10 -100 thousand microorganisms 11 -21 km - 0, 14 organisms (fungi, bacteria) 48 -85 km - microorganisms detected
Boundaries of the biosphere The upper limits of the life stability field are above the ozone screen (85 km and above, space). Living organisms are present either in a dormant state, not having an active metabolism, or protected by some substance (for example, the substance of an iron meteorite 800 angstroms thick is a safe haven for a microbe).
The place of the biosphere in the planetary system "Earth" (hydrosphere) The entire hydrosphere is inhabited by living organisms: from the surface waters of the ocean to deep-sea basins
The place of the biosphere in the planetary system "Earth" (lithosphere) The lithosphere is a solid layer of the earth's crust (weathering crust) underlain by a plastic and less viscous asthenosphere. The lithosphere is composed of rocks: Sedimentary 12-15 km (up to 20 km) Metamorphic (granites) Igneous (basalts) The lithosphere is composed of plates (oceanic and continental). The cause of plate tectonics (horizontal movements) is thermal convection in the Earth's mantle)
Borders in the lithosphere On continental plates, the lower limits of the field of existence of life are 2-3 km (up to 6 km). For example, microorganisms in the waters washing layers of oil (up to 10-40 thousand per 1 ml). In oceanic plates - 0.5 -1 km. The lower limits of the life stability field in the lithosphere are determined by the presence of liquid water (10.5 km was found), but not more than 25 km, where life is fundamentally impossible, because despite the high pressure at a temperature of 460 degrees, liquid water passes into a state of vapor.
Average thickness of the biosphere km (Shipunov, 1980) Latitudinal belts Polar Continental Oceanic region 12 13 Mid-latitude 14 15 Tropical 22 21
The organization of the biosphere "The structure of the biosphere is conveniently called organization according to the nature of the geological processes going on in it" The functional nature of this concept is emphasized. The organization of the biosphere as a whole dynamic formation exists only within the framework of energy flows and the circulation of matter. The levels of organization of the biosphere are distinguished: physical, thermodynamic, chemical, biological, paragenetic
The physical level of organization of the biosphere The biosphere can be considered as a very complex dispersed system composed of solid, liquid and gaseous phases. In all parts of the biosphere (tropospheric, hydrospheric, lithospheric) there are always substances in three aggregate states (solid, liquid and gaseous). In the biosphere, there is a transition, with the active participation of living organisms, from one state of aggregation to another.
Thermodynamic level of organization of the biosphere The gas phase connects the thermodynamic parts of the biosphere Their thermodynamic properties are dependent on each other (eruption of volcanic gases, evaporation of water, etc.) The role of living matter in regulating the gas component of the biosphere (for example, the binding of carbon dioxide during photosynthesis)
Chemical level of biosphere organization Chemical structure of biosphere waters: terrestrial (surface), aboveground, underground Chemical structure of biosphere gases (aboveground, terrestrial, underground gases) in the continental and oceanic regions Chemical structure of solid bodies of the biosphere (aboveground, terrestrial, lithospheric proper) Chemical structure of living substances The chemical organization of the biosphere is studied by biogeochemistry
Biological level of organization of the biosphere Layer 1 - aboveground living matter of the photobiosphere Producers (photosynthetic microorganisms) Environment (troposphere) Consumers Decomposers (fungi and bacteria)
Biological level of organization of the biosphere Layer 2 - living matter of the terrestrial and aquatic photobiosphere Producers (photosynthetic plants and bacteria) Environment (troposphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere) Consumers Decomposers (fungi and bacteria)
Biological level of organization of the biosphere Layer 3 - living matter of the underground and aquatic aphotobiosphere Producers (chemosynthetic microorganisms) Environment (hydrosphere, lithosphere) Decomposers (fungi and bacteria) Consumers
Paragenetic level of organization of the biosphere “To the thermodynamic, phase and chemical shells, we must add ... a paragenetic shell that determines the paragenesis of elements, that is, the laws of their coexistence. The biosphere is one of these paragenetic shells, the most accessible and known to us.
Living matter, being a special manifestation of the thermodynamic, physical and chemical conditions of the planet, constantly strives to organize them in such a way as to have the maximum stability of its structure, that is, it transfers them to a more complex level of organization. As a result, a paragenetic shell of the planet arises - the biosphere. The paragenesis of structures of different levels of organization is manifested in the biosphere. This leads to the emergence of such complex structures as bioinert bodies.
Categories of biospheric matter 1. Living matter is the sum of living organisms constantly dying and being born (biogenic migration of atoms links with other categories of matter). 2. Biogenic substance (past living substance: coal, bitumen, oil, limestone, etc.). 3. Inert matter - abiotic, living matter does not participate in its formation. 4. Bioinert substance - created by living organisms and inert processes (soils, natural waters, biosphere)
Biogeochemical functions of living matter Gas (oxygen-carbon dioxide, ozone, etc.) Concentration Redox Biochemical Biogeochemical functions of man
Organization of life at the planetary-cosmic level 1. On the scale of the biosphere and a short time - the totality of living organisms. 2. On the scale of geological time, the entire biosphere becomes an actually organized part of life. 3. On the scale of cosmic time, it can be assumed that the entire cosmos (?) can become a potentially organized part of life, its potential body!
The organization of life at the planetary-cosmic level James Lovelock (1972) idea of the living planet "Gaia" . The planet, inhabited by living organisms, itself, as a whole, acquires some properties of a biological organism. Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela (1974 -1979) Theory of autopoiesis, the theory of self-producing autonomous systems. A metasystem theoretical model of life has been created.
The autopoietic system interacts with the environment as a single collective, as an integrity. In the process of structural conjugation with the environment, adaptive structural changes occur in the body. Perturbations also occur in the environment under the influence of the organism. The medium is not inert. In the process of interaction, the organism and the environment (which may include other organisms) act as co-evolving partners. The biosphere is an autopoietic system
Noosphere The term was introduced by E. Leroy (French mathematician and philosopher) in 1927: Further evolution of life on the planet will be carried out only by spiritual means: society, language, culture, etc. And this will be the noosphere, which will follow the biosphere. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (French anthropologist) in 1930 Wrote the book The Noosphere: A Phenomenon of Man. The noosphere is understood as a separate shell of the Earth, formed during the evolution of matter (tangential energy) and radial (fine) energy on the planet
Noosphere VI Vernadsky (1935) Noosphere is a natural body, the components of which are the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and the organic world, transformed by intelligent human activity. “The explosion of scientific thought in the 20th century was prepared by the entire past of the biosphere. The biosphere will inevitably pass, one way or another, sooner or later, into the noosphere.