When the first Europeans landed in North America, hundreds of different tribes lived there. Each tribe had its own customs, its own language and its own way of life. The tribes that lived on the east coast, where the first ships of Europeans landed, were engaged in agriculture, as well as hunting and collecting wild edible plants and berries. They lived in small settlements and grew crops and some vegetables. This illustration is based on sketches made from life by some of the earliest European settlers. For these Indians, the arrival of Europeans at the beginning of the 17th century. it was a disaster. Many of them died from severe infectious diseases brought from Europe, others were either killed by the Europeans or expelled from their ancestral territories.
Settlement of Jamestown
In 1607 a group of Englishmen founded a settlement called Jamestown in Virginia. This drawing shows an episode in which Pochahontas, the daughter of the leader of a local tribe, intercedes for the life of the English captain John Smith. Another group of English settlers, called the Pilgrim Fathers, arrived in North America in 1620 on the ship Mayflower (May Flower). These were the Puritans who left England for the freedom to practice their faith. The area where the Puritans settled was called New England. The first winter in a new place turned out to be very difficult for them because of the cold and the difficulties that they experienced in obtaining food for themselves. In many ways, they survived this first winter thanks to the help of local Indians. On the next year When the Puritans gathered their first harvest on American soil, they held a big feast to thank God for their salvation. This holiday, which is called Thanksgiving Day, is still celebrated in America.
Meanwhile, Europeans continued to arrive in America with their families and property to settle in a new place. Here it is shown how a ship with settlers that arrived from Europe is unloaded. Some of them came here in search of religious freedom, some left their homeland to escape legal persecution or other troubles, and some made this way in the hope of adventure, good luck or a happy turn in their lives. The settlers founded 13 settlements on the east coast, each of which had its own laws and its own management system.
Most of the colonists took up farming. Their life was not easy, because they had not only to clear the overgrown forest and grow crops, but also to defend themselves from the Indians hostile to them. In the south, many European colonists began to grow tobacco. 
The demand for it in Europe was so great that the owners of tobacco plantations, on which slaves brought from Africa worked, quickly got rich. Trade with Europe brought more and more money to the new Americans, and some of it began to be used to build cities. This is a corner of Boston as it was in the 18th century. Some of the settlers were engaged in hunting - with a gun or with the help of a trap. They were called trappers, from the word "trap" - "trap, trap." French trappers settled along the banks of the Mississippi, trying to secure these lands for France.
The first inhabitants of South America were the American Indians. There is evidence that they were from Asia. Approximately 9000 years before our era, they crossed the Bering Strait, and then descended to the south, passing through the entire territory of North America. It was these people who created South America one of the most ancient and unusual civilizations, including the mysterious states of the Aztecs and Incas. ancient civilization South American Indians was ruthlessly destroyed by the Europeans, who began the colonization of the continent in the 1500s.
Capture and looting
By the end of the 1500s, most of the South American continent had been taken over by Europeans. They were attracted here by huge natural resources - gold and precious stones. During colonization, Europeans destroyed and plundered ancient cities and brought diseases from Europe that wiped out almost the entire indigenous population - the Indians.
Modern population
There are twelve independent states in South America. The largest country, Brazil, covers almost half of the continent, including the vast Amazon Basin. Most of the inhabitants of South America speak Spanish, that is, the language of the conquerors who sailed here from Europe on their sailing ships in the 16th century. True, in Brazil, on whose territory the invaders once landed - the Portuguese, official language is Portuguese. Another country, Guyana, speaks English. Native American Indians still survive in the highlands of Bolivia and Peru. The majority of Argentina's residents are white, while neighboring Brazil is home to a large number of descendants of African Negro slaves.
Culture and sports
South America has become the birthplace of many unusual people and a hospitable home that has gathered many different cultures under its roof. Bright colorful houses in La Boca, the bohemian quarter of the Argentine capital, Buenos Aires. This area, which attracts artists and musicians, is inhabited mainly by Italians, descendants of settlers from Genoa who sailed here in the 1800s.
The most favorite sport on the continent is football, and it is not surprising that it was the South American teams - Brazil and Argentina - that became world champions more often than others. Pele played for Brazil - the most outstanding footballer in the history of this game.
In addition to football, Brazil is famous for its famous carnivals, which are held in Rio de Janeiro. During the carnival, which takes place in February or March, millions of people pass through the streets of Rio in the rhythm of the samba, and millions more spectators watch this colorful action. The Brazilian carnival is the most massive holiday held on our planet.
The history of New America has not so many centuries. And it began in the 16th century. It was then that new people began to arrive on the continent discovered by Columbus. Settlers from many countries of the world had different reasons for coming to the New World. Some of them just wanted to start new life. The second dreamed of getting rich. Still others sought refuge from religious persecution or government persecution. Of course, all these people belonged to different nationalities and cultures. They were distinguished from each other by the color of their skin. But all of them were united by one desire - to change their lives and create a new world almost from scratch. Thus began the history of the colonization of America.
Pre-Columbian period
Humans have inhabited North America for thousands of years. However, information about the indigenous inhabitants of this continent before the period when immigrants from many other parts of the world appeared here is very scarce.
As a result scientific research it was found that the first Americans were small groups of people who moved to the continent from the North East Asia. Most likely, they mastered these lands about 10-15 thousand years ago, passing from Alaska through shallow or frozen. Gradually, people began to move inland, to the continent. So they reached Tierra del Fuego and the Strait of Magellan.
The researchers also believe that in parallel with this process, small groups of Polynesians moved to the continent. They settled in the southern lands.
Both those and other settlers who are known to us as the Eskimos and Indians are rightfully considered the first inhabitants of America. And in connection with long-term residence on the continent - the indigenous population.
Discovery of a new continent by Columbus
The first Europeans to visit the New World were the Spaniards. Traveling to a world unknown to them, they marked India and the western coastal territories of Africa on a geographical map. But the researchers didn't stop there. They began to look for the shortest route that would lead a person from Europe to India, which promised great economic benefits to the monarchs of Spain and Portugal. The result of one of these campaigns was the discovery of America.
It happened in October 1492, it was then that the Spanish expedition, led by Admiral Christopher Columbus, landed on a small island located in the Western Hemisphere. Thus was opened the first page in the history of the colonization of America. Immigrants from Spain rush to this outlandish country. Following them, the inhabitants of France and England appeared. The period of colonization of America began.
Spanish conquerors
The colonization of America by Europeans at first did not cause any resistance from the local population. And this contributed to the fact that the settlers began to behave very aggressively, enslaving and killing the Indians. The Spanish conquerors showed particular cruelty. They burned and plundered local villages, killing their inhabitants.
Already at the very beginning of the colonization of America, Europeans brought many diseases to the continent. The local population began to die from epidemics of smallpox and measles.
In the mid-16th century, Spanish colonists dominated the American continent. Their possessions stretched from New Mexico to Cape Gori and brought fabulous profits to the royal treasury. In this period of the colonization of America, Spain fought off all attempts by other European states to gain a foothold in this rich natural resources territory.
However, at the same time, the balance of power began to change in the Old World. Spain, where the kings unwisely spent huge flows of gold and silver coming from the colonies, began to gradually lose ground, giving way to England, in which the economy was developing at a rapid pace. In addition, the decline of the previously powerful country, and the European superpower, was accelerated by the long-term war with the Netherlands, the conflict with England and the Reformation of Europe, which was fought with huge funds. But the last point of Spain's withdrawal into the shadows was the death in 1588 of the Invincible Armada. After that, England, France and Holland became leaders in the process of colonization of America. Settlers from these countries created a new immigration wave.
Colonies of France
settlers from this European country interested, first of all, valuable furs. At the same time, the French did not seek to seize land, since in their homeland the peasants, despite the burden of feudal duties, still remained the owners of their allotments.
The colonization of America by the French began at the dawn of the 17th century. It was during this period that Samuel Champlain founded a small settlement on the peninsula of Acadia, and a little later (in 1608), in 1615, the possessions of the French extended to lakes Ontario and Huron. These territories were dominated by trading companies, the largest of which was the Hudson's Bay Company. In 1670, its owners received a charter and monopolized the purchase of fish and furs from the Indians. Local residents became "tributaries" of companies, caught in a network of obligations and debts. In addition, the Indians were simply robbed, constantly exchanging the valuable furs they obtained for worthless trinkets.
UK dominions
The beginning of the colonization of North America by the British started in the 17th century, although their first attempts were made a century earlier. The settlement of the New World by subjects of the British crown accelerated the development of capitalism in their homeland. The source of the prosperity of the English monopolies was the creation of colonial trading companies that successfully worked in the foreign market. They also brought fabulous profits.
Features of the colonization of North America by Great Britain consisted in the fact that in this territory the government of the country formed two trading companies that had large funds. It was the London and Plymouth firms. These companies had royal charters, according to which they owned lands located between 34 and 41 degrees north latitude, and extended inland without any restrictions. Thus, England appropriated to itself the territory that originally belonged to the Indians.
At the beginning of the 17th century. established a colony in Virginia. From this enterprise, the commercial Virginia Company expected great profits. At its own expense, the company delivered settlers to the colony, who worked off their debt for 4-5 years.
In 1607 a new settlement was formed. It was the Jamestown colony. It was located in a swampy place where many mosquitoes lived. In addition, the colonists turned against themselves the indigenous population. Constant clashes with the Indians and disease soon claimed the lives of two-thirds of the settlers.
Another English colony, Maryland, was founded in 1634. In it, British settlers received allotments of land and became planters and big businessmen. The workers at these sites were the English poor, who worked off the cost of moving to America.
However, over time, instead of indentured servants in the colonies, the labor of Negro slaves began to be used. They began to be brought mainly to the southern colonies.
Over the course of 75 years after the formation of the Virginia colony, the British created 12 more such settlements. These are Massachusetts and New Hampshire, New York and Connecticut, Rhode Island and New Jersey, Delaware and Pennsylvania, North and South Carolina, Georgia and Maryland.
Development of the English colonies
The poor of many countries of the Old World sought to get to America, because in their view it was the promised land, giving salvation from debt and religious persecution. That is why the European colonization of America was on a large scale. Many entrepreneurs have ceased to be limited to recruiting immigrants. They started rounding up people, soldering them and putting them on the ship until they sobered up. That is why there was an unusually rapid growth of the English colonies. This was facilitated by the agrarian revolution carried out in Great Britain, as a result of which there was a mass dispossession of peasants.
The poor, robbed by their government, began to look for the possibility of buying land in the colonies. So, if in 1625 1980 settlers lived in North America, then in 1641 there were about 50 thousand immigrants from England alone. Fifty years later, the number of inhabitants of such settlements amounted to about two hundred thousand people.
Behavior of settlers
The history of the colonization of America is overshadowed by a war of extermination against the native inhabitants of the country. The settlers took away the land from the Indians, completely destroying the tribes.
In the north of America, which was called New England, people from the Old World took a slightly different path. Here the land was acquired from the Indians with the help of "trade deals". Subsequently, this became the reason for asserting the opinion that the ancestors of the Anglo-Americans did not encroach on the freedom of the indigenous people. However, people from the Old World acquired huge tracts of land for a bunch of beads or for a handful of gunpowder. At the same time, the Indians, who were not familiar with private property, as a rule, did not even guess about the essence of the contract concluded with them.
The church also contributed to the history of colonization. She raised the beating of the Indians to the rank of a charitable deed.
One of the shameful pages in the history of the colonization of America is the award for scalps. Before the arrival of the settlers, this bloody custom existed only among some tribes inhabiting eastern territories. With the advent of the colonialists, such barbarism began to spread more and more. The reason for this was the unleashed internecine wars, in which it began to be used firearms. In addition, the process of scalping greatly facilitated the spread of iron knives. After all, the wooden or bone tools that the Indians had before colonization greatly complicated such an operation.
However, the relations of the settlers with the natives were not always so hostile. Ordinary people tried to maintain good neighborly relations. The poor farmers took over the agricultural experience of the Indians and learned from them, adapting to local conditions.
Immigrants from other countries
But be that as it may, the first colonists who settled in North America did not have common religious beliefs and belonged to different social strata. This was due to the fact that people from the Old World belonged to different nationalities, and, consequently, had different beliefs. For example, English Catholics settled in Maryland. Huguenots from France settled in South Carolina. The Swedes settled in Delaware, and Virginia was full of Italian, Polish and German artisans. The first Dutch settlement appeared on Manhattan Island in 1613. Its founder was the center of which was the city of Amsterdam, became known as the New Netherland. Later these settlements were captured by the British.
The colonialists entrenched themselves on the continent, for which they still thank God every fourth Thursday in the month of November. America celebrates Thanksgiving. This holiday is immortalized in honor of the first year of life of immigrants in a new place.
The advent of slavery
The first black Africans arrived in Virginia in August 1619 on a Dutch ship. Most of them were immediately ransomed by the colonists as servants. In America, blacks became lifelong slaves.
Moreover, this status even began to be inherited. Between American colonies and countries East Africa the slave trade began to be carried out constantly. Local leaders willingly exchanged their young men for weapons, gunpowder, textiles and many other goods brought from the New World.
Development of the southern territories
As a rule, settlers chose the northern territories of the New World because of their religious considerations. In contrast, the colonization of South America pursued economic goals. Europeans, with little ceremony with the indigenous people, resettled them on lands that were poorly suitable for existence. The resource-rich continent promised the settlers to receive large incomes. That is why in the southern regions of the country they began to cultivate plantations of tobacco and cotton, using the labor of slaves brought from Africa. Most goods were exported to England from these territories.
Settlers in Latin America
The territories south of the United States were also explored by Europeans after the discovery of the New World by Columbus. And today the colonization of Latin America by Europeans is regarded as an unequal and dramatic clash of two different worlds, which ended in the enslavement of the Indians. This period lasted from the 16th to the beginning of the 19th century.
The colonization of Latin America led to the death of ancient Indian civilizations. After all, most of the indigenous population was exterminated by immigrants from Spain and Portugal. The surviving inhabitants fell under the subjugation of the colonizers. But at the same time, the cultural achievements of the Old World were brought to Latin America, which became the property of the peoples of this continent.
Gradually, European colonists began to turn into the most growing and important part of the population of this region. And the importation of slaves from Africa began a complex process of formation of a special ethno-cultural symbiosis. And today we can say that it was the colonial period of the 16th-19th centuries that left an indelible imprint on the development of modern Latin American society. In addition, with the arrival of Europeans, the region began to be involved in world capitalist processes. This has become an important prerequisite for the economic development of Latin America.
According to the genetic studies of the University of Michigan, the ancestors of the Indians and Eskimos moved to America from northeast Asia through the "Bering Bridge" - a wide isthmus on the site of the current Bering Strait between America and Asia, which disappeared more than 12 thousand years ago.
Migration continued between 70 thousand years BC. e. and 12 thousand years BC and had several independent waves. One of them was a wave 32 thousand years ago, the other - to Alaska - 18 thousand years ago (at this time the first settlers had already reached South America).
The level of culture of the first settlers corresponded to the Late Paleolithic and Mesolithic cultures of the Old World.
We can assume [some news contradicts] the following flows of settlement in America (according to racial types - approximately, and chronologically - more likely):
50,000 years ago - the arrival of the Australoids (or Ainoids) through the Aleutian Islands (10,000 years after the Ainu ancestors settled Australia), and their spread over 10,000 years along the western (Pacific coast) to the south (settlement of South America in 40,000 BC) . From them - the active structure of the sentence and the open syllable in many (especially South American) Indian languages?
25,000 years ago - the arrival of the Americanoids (ketoids) - the ancestors of the Athabaskans (Na-Dene Indians). From them - incorporation and ergative system?
13,000 years ago - the arrival of the Eskimos - the ancestors of the Escaleus. Did they pour a nominative jet into the languages of the Indians?
9000 years ago - the arrival of Caucasians (the legendary Dinlin, Nivkhs?). Have you also made your nominative contribution to Native American language structures?
Settlement and ancient cultures of North America
Clovis hunters of mammoths and mastodons, supposedly exterminating many species of large mammals in the Americas in just a few centuries, turned out to be the ancestors of the indigenous population of the New World south of the United States.
In total, about 400 tribes of Indians lived in North America.
2.
3.
Ancient cultures and anthropological populations of North America (articles)
Settlement of North America at the Anishinabemovin site.
Ancient cultures of North America. S.A. Vasiliev.
. (18.03.2008)
The genome of the prehistoric boy showed that modern Indians are the direct descendants of the Clovis mammoth hunters. (22.02.2014)
Beringian Standstill and Spread of Native American Founders.
S.A. Vasiliev. Ancient cultures of North America. St. Petersburg, 2004. 140 p. Institute of the History of Material Culture RAS. Proceedings, vol. 12.
Monograph S.A. Vasilyeva - an important event in Russian science about the past. Not only our understanding of the development of the culture of America before Columbus, but also the disclosure of the mechanisms of social evolution as a whole depends on the solution of the question of the time and ways of the initial settlement of the New World. From the time of Julian Steward, if not earlier, it was the basic similarity of the ancient civilizations of Western Asia, Mexico and Peru that served as the main argument in favor of the existence of the main path of evolution. The weight of this argument largely depends on how early the Indians were cut off from their Asian ancestors and what cultural baggage they brought from their Asian ancestral home. Determination of the dating of the initial settlement of the New World and identification of the appearance of the earliest local cultures is extremely important. Until now, the Russian reader had nowhere to get reliable information about the oldest human traces in America. Not only the humanities in general, but also many ethnographers and even archaeologists' ideas on this subject are borrowed from academic publications of the middle of the last century, and sometimes even from irresponsible popular publications. Now this information gap is closed. S.A. Vasiliev perfectly knows both the Paleolithic of Eurasia, primarily Siberia, and the most ancient monuments of North America, which are familiar to him not only from literature, but also de visu. The book is distinguished by the completeness of the coverage of the material, the use of reliable primary sources, terminological accuracy, clarity of presentation.
On two dozen pages of the Introduction and Chapter 1, the author managed to tell about the history of the study of the Paleolithic of North America, its chronological framework, dating problems, research methods, strengths and weaknesses of American and Russian archeology, the infrastructure of Paleolithic studies in the USA and Canada (research centers and their hierarchy, publications, priority areas, interaction with other disciplines). In Chapter 2, the paleogeography and fauna of the North American continent in the final Pleistocene are described in the same compact and succinct way, with reference to this picture of the main Paleo-Indian traditions. Dating, as is customary in Paleolithic studies, is given in conventional radiocarbon years, which for the final Paleolithic is younger than the calendar years by about 2 thousand years. Chapters 3 - 6 contain an analytical description of the most ancient American Clovis culture (including its eastern one - from New England to the middle Mississippi - a variant of the Heiney) and the cultures of the final Paleolithic that arose immediately after the Late Clovis - Goshen, Folsom and Egate Basin on the Great Plains and in Rocky Mountains, parkhill and crowfield in the Great Lakes region, debert vale in the Northeast. The worse known monuments of the South-East and the Far West are also characterized. Most of these regional traditions (except goshen and parkhill) continue into the early Holocene. In general, the period of radical changes in culture in North America falls not at the turn of the Pleistocene and Holocene, but at the beginning of the Altitermal (ca. 6000 BC in calendar years), so it would be interesting to trace the fate of the cultures of ancient hunter-gatherers just before that time. Of course, this is a special task that goes beyond the professional interests of the author of the monograph. In chapter 7, Vasiliev considers the Paleolithic traditions of American Beringia - Nenanu, Denali and Northern Paleo-Indian. Throughout the book, the presentation is based on the most representative sites, illustrated with site plans, stratigraphic sections, and drawings of typical finds. Given complete lists radiocarbon dates and summary tables of faunistic material characteristic of individual traditions.
Alaska was part of the land bridge from Siberia to America, and therefore its Paleolithic sites are of particular interest. Most of them are concentrated in a small area in the valleys of the Tanana River and its tributaries, the Nenana and Teklanika (west of Fairbanks). Geological conditions make it extremely difficult to find sites in other places. A characteristic type of tools of the Nenana complex (11-12 thousand years ago) are bilaterally processed tear-shaped tips of the chindadn type. It is important to note products made from mammoth tusk. The Denali complex (10-11 thousand years ago) is considered to be an offshoot of the Dyuktai tradition in Siberia. His characteristic technique is the chipping of microblades from wedge-shaped cores. Although the difference in time between Nenana and Denali is confirmed by the stratigraphy of a number of sites, there is no complete certainty here. The radiocarbon dates of both complexes overlap, and the opinion about the functional rather than cultural reasons for the differences in the lithic inventory of the sites cannot yet be discounted.
The most mysterious is the northern Paleo-Indian tradition (NPT). It is mainly localized in the extreme northwest of Alaska (Arctic slopes of the Brooks Range), although one site (Spain Mountain) was found 1000 km south of this zone, near the mouth of the river. Kuskokwim. Most of the radiocarbon dates according to the MPT (mainly from the Meise site) fall within the range of 9.7–11.7 thousand years ago. This pushes the beginning of the SPT at least by the time of the appearance of Clovis, although the earliest dates may be erroneous (in this case, the SPT is dated within 9.6–10.4 thousand years ago). SPT, in contrast to Nena and Denali, is characterized by elongated bilaterally processed arrowheads, which in general contours resemble Clovis and the arrowheads of post-Clovis Paleo-Indian cultures in the mainland of the United States. The greatest similarity is seen with the Agate Basin tips in the north of the Great Plains, so archaeologists believe that either a reverse migration from the Plains to Alaska took place in the final Pleistocene, or the creators of the SPT left Alaska to the south and became the ancestors of the creators of the Aegate Basin tradition. Approximately the same is assumed with regard to undated finds of points with a groove in central Alaska (the locality of Batza Tena1), resembling folsom points.
The problem, however, does not end there. All monuments of the SPT are extremely specialized hunting camps on mountain ledges and plateaus, from where it was convenient to follow herds of animals. For most other cultures of the Late Paleolithic of America and Siberia, there is no such category of monuments. Archaeologists have found appropriate tools only because the Northern Paleo-Indians resorted to this particular hunting tactic. We do not know where and how people lived, who briefly climbed the viewing platforms to watch the bison. Apparently, the sites were used only during the era of the so-called Young Dryas, a sharp cooling period that was preceded by a warm period when temperatures in northern Alaska were higher than today. During warm periods, the tundra-steppe was covered with woody vegetation and large herds of animals disappeared, although this does not mean that people could not use other sources of food at that time. Most likely, the creators of the SPT lived in Alaska before the time that Meiza and similar monuments date back to, and after that, but their traces elude us. It is possible that SPT did not come to Alaska from the south, but goes back to the same root as clovis, and this root should be looked for in Beringia. Unfortunately, most of the territory that this hypothetical proto-Clovis cultural community could have occupied is now flooded with the sea2.
The vast majority of the dating of the Clovis culture falls within the interval of 10.9 - 11.6 thousand years ago, which, with the introduction of an amendment, allows us to attribute the beginning of this culture to the time of 13.5 thousand years ago, or to the 12th millennium BC. This is synchronous with the rise of the Natuf culture in the Middle East and the emergence of pottery in East Asia. Here I see the answer to the question posed at the beginning of the review. Although the Clovisans did not make pottery or harvest barley, “the early Paleo-Indian cultures of North America exhibit the full range of cultural achievements characteristic of the Upper Paleolithic of Eurasia. These include the developed technology of processing stone, bone and tusk, the presence of traces of house-building, treasures of tools, the use of ocher, jewelry, ornament, burial practice. In other words, the people who settled America had a long path of development behind them, marked by many discoveries and achievements. Under the new conditions, their culture continued to change, and their social organization continued to become more complex, which by the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. led to the emergence of medium-sized societies in the New World, and by the turn of the new era - states. America is not a separate world that initially developed independently, but a relatively late offshoot of the Eurasian world.
As it was said, the oldest Alaskan tradition of nenana dates back to 11-12 thousand years ago, which is half a thousand years earlier than Clovis. Therefore, it is likely that the people who lived in central Alaska are Nenan or, as suggested above, have not yet been discovered. common ancestors Clovis and the Northern Paleo-Indian Tradition traveled up the Yukon Valley and then migrated south along the so-called "Mackenzie Corridor" between the Laurentian and Cordillera ice sheets. There they created the clovis culture. The absence of human traces within the Mackenzie Corridor earlier than 10.5 thousand years ago prevents us from accepting this hypothesis as final. In addition, the Nenana industry does not have the technique of grooved chipping, which is so characteristic of the Clovis industry.
Concerning the issue of pre-Clovis colonization, Vasiliev does not deny its possibility, but rightly emphasizes that the list of sites on which this hypothesis is based has been changing for half a century as the age or reliability of some sites is refuted and new ones are discovered. Indirect considerations also indicate that the creators of the Clovis culture, wherever they came from, developed previously uninhabited territories. Being unfamiliar with local conditions, they transported raw materials for many hundreds of kilometers (without resorting to closer sources of flint) and almost did not use rocky shelters convenient for habitation (but also probably unknown to them). The latter, however, may also be due to cultural tradition, because in Siberia, people of the late Pleistocene also only temporarily visited rock shelters, “which contrasts sharply with the data on the Paleolithic of Europe and the Near East” (p. 118). Given the diversity of languages and appearance of the Indians, geneticists and linguists have always tended to the hypothesis of the initial settlement of America before the peak of the last glaciation3. However, the estimates of these experts concern only the estimated time of divergence between populations, but not the place where this divergence occurred, so the corresponding arguments do not carry much weight (already the very first groups of people who reached the areas of the New World located south of the glaciers could speak unrelated languages and racial diversity).
Vasiliev does not consider materials on the Paleolithic of Latin America, but only mentions the recognition by most archaeologists of the authenticity of the Monte Verde site in southern Chile with dates of about 15.5 - 14.5 thousand years ago. It should be noted that the expressed doubts about the synchronism of the images of coal, mastodon bones and artifacts discovered in Monte Verde are so serious4 that they do not allow us to see in this monument an indisputable proof of the appearance of man in America as early as the 14th millennium BC. It is likely that the personal ambitions of the researchers gave the discussion an unnecessary edge,5 but this does not change the essence of the matter. At the same time, the early dating of Monte Verde is not beyond the possibility if the first people who entered the New World moved by boat along southern Alaska and further spread along the coasts.
Relying primarily on the reader-archaeologist, Vasiliev, both in the course of his work and especially in the final chapter 8, proceeds to generalizations of more high level, allowing also non-specialists to visualize the features of life of the population of Siberia and North America at the end of the Paleolithic. Typical was a seasonal change of habitat depending on the movement of herds of ungulates and resettlement for the summer on the sandy banks of rivers. As for the manufacture of stone tools, in Southern Siberia people were more likely to engage in such activities in settlements, and in the south Far East in special workshops at the exit of raw materials (p. 118).
The shortcomings of Vasiliev's book are minor and purely technical. The author follows the phonetic transcription of English names, which sometimes differs sharply from the graphic one. If parkhill and denali are quite transparent, then in the case of Mesa or Agate Basin, it would be desirable to put English in brackets next to the Russian version. The maps showing the distribution of the monuments are made with too little resolution in relation to their linear dimensions, leaving the impression of some negligence, especially in comparison with the well-detailed plans of individual sites.
1 Clark D.W., Clark A.M. Batza Tyna: Trail to obsidian. Hull (Quebec): Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1993; Kunz M., Bever M., Adkins C. The Mesa Site” Paleoindians above the Arctic Circle. Anchorage: U.S. Department of the Interior, 2003. P. 56.
2 Kunz M., Bever M., Adkins. Op. cit, p. 62.
3 For recent work, see Oppenheimer S. The Real Eve. Modern Man's Journey Out of Africa. N.Y.: Carrol & Graf, 2003. P. 284-300. Justifying the possibility of pre-Clovisian migration, Oppenheimer, like many of his predecessors, relies on the early dating of the Meadowcroft site, but Vasiliev convincingly shows that this dating is erroneous.
4 Special Report: Monte Verde Revisited. Scientific American Discovery Archaeology. 1999 Vol. 1. No. 6.
5 Oppenheimer S. Op.cit., p. 287-290.
New data from genetics and archeology shed light on the history of the settlement of America
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Science news printable version
New data from genetics and archeology shed light on the history of the settlement of America
18.03.08 | Anthropology, Genetics, Archeology, Paleontology, Alexander Markov | comment
Excavation of one of the "mammoth kill sites" where the bones of killed mammoths and mastodons are found in association with numerous stone tools of the Clovis culture (Colby, central Wyoming). Photo from lithiccastinglab.com
The first people settled on the northeastern outskirts of the North American continent between 22 and 16 thousand years ago. The latest genetic and archaeological evidence suggests that the inhabitants of Alaska managed to penetrate south and quickly populate the Americas about 15 thousand years ago, when a passage opened in the ice sheet that covered most of North America. The Clovis culture, which made a significant contribution to the extermination of the American megafauna, originated about 13.1 thousand years ago, almost two millennia after the settlement of both Americas.
As you know, the first people entered America from Asia, using the land bridge - Beringia, which during the glaciation period connected Chukotka with Alaska. Until recently, it was believed that about 13.5 thousand years ago, settlers first passed through a narrow corridor between glaciers in western Canada and very quickly - in just a few centuries - settled throughout the New World up to the southern tip of South America. They soon developed extremely effective hunting weapons (the Clovis culture; see also Clovis culture) and killed most of the megafauna (large animals) on both continents (see: Mass extinction of large animals at the end of the Pleistocene).
However, new facts obtained by geneticists and archaeologists show that in reality the history of the settlement of America was somewhat more complex. Consideration of these facts is devoted to a review article by American anthropologists, published in the journal Science.
genetic data. The Asian origin of the Native Americans is now beyond doubt. Five variants (haplotypes) of mitochondrial DNA (A, B, C, D, X) are common in America, and all of them are also characteristic of the indigenous population of Southern Siberia from Altai to the Amur (see: I. A. Zakharov. Central Asian origin of the ancestors of the first Americans). Mitochondrial DNA extracted from the bones of ancient Americans is also clearly Asian in origin. This contradicts the recently expressed assumption about the connection of the Paleo-Indians with the Western European Paleolithic Solutrean culture (see also: Solutrean hypothesis).
Attempts to establish, based on the analysis of mtDNA and Y-chromosome haplotypes, the time of divergence (separation) of Asian and American populations so far give rather contradictory results (the resulting dates vary from 25 to 15 thousand years). Estimates of the time of the beginning of the settlement of the Paleo-Indians south of the ice sheet are considered somewhat more reliable: 16.6–11.2 thousand years. These estimates are based on an analysis of three clades, or evolutionary lines, of subhaplogroup C1, widely distributed among Indians but not found in Asia. Apparently, these mtDNA variants arose already in the New World. Moreover, an analysis of the geographic distribution of various mtDNA haplotypes among modern Indians showed that the observed pattern is much easier to explain based on the assumption that the settlement began closer to the beginning, and not to the end of the specified time interval (i.e., rather 15–16, rather than 11– 12 thousand years ago).
Some anthropologists have suggested "two waves" of American settlement. This hypothesis was based on the fact that the oldest human skulls found in the New World (including the skull of the Kennewick Man, see links below) differ markedly in a number of dimensional indicators from the skulls of modern Indians. But the genetic data does not support the idea of "two waves". On the contrary, the observed distribution of genetic variations strongly suggests that the entire genetic diversity of Native Americans comes from a single ancestral Asian gene pool, and that there was only one widespread human settlement in the Americas. So, in all studied populations of Indians from Alaska to Brazil, the same allele (variant) of one of the microsatellite loci (see: Microsatellite) is found, which is not found anywhere outside the New World, with the exception of the Chukchi and Koryaks (this indicates that that all Indians descended from a single ancestral population). The ancient Americans, judging by the data of paleogenomics, had the same haplogroups as the modern Indians.
archeological data. Already 32 thousand years ago, people - carriers of the Upper Paleolithic culture - settled in Northeast Asia up to the coast of the Arctic Ocean. This is evidenced, in particular, by archaeological finds made in the lower reaches of the Yana River, where items made of mammoth bone and woolly rhinoceros horns were found. The settlement of the Arctic occurred during a period of relatively warm climate before the onset of the last glacial maximum. It is possible that already in this distant era, the inhabitants of the Asian northeast penetrated into Alaska. Several mammoth bones were found there, about 28 thousand years old, possibly processed. However, the artificial origin of these objects is debatable, and no stone tools or other clear signs of human presence have been found in the vicinity.
The oldest indisputable traces of human presence in Alaska - stone tools, very similar to those produced by the Upper Paleolithic population of Siberia - are 14 thousand years old. The subsequent archaeological history of Alaska is quite complex. Many sites aged 12–13 thousand years with different types of stone industry have been found here. Perhaps this indicates the adaptation of the local population to a rapidly changing climate, but it may also reflect the migration of tribes.
40 thousand years ago, most of North America was covered with an ice sheet, which blocked the path from Alaska to the south. Alaska itself was not covered with ice. During periods of warming, two corridors opened in the ice sheet - along the Pacific coast and east of the Rocky Mountains - through which the ancient inhabitants of Alaska could pass to the south. The corridors were opened 32 thousand years ago, when people appeared in the lower reaches of the Yana, but 24 thousand years ago they closed again. People, apparently, did not have time to use them.
The coastal corridor reopened about 15 thousand years ago, and the eastern one somewhat later, 13–13.5 thousand years ago. However, the ancient hunters could theoretically bypass the obstacle by sea. On the island of Santa Rosa (Santa Rosa) off the coast of California, traces of the presence of a person aged 13.0-13.1 thousand years were found. This means that the population of America at that time already knew well what a boat or raft was.
The well-documented archaeological history of the Americas south of the glacier begins with the Clovis culture. The heyday of this culture of big game hunters was swift and fleeting. According to the latest updated radiocarbon dates, the oldest material traces of the Clovis culture are 13.2–13.1 thousand years old, and the youngest are 12.9–12.8 thousand years old. The Clovis culture spread so quickly across vast areas of North America that archaeologists cannot yet determine the area in which it first appeared: the accuracy of dating methods is insufficient for this. Just 2-4 centuries after its appearance, the Clovis culture disappeared just as rapidly.
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5.
Typical tools of the Clovis culture and the stages of their manufacture: A - points, B - blades. Image from the article in question in Science
Typical tools of the Clovis culture and the stages of their manufacture: A - points, B - blades. Image from the article in question in Science
Typical tools of the Clovis culture and the stages of their manufacture: A - points, B - blades. Image from the article in question in Science
The Clovis people were traditionally thought to have been nomadic hunter-gatherers capable of moving quickly over long distances. Their stone and bone tools were very perfect, multifunctional, made using original techniques and highly valued by their owners. Stone tools were made from high-quality flint and obsidian - materials that are far from being found everywhere, so people took care of them and carried them with them, sometimes taking them hundreds of kilometers from the place of manufacture. Clovis culture sites are small temporary camps where people did not live long, but stopped only to eat the next killed large animal, most often a mammoth or mastodon. In addition, huge accumulations of Clovis artifacts have been found in the southeastern United States and Texas - up to 650,000 pieces in one place. Basically it is a waste of the stone industry. It is possible that the Clovis people had their main "stone quarries" and "weapons workshops" here.
Apparently, the favorite prey of the Clovis people were proboscis - mammoths and mastodons. There are at least 12 undisputed Clovis proboscidean kill and butchery sites found in North America. This is a lot, given the short duration of the existence of the Clovis culture. For comparison, in the entire Upper Paleolithic of Eurasia (corresponding to a time period of about 30,000 years), only six such sites have been found. It is possible that the Clovis people contributed in no small way to the extinction of the American proboscis. They did not disdain even smaller prey: bison, deer, hares, and even reptiles and amphibians.
6.
"Fish-shaped" tip found in Belize. Photo from lithiccastinglab.com
The Clovis culture penetrated into Central and South America, but here it did not become as widespread as in North (only a small number of typical Clovis artifacts were found). On the other hand, Paleolithic sites with other types of stone tools have been found in South America, including those with characteristic tips resembling fish in shape (“fishtail points”). Some of these South American sites overlap in age with those of Clovis. It used to be thought that the culture of "fish" points descended from the Clovis, but recent clarification of dating has shown that it is possible that both cultures are descended from some common and as yet undiscovered "ancestor".
Bones of an extinct wild horse were found at one of the South American sites. This means that the first settlers of South America probably also contributed to the extermination of large animals.
7.
The white color indicates the ice sheet during the period of its greatest distribution 24 thousand years ago, the dotted line outlines the edge of the glacier during the period of warming 15–12.5 thousand years ago, when two “corridors” opened from Alaska to the south. The red dots show the sites of the most important archaeological finds, including those mentioned in the note: 12 - a site in the lower reaches of the Yana (32 thousand years); 19 - mammoth bones with possible traces of processing (28 thousand years); 20 - Kennewick; 28 is the largest "workshop" of the Clovis culture in Texas (650,000 artifacts); 29 - the oldest finds in the state of Wisconsin (14.2–14.8 thousand years); 39 - South American site with horse bones (13.1 thousand years); 40 - Monte Verde (14.6 thousand years); 41, 43 - “fish-shaped” arrowheads were found here, the age of which (12.9–13.1 thousand years) coincides with the time of the existence of the Clovis culture. Rice. from the article in question in Science
During the second half of the 20th century, archaeologists repeatedly reported finds of more ancient traces of human presence in America than the sites of the Clovis culture. Most of these finds, after careful checks, turned out to be younger. However, for several sites, the “Pre-Clovisian” age is now recognized by most experts. In South America, this is the Monte Verde site in Chile, whose age is 14.6 thousand years. In the state of Wisconsin, at the very edge of the ice sheet that existed at that time, two sites of ancient mammoth lovers were discovered - either hunters or scavengers. The age of the sites is from 14.2 to 14.8 thousand years. In the same area, bones of mammoth legs were found with scratches from stone tools; the age of the bones is 16 thousand years, though the tools themselves were never found nearby. Several more finds have been made in Pennsylvania, Florida, Oregon, and other regions of the United States, with varying degrees of certainty indicating the presence of people in these places 14–15 thousand years ago. A few finds, the age of which was determined as even more ancient (over 15 thousand years), cause great doubts among specialists.
Subtotals. Today it is considered firmly established that America was inhabited by the species Homo sapiens. There have never been any Pithecanthropes, Neanderthals, Australopithecus and other ancient hominids in America (for a refutation of one of these theories, see the interview with Alexander Kuznetsov: part 1 and part 2). Although some Paleo-Indian skulls differ from modern ones, genetic analysis has shown that the entire indigenous population of America - both ancient and modern - descended from the same population of immigrants from southern Siberia. The first people appeared on the northeastern edge of the North American continent no earlier than 30 and no later than 13 thousand years ago, most likely between 22 and 16 thousand years ago. Judging by molecular genetic data, the settlement from Beringia to the south began no earlier than 16.6 thousand years ago, and the size of the “founders” population, from which the entire population of both Americas south of the glacier originated, did not exceed 5000 people. The theory of multiple waves of settlement was not confirmed (with the exception of the Eskimos and Aleuts, who came from Asia much later, but settled only in the extreme north of the American continent). The theory about the participation of Europeans in the ancient colonization of America has also been refuted.
One of the most important achievements recent years, according to the authors of the article, is that the Clovis people can no longer be considered the first settlers of both Americas south of the glacier. This theory (“Clovis-First model”) assumes that all the more ancient archaeological finds should be recognized as erroneous, and today it is impossible to agree with this. In addition, this theory is not supported by data on the geographical distribution of genetic variations among the Indian population, which indicate an earlier and less rapid settlement of the Americas.
The authors of the article propose the following model of the settlement of the New World, which, from their point of view, best explains the totality of the available facts - both genetic and archaeological. Both Americas were settled about 15 thousand years ago - almost immediately after the coastal "corridor" opened, allowing the inhabitants of Alaska to penetrate south by land. Finds in Wisconsin and Chile show that both Americas were already inhabited 14.6 thousand years ago. The first Americans probably had boats, which could have contributed to their rapid settlement along the Pacific coast. The second suggested route of early migrations is westward along the southern edge of the ice sheet to Wisconsin and beyond. There could be especially many mammoths near the glacier, which were followed by ancient hunters.
The emergence of the Clovis culture was the result of two thousand years of development of ancient American mankind. Perhaps the center of origin of this culture was the south of the United States, because it was here that their main "working workshops" were found.
Another option is not excluded. The Clovis culture could have been created by the second wave of migrants from Alaska, who passed through the eastern “corridor” that opened 13–13.5 thousand years ago. However, if this hypothetical "second wave" did take place, it is extremely difficult to identify it by genetic methods, since the source of both "waves" was the same ancestral population that lived in Alaska.
America was first a land and then a country, born in imagination before in reality, wrote Susan-Mary Grant. Born from the cruelty of the conquerors and the hopes of ordinary workers, they have become one of the most powerful states in the world. The history of America's formation is a chain of paradoxes.
The country, created in the name of freedom, was built by the labor of slaves; a country struggling to establish moral superiority, military security and economic stability does so in the face of financial crises and global conflicts, not least of which is itself.
It all started with colonial America, created by the first Europeans who arrived there, who were attracted by the opportunity to enrich themselves or freely practice their religion. As a result, entire indigenous peoples were forced out of their native land, impoverished, and some were subjected to complete extermination.
America is a significant part of the modern world, its economy, politics, culture, and its history is an integral element of world history. America is not only Hollywood, the White House and Silicon Valley. This is a country where the customs, habits, traditions and characteristics of different peoples have combined to form a new nation. This constant process has created in an amazingly short time the amazing historical phenomenon of the superstate.
How did it develop and what is it now? What is its effect on modern world? We will talk about this now.
America before Columbus
Is it possible to get to America on foot? In general, it is possible. Just think, less than a hundred kilometers, ninety-six to be exact.
When the Bering Strait freezes over, the Eskimos and Chukchi cross it in both directions even in bad weather. Otherwise, where would a Soviet reindeer breeder get a brand new hard drive?.. Snowstorm? Freezing? Like a long time ago, a man dressed in reindeer fur burrows into the snow, stuffs his mouth with pemmican and dozes until the storm subsides...
Ask the average American when America's history begins. Ninety-eight answers out of a hundred in 1776. Americans imagine the times before European colonization extremely vaguely, although the Indian period is as integral to the history of the country as the Mayflower. And still there is a line beyond which one story ends tragically, and the second develops dramatically...
Europeans landed on the American continent off the East Coast. The future Native Americans came from the northwest. 30 thousand years ago, the north of the continent was bound by mighty ice and deep snows to the Great Lakes and beyond.
Yet most of the first Americans arrived through Alaska, then leaving south of the Yukon. Most likely, there were two main groups of migrants: the first arrived from Siberia, with their own language and customs; the second a few centuries later, when the land isthmus from Siberia to Alaska went under the water of a melted glacier.
They had straight black hair, smooth brown skin, a wide nose with a low bridge, and slanted brown eyes with a characteristic crease at the lids. Most recently, in the system of underwater caves Sak-Aktun (Mexico), speleologists-submariners discovered an incomplete skeleton of a 16-year-old girl. She was given the name Naya - a water nymph. Radiocarbon and uranium-thorium analyzes showed that the bones had lain at the bottom of the flooded cave for 12-13 thousand years. Naya's skull is elongated, distinctly closer to the ancient inhabitants of Siberia than to the rounded skulls of modern Indians.
In the tissue of Nighy's molar tooth, geneticists also found a whole mitochondrial DNA. Passing from mother to daughter, she retains the haplotype of the full set of parental genes. In Naya, it corresponds to the P1 haplotype common among modern Indians. The hypothesis that Native Americans descended from early Paleo-Americans who migrated across the Bering Bridge from eastern Siberia has received the strongest evidence possible. The Institute of Cytology and Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences believes that the settlers belonged to the Altai tribes.
The first inhabitants of America
Beyond the icy mountains, to the south, lay a magical land with a warm and humid climate. Almost the entire territory of the current United States is located on it. Forests, meadows, diverse animal world. Several breeds of wild horses crossed Beringia during the last glaciation, later either exterminated or extinct. Ancient animals supplied man, in addition to meat, with the technologically necessary materials of fur, bone, skins, and tendons.
From the coast of Asia to Alaska, an ice-free strip of tundra stretched, a kind of bridge across the current Bering Strait. But in Alaska, only during short warmings, the passages that opened the road to the south thawed. The ice pressed the walkers to the Mackenzie River, to the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, but soon they came out to the dense forests of what is now Montana. Some went there, others went west, to the coast Pacific Ocean. The rest usually went south through Wyoming and Colorado to New Mexico and Arizona.
The most daring made their way even further south, through Mexico and Central America to the southern American continent; they will reach Chile and Argentina only centuries later.
It is possible that the ancestors of Native Americans got to the continent through the Aleutian Islands, although this is a difficult and dangerous path. It can be assumed that the Polynesians, magnificent sailors, sailed to South America.
In Marms Cave (Washington State), the remains of three human skulls dated to the 11th-8th millennium BC were found, and nearby - a spearhead and a bone tool, which gave reason to assume the discovery of a unique ancient culture of the indigenous people of America. This means that already then people who were able to create smooth, sharp, comfortable and beautiful products lived on these lands. But right there engineering troops The United States needed to build a dam, and now unique exhibits lie under a twelve-meter water column.
Guesses were made about who visited this part of the world before Columbus. Vikings definitely were.
The son of the Viking leader Erik the Red, Leif Eriksson, having gone out to sea from the Norwegian colony in Greenland, sailed Helluland (“the country of boulders”, now Baffin Land), Markland (the forest country, the Labrador Peninsula), Vinland (“grape country”, most likely New England). After wintering in Vinland, the Viking ships returned to Greenland.
Leif's brother, Thorvald Eriksson, built a fortification with housing in America two years later. But the Algonquins killed Thorvald, and his companions sailed back. The next two attempts were slightly more successful: Eric the Red's daughter-in-law Gudrid settled in America, at first established a profitable trade with the Scree-lings, but then returned to Greenland. Eric the Red's daughter, Freydis, was also not lucky enough to attract the Indians to a long-term cooperation. Then in a fight she cut down her companions, and after the strife, the Normans left Vinland, where they lived for a long time.
The hypothesis about the discovery of America by the Normans was confirmed only in 1960. The remains of a well-equipped Viking settlement were found in Newfoundland (Canada). In 2010, a burial was found in Iceland with the remains of an Indian woman with the same Paleo-American genes. She came to Iceland around 1000 AD. and stayed there...
There is also an exotic hypothesis about Zhang He, a Chinese commander, with a huge fleet that sailed to America supposedly seventy years earlier than Columbus. However, it does not have reliable evidence. The infamous book by the American Africanist Ivan Van Sertin spoke of the huge fleet of the Sultan of Mali, which reached America and determined its entire culture, religion, and so on. And there was little evidence. So external influences were kept to a minimum. But in the New World itself, many tribes developed that existed rather apart and spoke different languages. Those of them3 that were united by the similarity of beliefs and blood ties formed numerous communities.
They themselves built houses and settlements of high engineering complexity, which have survived to this day, processed metal, created excellent ceramics, learned to provide themselves with food and grow cultivated plants, play ball and domesticate wild animals.
Approximately such was the New World at the moment of the fatal meeting with the Europeans - the Spanish sailors under the command of the Genoese captain. According to the poet Henry Longfellow, the great Gaia-wata, the cultural hero of all North American tribes, dreamed of her as an inevitable fate.