The East Slavic unions of tribes felt kinship with each other, they were close in language, culture, customs, and had many common external interests. All this created the conditions for the political unification of the Eastern Slavs, which happened in the second half of the 9th century. At the head of this association was the Rurik dynasty, and the main city was Kyiv. However, the Rurik Empire was not a centralized state entity. It was a political association of feudal lords around the Grand Duke in order to repulse the constant raids of external enemies and collect tribute from their own population.
The territory of modern Belarus was located on the western outskirts of Kievan Rus. In the beginning, the Polotsk and Turov principalities existed here. With the development of feudal relations, some principalities made attempts to get out of the power of Kyiv. One of the first to separate was Polotsk. Polotsk was first mentioned in sources under 862.
In the last quarter of the X century. there was a stubborn struggle for the grand prince's throne between the sons of the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav and the Kyiv prince Yaropolk, the Novgorod prince Vladimir. Each of them sought to have the Principality of Polotsk as their ally. To this end, Vladimir decided to marry the daughter of the Polotsk prince Rogvoloda Rogneda, but met with a decisive refusal from her side. Then Vladimir captured Polotsk, killed Rogvolod, took Rogneda as his wife by force and became the Grand Prince of Kyiv. Vladimir sent his sons to the largest cities as his governors. His son Izyaslav received Polotsk from Rogneda.
After the death of Izyaslav, his sons and grandsons reigned in Polotsk. The Principality of Polotsk reached its peak under Prince Bryachislav (1001-1044) and Vseslav (Wizard) (1044-1101). At this time, the boundaries of the principality expanded. It occupied the territory of the present Vitebsk region, the northern part of Minsk and several neighboring regions. In vassal dependence on the principality were lands that stretched along the lower reaches of the Western Dvina, where the cities of Kukenoys and Gertsike were located. The Polochans controlled the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", collected tribute from the Baltic tribes.
Between Polotsk and Kyiv there was a struggle that continued intermittently for more than 100 years. The princes of Polotsk twice occupied Novgorod, fought for Pskov and Smolensk. In 1067 there was a battle on the Nemiga River, there was a war with Vladimir Monomakh. In 1127 the son of Monomakh, the Grand Duke of Kyiv, Izyaslav, organized a large campaign of a coalition of South Russian princes against Polotsk. Then the Polotsk land broke up into specific principalities: Polotsk, Minsk, Drutsk, Izyaslav, Logoisk and others.
In the second half of the XII century. Crusaders began to penetrate into the eastern Baltic. The ancestors of Latvians and Estonians by this time did not have their own statehood and were pagans. The northern danger from the German crusades was masked by missionary activity. In 1186 Prince Vladimir of Polotsk allowed the German Maynard to conduct Christian work among the subordinates of Polotsk Livs. The crusaders were interested not so much in missionary work as in the conquest of new lands in the Baltic states.
In 1201, under Bishop Asbert (with the permission of the Polotsk prince), the Riga fortress was built. In 1202, with the help of the Pope, the Order of the Sword-bearers was created here, which in 1237 became known as the Livonian Order. The appearance of German crusaders in the Baltic began to threaten the Polotsk princes with the loss of these lands. Therefore, in the summer of 1203, the squad of the Polotsk prince Vladimir Vseslavich laid siege to the German fortresses Ikskul and Golm. But this campaign was unsuccessful. In 1208, the crusaders captured Kukenoys, in 1209 they plundered and burned Herzike.
To counter the danger, Polotsk and Vitebsk established a connection with the Novgorod land, which allowed them to defeat the Swedes on the Neva in 1240, and on April 5, 1242, defeat the German crusaders on Lake Peipsi. In 1260, Lithuanians, together with Russian and Belarusian troops, defeated the Crusaders on Lake Durbe. Thus, the coalition of all the forces of the northern part of Europe managed to defend its independence.
The Turov principality was formed on the territory of southern Belarus in the basin of the Pripyat and its tributaries. The capital of the principality - the city of Turov is mentioned in the annals under 980. Until the end of the 10th century. The Turov principality developed as an independent one. A dynasty of princes ruled here. From the end of the X century. in Turov reigns the son of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Svyatopolk, who fought for the independence of the principality. From 1054 to 1119 the Principality of Turov was owned by Prince Izyaslav (son of Yaroslav the Wise) and his sons. Since 1113, the principality passed to the heirs of V. Monomakh. In the 50s of the XII century. Yuriy Yaroslavovich took possession of the Turov principality, who returned the principality to the dynasty of Prince Izyaslav. A feature of the socio-political system of the Turov principality was the presence in the city of both the prince and the posadnik, which was still characteristic only of Novgorod the Great.
At that time, the inhabitants of Belarus put up stubborn resistance to the Mongol-Tatars, when they, devastating Russia, moved in 1240-1242. to the west. The flank detachments of Batu passed through the southern part of Belarus, devastated and plundered Mozyr, Turov, Pinsk, Brest. In the middle and second half of the XIII century. The Mongol-Tatars more than once carried out raids on the Belarusian and Lithuanian lands, but they failed to conquer and subjugate them. At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIV century. The Turov land was completely annexed to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Culture of Belarus in the X - XIII centuries
In close connection with the state-forming processes in the IX - XIII centuries. culture was developing. At its core, it combined the pagan and Greek-Byzantine traditions. Paganism brought the Slavic communities of the Krivichi, Dregovichi, Radimichi closer to the local population - the Balts. Forces that a person could not cope with, the ancient Slavs endowed with the qualities of living beings (water, brownie, forest, etc.). There were rituals associated with various aspects of agricultural work. They became whole calendar cycles: the arrival of birds, the buzzing of spring, Palm Week, St. George's Day, Kupala's days, dozhinki, zazhinki, etc. From the pagan gods, the god of thunder, lightning and rain, Perun, was most worshiped. The cult of the solar gods was widely represented among our ancestors: Horos, Dazhdbog, Kupala and Yarilo.
Christianity appeared in Palestine during the Roman Empire among the poor Jewish population. In the early centuries, believers gathered in homes for the reading of the gospels and the Last Supper. Over time, in the Christian church, ceremonies, magnificent services came to the fore, and a church hierarchy began to take shape. On the
the first Vilna Church Council (325) in Nicaea and the second (381) in Constantinople, the "creed" was developed in general terms - summary fundamental principles of the Christian church. The creed included the dogma of the trinity of God (“God is the father”, “God is the son”, “God is the holy spirit”) and the resurrection of Christ. The Roman emperors adopted Christianity and made it the state religion. After the collapse of the Roman Empire into two parts, the Roman patriarch, the Pope, considered himself the first among the patriarchs. The Eastern (Greek) patriarchs did not want to obey the Pope. There was a split into two churches: Western, Roman Catholic and Eastern, Byzantine (Orthodox), or Greek (1054).
The East Slavic principalities adopted the Byzantine Church. In 988, Prince Vladimir of Kyiv adopted Christianity and in the river. The Dnieper baptized the inhabitants of Kyiv. In Russia, a clergy appeared, headed by the metropolitan, the bishops were subordinate to him. The Russian clergy has always supported secular power. The church received a tenth of the state revenues. Christianity also began to spread in Belarus, it was first accepted by the upper strata of society, and then by the rest of the people. In 992, the Polotsk diocese was created, in 1005 - the Turov diocese.
The influence of Christianity on the spread of writing and education was beneficial. The following monasteries became important cultural and educational centers on the territory of Belarus: Turov (Varvarinsky), Mozyr (Petropavlovsky and Paraskeva), Polotsk (Borisoglebsky). At the monasteries there were original workshops (scriptoriums) in which the Holy Scriptures and the works of the Church Fathers, patericons and lives, Byzantine chronicles and local chronicles were copied.
Chronicle writing became the main genre of the early medieval written culture. One of the first monuments of chronicle writing is The Tale of Bygone Years. It was continued by local chronicles: Kyiv, Galicia-Volyn, Novgorod, Suzdal. There is evidence that chronicles were compiled in Polotsk, Turov, Novogrudok. Canonical literature, lives and teachings have become widespread: "The Turov Gospel", "The Orsha Gospel", "The Polotsk Gospel", "The Life of Euphrosyne of Polotsk", "The Life of Abraham of Smolensk", "The words of Cyril of Turov: "The Parable of Soul and Body", "About the blind and the lame", etc.
The inscriptions on the lead seal of Prince Izyaslav of Polotsk, the famous cross of Euphrosyne of Polotsk, stone whorls of the 12th century found in Vitebsk, Drutsk, and Pinsk testify to the spread of writing in Belarus. In Brest, a boxwood comb with a carved alphabet (letters from "A" to "L"), birch bark letters found in Vitebsk and Mstislavl were found. Monuments of written language of Belarus are inscriptions on stones-boulders (“Borisov” and “Rogovolodov” stones).
World achievements corresponded to the construction of temples, their architecture, painting, decoration. Temples were not only places of worship, they housed archives, the state treasury, libraries, and schools. In the XI century. Sophia Cathedral was built in Polotsk on the initiative of Prince Vseslav. At the beginning of the XII century. in Belchitsy (near Polotsk) the Church of St. Boris and Gleb was built, and in 1161 in the Village of the Savior-Preobrazhensky Cathedral, also known as Spassky or Spaso-Efrosinevsky. For this cathedral, commissioned by Euphrosyne of Polotsk, the master jeweler Lazar Bogsha created in 1161 an unsurpassed example of applied art - a cross overlaid with gold and silver plates with miniature images of Christian saints made in multi-colored enamel. Borisoglebskaya, or
Kolozhskaya, church in Grodno. In Kamenets at the end of the 13th century. Vezha (Belaya Vezha), a monument of military architecture in Belarus, was erected.
In the spiritual and cultural life of Belarus of that time, a bright personality is Kirill Turovsky(perhaps 1130 - no later than 1182). He was a highly educated man, a brilliant writer, an outstanding religious figure. Thirty prayers, eight "words", three teachings, two canons written by K. Turovsky have been preserved. For outstanding oratory contemporaries called him "Chrysostom". At the request of the townspeople and Prince Yuri, Kirill became the Bishop of Turov.
The person who left a noticeable mark on the cultural life of Belarus was Efrosinya (Predslava) of Polotsk (probably 1104 - 1167), the granddaughter of Vseslav Charodey. At first she rewrote books, after she became a nun, she settled in the cell of the St. Sophia Church in Polotsk, where she continued to rewrite books, later she created chronicles and her own writings. Later she became the abbess of the monastery of the Holy Savior in Polotsk, built a monastery. At the end of her life, Euphrosinia made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where she died.
Decorative and applied arts developed under the influence of Byzantium, but artisans also introduced local features into it. Products made of wood, bone, metal were decorated with carvings, inlays in the form of various ornaments (geometric figures, fantastic animals and birds). The following objects testify to high artistic skill: stone icons decorated with the finest carvings, chess pieces made of bone and stone found in Grodno, Volkovysk, Lukoml. Jewelers created gold jewelry covered with colored enamel, silver items with filigree and graining, with niello and gilding. All this testified to high level development of culture on the territory of Belarus. Most of the cultural monuments of ancient Belarus perished during the numerous wars.
Belarusian lands as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (mid-13th - mid-16th centuries)
Formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russian, Zhemoytsky
Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the XIV - XV centuries
State-political system of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Socio-economic relations in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 14th - first half of the 16th centuries
The political situation of Belarus in the first half of the 16th century
Formation of the Belarusian nation
Culture of Belarus in the XIV - XVI centuries
Formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russian, Zhemoytsky
The process of formation of one of the largest states of Eastern Europe of the Middle Ages - the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia, Zhemoytsky and other lands - was complex and lengthy in time. The final territorial boundaries of the Grand Duchy were established in the second half of the 14th century. They stretched from the Baltic to the Black Seas from north to south, from Brest to Smolensk from west to east.
Historical realities of the XIII - XIV centuries. pushed towards the Balto-Slavic political unification of the population of both those and other lands. It was their unity that made it possible to maintain at that time to a large extent ethnic purity, and it is quite acceptable that the very existence of the ethnic groups that inhabited this region, in the face of confrontation with aggressors from the northwest (crusaders) and southeast (Mongol-Tatars). Joint actions of the Balto-Slavic squads against the crusaders and their ally Konrad of Mazovia are known.
Internal unifying tendencies were also sensitive. Twenty small specific principalities, which were formed as a result of the collapse of the Polotsk and Turov principalities, waged an internecine struggle. There was no statehood in the Baltic lands. Here tribal alliances arise, princes (kunigas) appear, who had strong military squads. They resisted the crusaders and at the same time they themselves raided the lands of weakened Russia. The internal struggle between tribal unions exalted the personality of some princes. One of these princes was
Mindovg.
AT such a situation, a number of lands led ethnic unification activity. It was demonstrated by the Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn, Smolensk lands, as well as the lands of the Balto-East Slavic.
In the middle of the XIII century. in the Baltic-eastern lands, Novogrudok (modern Novogrudok) rises. Novogrudok was founded by Yaroslav the Wise (1044) and for a long time was under the influence of Kyiv, and then the Galician-Volyn princes. Productive lands of Ponemanya, a relatively safe geographical position in conditions of constant external
1. general characteristics ancient state formations.
2. General characteristics of the ancient law of Belarus. Treaty of 1229.
City-state, princely dynasty, prince, Rurikovichi, Rogvolod, Rogneda, Yaropolk, Bryachislav, Gleb, Christianity, Russia, Varangians, Cumans, Khazars, volost, churchyard, tiun, veche, custom, customary law, treaty of 1229, dualism, conservatism, disunity, traditionalism.
When deciding on the time of the origin of statehood among the Eastern Slavs, it is necessary to single out the time of the revolutionary upheaval in social relations, which occurred after the upheaval in production relations. Such a revolution in industrial relations was the use of iron tools. The beginning of the production and use of iron tools on the territory of Belarus dates back to the 7th-5th centuries. BC. The stable division of society into classes can also be attributed to this time.
At the turn of our era, the process of formation of the slave system was going on. However, this system on the territory of Belarus has not received its classical development. By the 9th century AD, fortified settlements appear on the territory of Belarus - “pastels of the Garado - Castle”.
Thus, the formation of statehood among the Eastern Slavs took place over a long period of time (from the 7th-5th centuries BC to the UP1-IX centuries AD) under the influence of economic, political and social internal causes, although external causes played a role . The behavior of the population during this period was regulated by customary law and the rules prescribed by the pagan religion.
The East Slavic unions of tribes felt kinship with each other, since they were close in language, culture, customs, and had many common external interests. All this created the conditions for the political unification of the Eastern Slavs, which happened in the second half of the 9th century. At the head of this association was the Rurik dynasty, and the main city was Kyiv. However, the Rurik Empire was not a centralized state. It was a political association of feudal lords around the Grand Duke with the aim of repelling the constant raids of external enemies (Pechenegs, Polovtsy, Varangians, Khazars) and collecting tribute from their own population. In the XI-XII centuries. - the growth of productive forces, the emergence of new economic centers, the strengthening of the power of local princes, constant civil strife, and as a result - feudal fragmentation, which led to the collapse of Kievan Rus. The principality of Polotsk in the north and Turov in the south occupied the main part of the territory of Belarus. Upper Ponemanye (the so-called Black Russia) was part of the Vladimir-Volyn principality. The lands in the upper reaches of the Dnieper and the Western Dvina formed the principality of Smolensk. Lower Posozhye and Popry-five were, respectively, part of the Chernigov and Kyiv principalities.
Ancient Polotsk, as the center of the Krivichi-Polochans, has long competed with two other influential centers of the East Slavic world: in the north - with Novgorod, and in the south - with Kiev. In the second half of the X century. Rogvolod reigned in Polotsk. During the struggle for the throne of Kyiv, which was waged by the brothers Vladimir and Yaropolk, each of them sought to have the Principality of Polotsk as his ally. To this end, Vladimir decided to marry the daughter of Rogvolod Rogneda, but met with a decisive refusal from her.
In response, Vladimir attacked Polotsk with an army, killed Rogvolod and his sons, and took Rogneda by force as his wife. According to legend, Rogneda made an unsuccessful attempt on her husband's life and was sent along with her son Izyaslav to the Polotsk land. Here Izyaslav occupied the settlement of his grandfather and renewed the local princely dynasty.
In the XI century. the son of Izyaslav Bryachislav and, especially, the grandson Vseslav, in fact, did not reckon with the will of the Kyiv princes and pursued an independent policy. In the struggle with the Kyiv prince Yaroslav the Wise for the city of Novgorod, Bryachislav achieved the transfer of the cities of Vitebsk and Usvyat to him, which stood on important way from Scandinavia to Byzantium. Along the Western Dvina, the Polotsk residents expanded into the Baltic lands, establishing centers there for collecting tribute and managing the subject population. Vseslav Bryachislavich for the time being maintained peaceful relations with the Kyiv princes, but as soon as strife began between the latter, he launched a struggle for the subordination of Polotsk to Northern Russia. In 1065, the Polotsk squads besieged Pskov, and the next, in 1066, took Novgorod by storm. In response to this, the three princes - the Yaroslavichi brothers, led by Izyaslav of Kyiv, went to the Polotsk land and captured Minsk. Here, on the banks of the Nemiga River, on March 3, 1067, a fierce battle took place. Vseslav retreated. Having committed perjury, the Yaroslavichi seized him near Orsha and took him to Kiev. But in 1068, the people of Kiev, who rebelled against Izyaslav, freed Vseslav and made him the Grand Duke of Kyiv. After seven months, he returned to his homeland, and the struggle between Polotsk and Kyiv continued on.
Izyaslav, having dealt with his enemies in Kyiv, sent troops to Polotsk. Vseslav retreated to the Gulf of Finland and, together with the tribe, tried, albeit unsuccessfully, to capture Novgorod. Soon, with the support of the inhabitants of Polotsk, he returned his capital. In 1071, a new battle took place with the Kyiv troops, as a result of which a reconciliation agreement was signed between the two states, but it turned out to be short-lived. In 1077, two campaigns were carried out against Vseslav: Lukoml, Logoisk, Drutsk were burned, the surroundings of Polotsk were devastated, but the city itself was not taken. The prince of Polotsk, in turn, captured Smolensk for a while (1078). In 1084, Vladimir Monomakh with Chernigov and Polovtsian troops destroyed Minsk, leaving "neither servant nor cattle" in it. Vseslav was not invited to the well-known congress of princes in Lyubech (1097), where it was decided that everyone should keep "his fatherland". This testified most likely that the Kyiv princes considered Polotchina as a land beyond their control.
In the XII century. freed from the power of Kyiv other lands. The most difficult thing to achieve this was the Turov principality, which directly bordered on Kyiv. Turov was the center of the Dregovichi and was first mentioned in the chronicle under 980 in connection with the name of Prince Tur. Here, the sons of the Grand Dukes sat on the reign, who enjoyed the right to inherit the throne of Kiev. Together with Kyiv in the XII century. Turov land passed either to the Suzdal or Volyn princes. Svyatopolk the Accursed (988-1057) stubbornly fought for complete independence, but this was finally achieved much later, in 1158, under Yuri Yaroslavich, who established an independent dynasty in Turov. A feature of the socio-political system of the Turov principality was the presence in the city of both the prince and the posadnik, which was still characteristic only of Novgorod the Great.
The state formation of the Smolensk Krivichi separated from Kyiv in the late 1920s. Then it went to Prince Rostislav Mstislavich. First-Smolensk land development lagged behind the Polotsk, new in the second half of the XII century. became one of the most famous East Davyad principalities. At the same time, the fragmentation of these and other independent principalities into appanages began. Grodno, Novogrudok and Volkovysk stood out in Ponemanye, in the south - Pinsk and Dubrovitsky principalities, as well as Slutsk and Kletsk. Civil strife flared up, which led to the destruction of cities and villages, the destruction of crops and livestock.
The Polotsk land did not escape these processes either. After the death of Vseslav, his sons occupied the destinies (Polotsk, Minsk, Vitebsk, Drutsk, Izyaslav, Logoisk), the most powerful of which was Minsk. Gleb Vseslavich, who reigned here, was especially active, expanding his possessions in all directions. This caused dissatisfaction in Kiev, which led to wars with Minsk, which ended in the capture of Gleb. However, the princes of Polotsk continued to fight desperately against Kyiv and its allies, which led in 1129 to the expulsion of a number of princes to Byzantium, from which, after 10 years, not all of them returned to their destinies. Political life of Polotsk in the second half of the 12th century. characterized by the performances of the townspeople against objectionable princes, the struggle of warring boyar groups, the change of local princes on the throne of Polotsk. The Vseslavichs develop rivalry and a desire to redistribute destinies, to change the boundaries between them. The collapse of Kievan Rus led to the cessation of attempts by the Kyiv princes to subjugate Polotsk. However, the Polotsk princes themselves intervened in the struggle between Kyiv and Smolensk, which led to the loss of a number of cities (Drutsk, Orsha) in favor of the latter. Losses in the east were compensated by the expansion of the possessions of the Polotsk princes on the lands along the lower reaches of the Western Dvina with access to the Baltic Sea. It is characteristic that the Vseslavichi, competing with each other internally, as a rule, united if their homeland was threatened by an external danger. Even in the first half of the 13th century, although nominally, the power of the Grand Duke of Polotsk was recognized. Therefore, the authority of the Polotsk principality remained quite high, and many rulers were looking for an alliance with it.
Management in the principalities was carried out according to the principle of the feudal hierarchy known from the history of the Middle Ages. Grand Duke- appanage princes - boyars They created a local administration - in the volosts or churchyards, thousand dependents, virniki and tiuns were appointed dependent on the princes. Peasants and philistines were kept in obedience with the help of the military force of the princely squads Boyars and combatants formed a duma under the prince. The most important body of self-government in a number of cities (Polotsk, Vitebsk) was the veche. The "Chronicle of Lithuanian and Zhemoytskaya" affirms "Novgorod the Great, Pskov and Polotsk.
The first early feudal principalities in Belarus are the source of its statehood, the embodiment of the idea of independence of the pro-Belarusian ethnos. Earlier and most consistently, this idea was seen in the Principality of Polotsk, which was larger than some significant kingdoms of Western Europe, where there was a local dynasty, which recognized and retained rights for many generations, therefore, in historical literature, the period of the IX-first half of the 13th century is often defined as Polotsk.
During the period under review, each principality had its own system of customs regulating relations between people.
In ancient times, common unwritten law was dominant, the source of which was the customs that arose from social relations and sanctioned by the state. It took shape as the state was formed, which, first of all, supported the rules of behavior that were beneficial to the ruling class, which led to the fact that law and justice became incompatible.
As social tension intensified in society and its feudalization, a need arose for more precise regulation of all aspects of public life, which could be done only with the help of written law, the norms of which to some extent limited the arbitrariness of the feudal administration.
The characteristic features of early feudal law were the formal equality of free people and the leniency of punishments. But even at that time, the law provided for certain privileges of the feudal lords and secured the complete lack of rights of the slaves.
Written law did not replace customary law. It acted along with it, supplementing it or changing individual norms. The first legal acts of written law were letters of princes, treaties. One of them was the Treaty of Vitebsk, Polotsk and Smolensk lands with Riga and the Goth coast of 1229 was concluded in order to streamline the relationship that arose directly in the field of trade or is closely related to it (for example, the theft committed by a local resident from a foreign merchant; violation standards of morality by a foreign merchant, etc.) A progressive feature of the Treaty of 1229 is its parity principles: foreign merchants have the same legal status in the host country. Much attention is paid to criminal law, the norms of which provide for various types of punishments. The rules of procedural law provide for the procedure for initiating a case, types of evidence, etc.
In the VI-VII centuries. AD Slavic tribes came from the interfluve of the Vistula and the Oder to the territory of Belarus through the lands of modern Ukraine. By the 9th century they occupied most of Belarus. The Baltic tribes of Lithuania, Yotvingians and Latgalians survived only in the northwest. The resettlement of the Slavs began in an era that historians call the "great migration of peoples." The fact that the Baltic settlements of the VI-VIII centuries. found burned, testifies to the military nature of the resettlement of the Slavs. However, the movement of the Slavs to the Baltic lands was gradual, and, therefore, there was a contact border between representatives of two different groups. Slavs and Balts not only fought, but also exchanged. Many archaeologists believe that there was a gradual assimilation - the dissolution of the Balts among the more numerous Slavs. Thus, the Baltic culture penetrated into the Slavic.
The basis of the ancient Slavic society was the families that made up the clans. Clans united into larger groups, which modern historians traditionally call tribes or unions of tribes. Representatives of such groups as Krivichi, Radimichi, Dregovichi and Buzhan lived on the territory of Belarus. Krivichi inhabited the basin of the Western Dvina and the Dnieper region, Radimichi - Posozhye, Dregovichi - Polissya and the central part of Belarus, Buzhans - the course of the Western Bug River.
The Slavs were the bearers of the agricultural culture developed at that time. Their religion was paganism, based on belief in numerous gods and spirits. Among the gods of the Slavic pantheon were the god of thunder and lightning Perun, the patron saint of cattle breeding Veles, the lord of the wind Stribog, the goddess of death Mara, etc. The burial rite was a cremation. Religious holidays were devoted mainly to the calendar-agricultural cycle.
2. THE FIRST STATE FORMATIONS ON THE BELARUSIAN LANDS IN THE IX-XIII CENTURIES.
The arrival of the Slavs to the Belarusian lands coincided with the beginning of the process of decomposition of tribal relations and the formation of a feudal society. The reasons for this were a more intensive division of labor, the allocation of craft to an occupation independent of agriculture, the development of trade relations, as well as wars that led to the rise of military leaders (princes) and warriors close to them (boyars and combatants). The clan gradually gave way to a neighboring community (peace, gramada).
The formed nobility seized communal or unoccupied lands into private ownership. Private lands that could be inherited were called estates. In the X century. princely estates are mentioned, in the XI-XII centuries. - boyars and monasteries. Slaves-serfs or dependent peasants (zakupy, ryadovichi) worked on patrimonial lands. Zakups settled on the land of the feudal lord and received from him a kupa - a natural loan in the form of tools, domestic animals and products. The Ryadovichi entered into a special contract with the owner of the land. Until the purchase worked out the kupa, and Ryadovich did not complete the series, they remained in personal dependence.
Most of the peasants (smerdy) retained their freedom and worked on communal lands. Their duties were limited to the annual polyud. This was the name of the custom of "feeding", that is, providing the prince and the squad with forestry products. Only in the XI-XII centuries. this form of exploitation began to be supplanted by cash payments and tribute to agricultural products.
Agriculture was the backbone of the economy. Peasants grew spring and winter rye, wheat, flax, hemp and other crops. Near large settlements, fields could be located near housing. But forest oblogs and carvings were also common. Forestry played a very important role. It supplied wood for construction, honey and wax of wild bees, meat of forest animals, as well as their skins and furs.
Trade contributed to the development of production. Two important trade routes passed through the territory of Belarus: along the rivers Western Dvina and Dnieper - “from the Varangians to the Greeks”, that is, from Scandinavia to Byzantium; along the rivers Sozh, Pripyat and Western Bug - the way from the Caspian Sea to the countries of Western Europe. Merchants used money - Arab, later Western European silver coins, as well as silver hryvnia ingots. From the west, non-ferrous metals and high-quality steel were brought to Belarusian lands, from the south and east - expensive fabrics, salt, wine and jewelry. Slaves, forestry products, especially furs, handicraft products were exported from local lands.
Cities were the centers of crafts and trade. Initially, they arose as military fortifications on trade routes. According to the chronicles, already in the IX century. there was Polotsk, in the X century. - Turov and Zaslavl, in the XI century. - Braslav, Brest, Vitebsk, Drutsk, Lukoml, Minsk, etc. The prince and the boyars lived in the most fortified part of the city (Dedinets). Posad was built around Dedinets. Its inhabitants were merchants and artisans. The townspeople continued to engage in agriculture, kept livestock, cultivated fields and gardens. They united in urban communities. The meeting of townspeople (veche) took part in the administration. It is known that Turov's veche elected a bishop. On behalf of the veche of Polotsk, international treaties were signed. In 1151, the Polotsk veche expelled Prince Rogvolod and invited the Minsk prince Rostislav to Polotsk. But seven years later, the veche expelled Rostislav and again invited Rogvolod. In 1161, Rogvolod was defeated by the Minsk prince Gleb and fled to Drutsk, as the veche was opposed to the unfortunate prince.
Control over river trade routes for a long time remained in the hands of foreigners. So, radimichi until the X century. paid tribute to the Caspian Khazar people. At the end of the ninth century most of the East Slavic tribes became dependent on the Scandinavian dynasty of Rurik, who founded the state of Rus with a center in Kyiv. Among the cities subordinated to the Rurikovichs, Polotsk is mentioned. But in the second half of the X century. it was already ruled by its own princely dynasty of Scandinavian origin, headed by Rogvolod. He maintained allied relations with the Kyiv prince. In 980, Prince Vladimir of Novgorod, during a campaign against Kyiv, captured Polotsk, killed Rogvolod, and forcibly took his daughter Rogneda as his wife. Having also subjugated Kyiv, Vladimir began reforms with the aim of centralizing government controlled. The most important of these was the adoption of Christianity.
Despite the desire of Vladimir and his successors to unite all the East Slavic lands around Kyiv, the local princes strove for independence. This was especially characteristic of the Polotsk princes. Already the grandson of Vladimir and Rogneda, Prince Bryachislav of Polotsk (1003-1044) led a relatively independent policy from his uncle, Prince Yaroslav the Wise of Kyiv. In order to stop fighting with him, Yaroslav was forced to cede Vitebsk to the Principality of Polotsk. The most decisive prince of Polotsk was the son of Bryachislav, Vseslav (1044-1101). In 1065 he attacked Pskov, in 1066 he captured and plundered Novgorod. On March 3, 1067, the coalition of the Kyiv prince and his brothers defeated the army of Vseslav on the Nemiga River, plundered and destroyed Minsk. Vseslav and his sons were captured near Orsha. But in September 1068, during the uprising of the Kyiv citizens, he was released and for some time occupied the Kyiv throne. In 1071 Vseslav regained Polotsk. In 1127 the prince of Kyiv Mstislav succeeded in capturing the princes of Polotsk and deporting them to Byzantium. However, they returned after his death.
Under Prince Rostislav (1125-1159), the principality of Smolensk acquired relative independence from Kyiv. The principality of Turov, where the heirs of the Kyiv throne usually ruled, was dependent until the second half of the 12th century.
In the IX-XIII centuries. the movement of Slavic settlers to the lands of the Balts continued. In the XI-beginning of the XII centuries. in the Ponemanya region, the Grodno, Volkovysk and Novogrudok principalities were formed. The Principality of Polotsk expanded its territories along the channel of the Western Dvina, where the principalities of Gertsike and Kukenoys were created. Their population was mixed, but princes of Slavic origin ruled.
In the XII century. in history ancient Russia began a period of feudal fragmentation. Its reasons were weak regional ties, the growth of local economies and the desire of specific princes to get out of the control of the central authorities. Feudal fragmentation was also the result of imperfection state system. Having received an appanage principality with the right to inherit, the appanage prince divided it into appanages in order to provide for each of his sons.
The first state formations on the territory of Belarus belong to the Old Russian period (9th-12th centuries). They were formed on the basis of East Slavic tribal unions. It is possible to distinguish 2 powerful East Slavic states-principalities that arose on the territory of Belarus - Polotsk (Krivichi) and Turov (Dregovichi).
The main stages of the formation and development of Kievan Rus (Ancient Rus) - the ancient East Slavic state.
The first stage of formation is associated with the decomposition of the tribal system among the Eastern Slavs, which basically coincided with the process of their colonization of Eastern Europe and the creation of tribal unions - territorial entities that could include non-Slavic tribes that recognized the dominance of the Slavs.
The second stage - from 862, from the time of Rurik's calling with a squad of Novgorodians to rule. At that time, this “rule” was most likely limited to the right to lead the army, collect tribute and maintain order in the interests of the Novgorod tribal aristocracy, which called on the Varangian and his squad. Other princes from the Varangians are also known: in Polotsk on the Western Dvina - Rogvolod (which indicates the independence of the Polotsk principality until the 80s of the XV.), in Kyiv - Askold and Dir, from where they made a military campaign against the capital of Byzantium in 860 - Constantinople.
After the death of Rurik, his young son Igor (Ingvar, Yngvar) remained in Novgorod. Under the young prince, one of Rurik's combatants, Oleg (Helg, Helg), became the ruler. Oleg in 882 captured Kyiv, overthrew Askold and Dir and turned Kyiv into the economic and political center of the lands subject to the Rurikovichs. Oleg's successor - Igor, the son of Rurik, (ruled in 912-945) continued the unification of the East Slavic tribes.
The foreign policy positions of Kievan Rus were strengthened in the third quarter of the 10th century. as a result of the energetic state and military activities of Svyatoslav Igorevich (reigned in 945-972 / 973? / gg.), Who waged wars with the Khazar Khaganate, Byzantium, Bulgarians, Pechenegs, etc.
The end of the formation of Old Russian statehood can be associated with Vladimir Svyatoslavich (ruled 980-1015). He completed both the territorial and ideological formation of this state. Having destroyed the Polotsk Varangian dynasty and forcibly married its only representative, Rogneda, the daughter of Rogvolod, he annexed this powerful East Slavic principality, which was on the way from the Varangians to the Greeks. In order to strengthen his power over the ancient Russian principalities, Vladimir carried out an administrative reform. He seated his sons in the most significant principalities, which was supposed to prevent the emergence of separatist aspirations, because. the eldest of them could claim the main (i.e. Kyiv) throne. The adoption of Christianity by Vladimir also contributed to the political consolidation of the East Slavic lands-principalities.
After Vladimir, another dynastic war broke out among his sons, which, on the one hand, testified to the recognition of the importance of the Kyiv throne, on the other hand, to the lack of unity of the principalities that were part of early feudal Ancient Russia, which was not an example of a unitary state. This war was won by Yaroslav the Wise (ruled 1019-1054).
Under Yaroslav the Wise (son of Rogneda and Vladimir), Kievan Rus became the largest state in medieval Europe. It occupied a vast territory - from the Taman Peninsula in the south to the upper reaches of the Northern Dvina in the North, from the Dniester and the upper reaches of the Vistula in the west to the upper reaches of the Don and Volga in the east. Kyiv had close trade ties with many states of the East and West. Broad political contacts were established, in particular through marriage ties with the ruling houses of Poland, France, Hungary, Norway, etc. For example, he himself was married to a Swedish princess, his daughter Anna was married to the French king, his daughter Elizabeth was married to the Hungarian king, daughter Anastasia - for the Norwegian king, the son of Yaroslav Vsevolod became the son-in-law of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh.
However, with the strengthening of feudal land ownership, the power of Kyiv turned into the power of the eldest in the family of princes, to whom, if possible, one could not obey. For example, in the 11th c. troops of the Principality of Polotsk, went on campaigns to Novgorod, Pskov, fought with Kyiv. At the same time, they recognized themselves as “Russian” princes, but, recognizing the nominal supremacy of Kyiv, they tried not to obey him if possible (especially under Vseslav Charodey).
The final stage in the political and socio-economic development of Ancient Russia is feudal fragmentation. The growth of the economic power of the cities - the centers of the lands (Novgorod, Chernigov, Polotsk, etc.) was accompanied by the struggle of the princes on the one hand for Kyiv, on the other hand for political independence from Kyiv.
For example, in the second half of the 11th century, under Vseslav the Enchanter (1044-1101), Polotsk began to pursue an independent policy, which did not always fit into the plans of Yaroslav the Wise. Therefore, the Kievan chroniclers gave Vseslav of Polotsk the nickname "Sorcerer", which indicated that all his successes were not from God. Vseslav erects the Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk, which in Russia was a symbol of power and independence (in the image of Constantinople, where Sophia played the role of the main cathedral). In Russia, Sofia was only in Kyiv, Novgorod and Polotsk - 3 centers that declared their predominance in the region. Then Polotsk began to fight for the subjugation of Northern Russia. In 1066 Polotsk squads captured and robbed Novgorod. In 1067 established their control over Novogorodok (modern Novogrudok), which made it possible to control the Lithuanian tribes. To prevent the strengthening of Polotsk, the sons of Yaroslav went to war against him. March 3, 1067 the battle of the ancient Russian squads took place on the Nemiga River, with which the first mention of Minsk is connected. Vseslav retreated. This stage of the struggle ended with his capture near Orsha. Once in the Kiev prison, in 1068. as a result of a popular uprising, the veche elected him prince of Kyiv, but Vseslav refuses and returns to Polotsk, realizing that otherwise he will violate the order of succession, which all the Rurikoviches (which he himself was) can oppose.
The strengthening of the position of the Polotsk principality was also facilitated by the fact that it was able to subjugate the Baltic tribes of the Lower Dvina (Semgalians, Kors, Naroma (Latygol)) to its political influence. In the second half of the 12th century in the lower reaches of the Western Dvina, 2 cities dependent on Polotsk arise - Gertsike and Kukenoys. However, the fragmentation of the Principality of Polotsk in the 12th century, the appearance and strengthening of the crusaders in the Baltic region led to its weakening.
The Principality of Turov was of significant economic importance: trade was carried out along the Pripyat with the central European countries. Svyatopolk (son of Rogneda) received Turov in control. During his reign, he married a Polish princess and began to condone the penetration into his principality of priests who recognized the supremacy of the Pope. However, he himself most likely remained a pagan, like most of his subjects. After the death of Vladimir, he rightfully took the throne of Kyiv, but the Kyiv Christianized nobility and his brother Yaroslav, who was then sitting in Novgorod, opposed him. It all ended with the victory of Yaroslav (the Wise).
The Polotsk and Turov principalities were on trade routes, and control over them increased the power of Kyiv, but only Turov was successfully controlled, because. This principality was in close proximity to Kyiv.
3 Socio-economic development of the western lands of Russia in the IX - XII centuries.
The principalities on the territory of Belarus, like other principalities of Ancient Russia, were early feudal Eastern European states.
Feudalism is a social system based on a combination of large landed property of the feudal class and small individual farming of peasants, exploited with the help of non-economic coercion. Non-economic coercion - gratuitous appropriation of part of the results of peasant labor by the right to feudal land rent, acting in the form of corvée, natural or cash quitrent. Land rent - in-kind, cash or labor payment to the feudal lord for the use of land.
Main classes-estates:
Feudal lords (secular and spiritual);
Peasants;
Urban trade and craft population.
Class hierarchy among secular feudal lords.
The Grand Duke of Kyiv (the eldest in the family, inheritance - the Kiev principality, by the right of seniority could influence other princes (specific princes of Kievan Rus)).
Specific princes (Polotsk, Turov, Smolensk and others), "younger" relatives of the Kyiv prince, obliged to listen to the opinion of the eldest in the family.
The boyars are vassals of the specific princes, that is, the former tribal nobility and the highest combatants who owned land in the princely inheritances.
Druzhinniks - vassals of princes or boyars, owned land in specific and boyar lands and formed the basis of the army.
The supreme political power belonged to the prince, who ruled, relying on the support of the nobility (the Boyar Duma), the veche (people's assembly) also played a significant role, which traditionally had the right to invite and exile the prince, resolve issues of war and peace, and discuss the laws adopted by the prince. The Boyar Duma had the functions of an advisory body and symbolized the rights and autonomy of the vassals, had the right to "veto" in relation to princely decisions.
At the bottom of the social ladder under feudalism were the peasants. The peasants united in the territorial community "world", "all", which was responsible to the landowner for order and duties on the principle of "mutual responsibility" (all are responsible for the faults of one).
Forms of feudal dependence of the peasantry:
Economic dependence (preservation of personal freedom, but the performance of duties in favor of the master for the use of land);
Personal dependence (deprivation of personal freedom and the ability to dispose of oneself).
People, smerds - free community members, in a later period (as feudal ownership of land is strengthened and peasants are enslaved, the term "smerd", denoting a commoner, begins to prevail);
Purchases are a temporarily dependent state, until the debt (“kupy”) is returned (a person who received a kupa (in debt), bread or something, that is, a purchase, could not be kept in personal dependence for more than a year);
Ryadovichi - a temporarily dependent state, for the period of fulfillment of the contract ("row");
Outcasts - personally free, but not participating in the self-government of the community, peasants;
Chelyad - the population personally dependent on the feudal lord, who performed work in the chambers (servants);
Kholops are a personally dependent population, over time they are the main productive force in the feudal estate. In ancient Russian documents, serfs are often called "slaves", but in this case this is an indication of their personal dependence, which brought their position closer to slaves, but serfs could have property and a family, which indicates that they did not belong to the class of slaves, but to a personally dependent category of the peasantry.
City. As the productive forces grew, it became possible to separate handicrafts from agriculture. Blacksmiths were among the first to stand apart. As the former centers of tribal unions, where the nobility and the squad lived, border fortresses, trading posts turn into cities, crafts are concentrated in them and craft specialization intensifies. According to chronicles, such cities as Polotsk (mentioned in 862), Vitebsk, Mensk, Lukoml, Orsha, Turov (980), Berestye, Pinsk, Slutsk, Prupoy (Slavgorod) and others are known. At the beginning of the 13th century. there were about 40 cities on the territory of Belarus, including Novogorodok (modern Novogrudok).
Causes and process of creation of Kievan Rus
The creation of the Old Russian state was prepared by the general development of the East Slavic lands in the VI-IX centuries. There are three groups of internal and external causes of the emergence of Kievan Rus.
The first of them is a group of socio-economic reasons. At the beginning of the 9th century, agriculture, animal husbandry, trade and handicrafts began to develop at a tremendous pace.
Slash-and-burn farming was used in forest areas. In a certain area, a forest was cut down, after the logs dried up, they were burned, the land became fertile and suitable for cultivation. The main tools of labor were an ax, a hoe, a plow. A widespread type of agricultural machinery has become a "rall with a skid", with an iron plowshare or a plow. Harvested with sickles. This method of farming gave good harvests, but had one huge drawback: after about three years, the land became uncultivable. And if you take into account natural conditions: bad weather, crop failures, then this method has ceased to justify itself. Also, the disadvantage of the slash-and-fire method is the high cost of labor. Therefore, the Slavs. increasingly consider sedentary lifestyle options. Settlements were formed on fertile lands, near reservoirs and rivers. This provided a good opportunity for cultivating the land. Animal husbandry also developed at a tremendous pace. People used horses to cultivate the land.
The settled way of life made it possible for the development of handicrafts. Iron weapons were made: swords, daggers, knives, spears with iron tips. Tools of labor were also made: files, saws, scissors. All kinds of armor, various shields, helmets and chain mail were made. This was the impetus for the development of trade. The centers of local trade were settlements and small towns. But there were also large trading cities that flourished and developed thanks to the major trade routes passing through them. The most famous is "the path and the Varangians to the Greeks." It originated from the Baltic Sea, passed along the Neva and Lake Ladoga, the Volkhov River, Lake Ilmen, then dragged to the Western Dvina, then dragged along the Dnieper and then went to the Black Sea. Then by sea along the coast of Bulgaria to Constantinople. On his way were such large cities as Novgorod, Smolensk and Kyiv. These cities later became the centers of the created small principalities. This path was the core of the economic, political, and later cultural life of the Eastern Slavs.
The development of agriculture, animal husbandry, crafts and trade, as well as the development of cities and settlements, required the unification of the Slavic lands. Developing handicrafts, deepening economic ties, forming trade relations based on the principle of "purchase and sale", mastering the domestic and foreign markets and making a profit could be much more successful within the framework of a single power.
The second group of reasons is connected with the internal political development of the East Slavic lands.
The constantly improving economy of the Eastern Slavs gradually led to the fact that an individual family no longer needed the help of a clan or relatives. Tribal communities gradually began to break up into small families that lived on the principle of neighborhood. Small buildings for one family began to appear. Common tribal property, common arable land began to be divided between families. This is how the right of private property developed, and iron tools and weapons expanded and multiplied the possibilities and power of a competitive person.
Under such conditions, the power and economic capabilities of the tribal leaders, tribal nobility, retinue and warriors surrounding the leader sharply increased.
As a result of the transfer to the princes of the right to own land to the feudal lords, part of the communities fell under their authority. Another way to subjugate the neighboring communities was the capture of their combatant and the princes. Communities that did not fall under the rule of the feudal lords were obliged to pay taxes to the state and the feudal lords.
Thus, on the territory of the Eastern Slavs, the institution of feudal law and the system of feudal relations, the strengthening of the political power and military strength of the feudal lords, were formed and developed. The internal political situation interested and pushed the feudal lords to create a single state.
The third group of reasons is related to the foreign policy situation.
The formation of East Slavic statehood took place in constant clashes with nomads and semi-nomads, primarily with Bulgaria and the Khazar Khaganate. Also, the Slavs were attacked by such tribes as the Pechenegs and Avars. There is information about the attack of the Mongols. This horde, which came from nowhere, in one day burned, plundered and destroyed what had been created over several decades. For the Slavic people, this was a real disaster. People were killed and driven into slavery.
In those days, the only military force was the people's militia, which consisted of all men capable of holding weapons. But this had a huge drawback, because adult men were literally forced to hold a plow in one hand in the other sword, so as not to become a victim of the attack of numerous enemies. The Slavs quickly mastered the art of war and war and defense against attack became a professional business. The prince's permanent squads appear. They were strong, courageous and well-trained professional warriors, connected with the prince by a personal contract of service and loyalty.
The Slavs, distinguished by their courage and outstanding physical data, regularly became victims of the Avars, Bulgarians, Byzantines, Khazars, Varangians, because they were more united. The Muslim author Al-Bekri wrote that the Slavs are such a powerful and terrible people that if they were not divided into many tribes and clans, no one in the world could resist them.
Also, the Slavic lands constantly suffered from incessant internecine wars. The only way for the prince to get the lands and wealth of a neighbor was murder and war.
All these reasons and factors pushed the princes to unite. After all, it is easier to defend one large state than scattered patches of land. It also significantly increased the strength and size of the Slavic army.
From this we can conclude that a combination of internal and external factors such as the development of agriculture, animal husbandry, crafts and trade, the emergence of a feudal system in the territory of the Eastern Slavs and the threat from external aggressors forced the Slavic princes to unite their lands and create a huge and powerful state of Rus.
Question number 2 The position of the Belarusian lands as part of the ancient Russian state
The development of agriculture, animal husbandry, crafts, trade, as well as the need to unite to protect against the raids of the Khazars, Pechenegs, Avars and other warlike nomads led to the creation of a great and strong state, which was called Kievan Rus. The lands of the Dregovichi, Radimichi and Krivichi entered the warehouse of this state.
The Dregovichi, when settling in Belarus, moved from south to north, which indicates their eastern origin. Under the name of Drugovites, the Dregovichi are already known to Konstantin Porferodny, as a tribe subordinate to Kievan Rus. Dregovichi had their own principality with the capital in the city of Turov. On the territory of the Dregoviches, the Principality of Turov was later formed.
The territory of the Dregovichi was away from the "path from the Varangians to the Greeks", so the Dregovichi did not play a prominent role in the history of Kievan Rus.
Radimichi settled in the Sozh river basin. There are no Radimichi in the annalistic list of principalities, but from other chronicles it becomes clear that the Radimichi remained independent until the middle of the tenth century, were ruled by tribal leaders and had their own army.
In 885, Prince Oleg of Kyiv conquered the Radimichi and freed them from paying tribute to the Khazars. The lands of the Radimichi came under the protection of Kievan Rus. it is also mentioned that in 907, as part of Oleg's troops, the radimichi took part in the legendary campaign against Byzantium.
Krivichi - a large East Slavic tribe that occupied the upper reaches of the Volga, Dnieper and Western Dvina. The southern part of the lake region and part of the Neman river basin. It is believed that the last tribal prince of the Krivichi Rogvolod, together with his sons, was killed by the Novgorod prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich. After the creation of Kievan Rus, the Krivichi took an active part in the colonization of the eastern lands. The unification of the Krivichi with Russia freed them from tribute to the Varangians, the territories of the Krivichi came under the protection of the Kyiv princes.
From this we can conclude that the tribes that lived on the territory of modern Belarus, after uniting with Kievan Rus, freed themselves from the oppression of the Varangians and Pechenegs and fell under the protection of the Russian princes. But the Belarusian tribes did not play a significant role in the political life of Russia.
Question №3 Early feudal principalities on the territory of Belarus. Turov, Polotsk and others
The largest principality that existed on the territory of modern Belarus is the Principality of Polotsk. It arose in the tenth century on the basis of the Polotsk tribal association with the center in the city of Polotsk. It was located in the basin of the river west. Dvina, Berezina, Neman. It bordered in the north with the Novgorod lands, in the east with Smolensk, in the north Turovo - Pinskai, in the west with the lands of the Lithuanian-Latvian tribes. If we consider modern Administrative division, then the Polotsk principality occupied the entire Vitebsk region, the northern part of the Minsk region and the northern eastern part of the Mogilev region. It was one of the largest state - feudal associations, which was not inferior in size to the Bavarian duchy and the Portuguese kingdom. A great trade route to Western Europe passed through its territory, which contributed to its rapid development and the enrichment of the local boyars.
The political structure in the Principality of Polotsk was the following: legislative power belonged to the veche, or people's gathering. They elected local leaders and employees. They invited the prince to reign, made a decision to declare war or conclude a peace treaty. The power of the veche extended not only to Polotsk, but also to the entire Polotsk land. In Polotsk, the vecha lasted until 1488, when the city was granted Magdeburg rights.
The executive power in the Principality of Polotsk belonged to the prince. Most often, the prince was one of the founders of the tribe. This person had to stand out from the general mass of elders with his skills and qualities, especially in military affairs. But there were cases when a foreigner took the place of the prince, this conclusion can be drawn from the records of chroniclers who tell how the enemy princes Rurik, Sineus and Truvar were invited to the throne of Polotsk. The prince had to deal with administrative affairs: he monitored the strict implementation of laws, monitored the protection of trade routes and caravans in his principality. The princes were also engaged in military affairs: they went on campaigns with their retinue to other lands.
As the chroniclers write, at that time there was a serious tension in relations between Kyiv and Polotsk. The Kyiv prince Oleg (879 - 912) began the unification of various Slavic lands around Kyiv, in 907 he made a campaign against Byzantium, which he was helped by the Radimichi and Dregovichi. From the records of those times, we can conclude that among the cities that paid tribute to him, Polotsk was also listed. During the time of his successors Igor (912 - 945), Volza (945 - 964), Svyatoslav (964 - 972), the dependence of Polotsk on Kyiv significantly weakened.
In the last quarter of the tenth century, Ragvalod reigned in Polotsk, he began to spread his influence to the north and tried to separate the Novgorod lands from Kyiv. He used the weakening of the Kyiv land as a result of the internecine struggle between the brothers Oleg, Yaropolk and Vladimir for the princely throne. Ragvalod acted in this fight on the side of Yaropolk. Both brothers Yaropolk and Vladimir claimed the hand of Ragvalod's daughter Ragneda. When Vladimir received Ragneda's refusal because he was the son of a slave, he went to war against Polotsk, killed Ragvalod and his two sons, forced Ragneda to become his wife and razed the city to the ground.
As the legends tell: Ragneda did not forgive Vladimir for the murder of his father and two brothers. One night, she wanted to kill him in a dream, but the prince woke up and was about to kill the traitor, but the young son Izyaslav stood up for his mother. This touched the prince, and he sent his wife and son to the Polotsk land. Subsequently, Izyaslav became the prince of Polotsk. From Izyaslav begins the historical family of the Polotsk princes.
Another large principality on the territory of Belarus is the Principality of Turov. Turov principality, Russian principality IX-XIV centuries. It was located in the basin of the Pripyat and its tributaries, in the ground East Slavic tribe Dregovichi. In the west it bordered on the lands of the Yotvingians, in the north - on the Principality of Polotsk. In the east, the border of the Turov Principality ran along the Dnieper. The capital was in the city of Turov (on the Pripyat River). Cities: Pinsk, Kletsk, Slutsk, Grodno, Mozyr, etc. In the 9th century. The Turov principality existed as an independent state. When Prince. Oleg (K. IX - N. X centuries) was attached to the possessions of the Kyiv princes. In the X-XI centuries. The Turov principality, being a prominent political unit of the Old Russian state, played a significant role in relations with Poland and the Lithuanian tribes. An ancient trade road from Kyiv to the shores of the Baltic Sea passed through the Turov Principality, there was also trade with the Middle East and Central Asia. Turov itself was one of the great cultural centers of ancient Rus, iron was strongly developed there - processing, jewelry, bone processing, weaving, pottery and woodworking crafts. After the death of Vladimir Monomakh (1125), the Principality of Turov becomes politically independent from Kyiv, but begins to split into appanages. From 1132, the princes of Minsk owned it for a short time. In 1157, under the Prince of Turov. Yuri Yaroslavich, the principality came out of subordination to Kyiv, and its own dynasty was created in it. Under the sons of Yuri Yaroslavich, the principality broke up into destinies, and is losing its significance. The princes of the appanages formed as a result of the disintegration of the Turov principality (Turov, Pinsk, Slutsk, Klechesky principalities) became dependent on the Galician-Volyn princes, and later on the Lithuanian ones. In 1240 the lands of the former Principality of Turov were devastated by the Tatar-Mongols.
Another large principality that appeared on the territory of Belarus was the Principality of Slutsk. The Principality of Slutsk is a feudal principality that separated from the Principality of Turov-Pinsk in the 1990s. 12th c. At the beginning of the 13th c. occupied the territory in the river basin. Cases. The capital is Slutsk. It was dependent on the Galicia-Volyn principality. From 1326 S. k. fell into vassal dependence on the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
From this we can conclude that on the territory of Belarus there were several independent principalities, which, to a greater or lesser extent, were part of ancient Russia - the Kievan principality. These lands were widely developed in the cultural and industrial spheres, and this, to one degree or another, further contributed to the development of not only the Belarusian people, but also Vey Kievan Rus.
Conclusion
Kievan Rus Belarusian Principality
From the foregoing, we can conclude that a combination of social, external and internal political factors served as an impetus for the creation of a huge, at that time, state of Kievan Rus on the territory of the East Slavic lands. The tribes that lived in those days on the territory of modern Belarus were part of this state. They social development of these lands served as an impetus for the creation of large principalities, such as Polotsk, Slutsk and Turov.
Bibliography
1. History of Belarus. At 2 p.m. Grandfather Ya.K. Novik and G.S. Martsul. vyd. 2nd, pereprats. and dap.-Mn: “Universitetskaya”, 2000.
2. Zelinsky D.I., Pinchuk V.N. History of Belarus (from ancient times to the end of the 19th century)
3. Ignatovsky V.M. Brief outline of the history of Belarus