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What is the structure of modern ecology as a science? Modern ecology The structure of environmental sciences at the present time.

ESSAY on the topic:
“The structure of modern ecology. Concepts of technoecology. Engineering Ecology.

Krasnoyarsk 2012
Content
Introduction…………………………………………………………………….3
1. Content, subject and tasks of ecology…………………………………4
2. The structure of modern ecology………………………………………..7
3. Concepts of technoecology………………………………………………..11
4. Ecology and engineering protection of nature…………………………….15
Conclusion………………………………………………………………..18
Bibliographic list…………………………………………………19

Introduction
Modern ecology has long gone beyond the rank of biological science. According to Professor N.F. Reimers, ecology has become a significant cycle of knowledge, incorporating sections of geography, geology, chemistry, physics, sociology, cultural theory, economics, etc. Modern ecology is one of the young sciences, the range of interests of which is not only biological phenomena associated with the life of living organisms, but also the anthroposphere - a part of the biosphere used and modified by people, a place where the vital activity of the living matter of the planet is constantly carried out and where it temporarily penetrates.
Ecology, like any science, is characterized by the presence of its own object, subject, tasks and methods (an object is a part of the surrounding world that is studied by this science; the subject of science is the most important essential aspects of its object).
Ecologization has affected almost all branches of knowledge, which led to the emergence of a number of areas of environmental science. These areas are classified according to the subject of study, main objects, environments, etc. The ecological cycle of knowledge includes about 70 major scientific disciplines, and the ecological lexicon has about 14 thousand concepts and terms.

1. Content, subject and tasks of ecology.
The term "ecology" (from the Greek oikos - dwelling, habitat and logos - science) was proposed by E. Haeckel in 1866 to denote a biological science that studies the relationship of animals with organic and inorganic environments. Since that time, the idea of ​​the content of ecology has undergone a number of refinements and concretizations. However, there is still no sufficiently clear and rigorous definition of ecology, and there are still disputes about what ecology is, whether it should be considered as a single science or whether plant ecology and animal ecology are independent disciplines. The question of whether biocenology belongs to ecology or is a separate field of science has not been resolved. It is no coincidence that almost simultaneously manuals on ecology appear, written from fundamentally different positions. In some, ecology is interpreted as a modern natural history, in others - as a doctrine of the structure of nature, in which specific species are considered only as a means of transforming matter and energy in biosystems, in others - as a doctrine of a population, etc.
There is no need to dwell on all existing points of view regarding the subject and content of ecology. It is only important to note that at the present stage of development of ecological ideas, its essence is becoming more and more clear.
Ecology is a science that studies the patterns of life of organisms (in any of its manifestations, at all levels of integration) in their natural habitat, taking into account the changes introduced into the environment by human activity.
From this formulation, we can conclude that all studies that study the life of animals and plants in natural conditions, discover the laws by which organisms are combined into biological systems, and establish the role of individual species in the life of the biosphere, are ecological.
However, the above definition is too lengthy and not specific enough, although at the first stages of the development of ecology, one of its variants (ecology is the science of the relationship of organisms with each other and with the environment, the science of adaptations, etc.) was not only fundamentally correct, but and could serve as a guideline in the formulation of a number of studies.
Recently, ecologists have come to a fundamentally important generalization, showing that environmental conditions are mastered by organisms at the population-biocenotic level, and not by individual individuals of a species. This led to the intensive development of the doctrine of biological macrosystems (populations, biocenoses, biogeocenoses), which had a tremendous impact on the development of biology in general and all its sections in particular. As a result, more and more new definitions of ecology began to appear. It was considered as a science about populations, about the structure of nature, about population dynamics, etc. But all of them, despite some specificity, define ecology as a science that studies the laws of life of animals, plants and microorganisms in their natural habitat, taking into account the role of anthropogenic factors.
The main forms of existence of species of animals, plants and microorganisms in their natural habitat are intraspecific groups (populations) or multi-species communities (biocenoses). Therefore, modern ecology studies the relationship between organisms and the environment at the population-biocenotic level. The ultimate goal of ecological research is to elucidate the ways in which a species survives in a constantly changing environment. The prosperity of the species is to maintain the optimal number of its populations in the biogeocenosis.
Therefore, the main content modern ecology is the study of the relationship of organisms with each other and with the environment at the population-biocenotic level and the study of the life of biological macrosystems of a higher rank: biogeocenoses (ecosystems) and the biosphere, their productivity and energy.
Hence it is obvious that subject studies of ecology are biological macrosystems (populations, biocenoses, ecosystems) and their dynamics in time and space.
From the content and subject of research in ecology, its main tasks, which can be reduced to the study of population dynamics, to the doctrine of biogeocenoses and their systems. The structure of biocenoses, at the level of formation of which, as noted, the development of the environment takes place, contributes to the most economical and complete use of vital resources. Therefore, the main theoretical and practical task of ecology is to reveal the laws of these processes and learn how to manage them in the conditions of the inevitable industrialization and urbanization of our planet.

2. The structure of modern ecology.
Ecology is divided into fundamental and applied. Fundamental ecology studies the most general environmental patterns, and applied ecology uses the knowledge gained to ensure the sustainable development of society.
The basis of ecology is bioecology as a branch of general biology. “To save a person is, first of all, to save nature. And here only biologists can give the necessary arguments proving the legitimacy of the stated thesis.
Bioecology (like any science) is divided into general and particular. The composition of the general bioecology includes sections:
1. autecology- studies the interaction with the habitat of individual organisms of certain species.
2. Population ecology(demecology) - studies the structure of populations and its change under the influence of environmental factors.
3. synecology– studies the structure and functioning of communities and ecosystems.
Based on these areas, new ones are being formed: global ecology, which develops the problems of the biosphere as a whole, and socioecology, which studies the problems of the relationship between nature and society. At the same time, the boundaries between directions and sections are rather blurred: directions constantly appear at the junction of such branches of ecology as population ecology and biocenology, or physiological and population ecology. All these areas are closely related to the classical branches of biology: botany, zoology, physiology. At the same time, neglecting the traditional naturalistic areas of ecology is fraught with negative phenomena and gross methodological errors, and can lead to a slowdown in the development of all other areas of ecology.
To general bioecology Other sections include:
– evolutionary ecology– studies the ecological mechanisms of the evolutionary transformation of populations;
– paleoecology– studies the ecological connections of extinct groups of organisms and communities;
– morphological ecology- studies the patterns of changes in the structure of organs and structures depending on living conditions;
– physiological ecology- studies the patterns of physiological changes that underlie the adaptation of organisms;
– biochemical ecology– studies the molecular mechanisms of adaptive transformations in organisms in response to environmental changes;
– mathematical ecology– based on the identified regularities, develops mathematical models that allow predicting the state of ecosystems, as well as managing them.
Commoner's laws.
Prominent American ecologist Barry Commoner summarized the consistency in ecology in the form of four laws called "commoner", which are currently given in almost any manual on ecology. Their observance is a prerequisite for any human activity in nature. These laws are a consequence of those basic principles general theory life.
1 commoner's laws A: Everything is connected to everything. Any changee, committed by man in nature, causes a chain of consequences, usually unfavorable.
In fact, this is one of the formulations of the principle of the unity of the universe. Hopes that some of our actions, especially in the sphere of modern production, will not cause serious consequences if we carry out a number of environmental protection measures are largely utopian. This can only somewhat calm the vulnerable psyche of the modern man in the street, pushing more serious changes in nature into the future. This is how we lengthen the pipes of our thermal power plants, believing that in this case, harmful substances will be more evenly dispersed in the atmosphere and will not lead to serious poisoning among the surrounding population. Indeed, acid rain caused by an increased concentration of sulfur compounds in the atmosphere can take place in a completely different place and even in another country. But our home is the whole planet. Sooner or later we will face a situation where the length of the pipe will no longer play a significant role.
2 commoner's laws: Everything has to go somewhere. Any pollution of nature returns to man in the form of an "ecological boomerang".
Energy does not disappear, but the pollutants that enter the rivers go somewhere, eventually end up in the seas and oceans and return to humans with their products.
3 commoner's laws A: Nature knows best. Man's actions should not be aimed at conquering nature and transforming it in his own interests, but at adapting to it. This is one of the formulations of the principle of optimality. Together with the principle of the unity of the Universe, it leads to the fact that the Universe as a whole appears as a single living organism. The same can be said about systems of lower hierarchical levels, such as the planet, biosphere, ecosystem, multicellular being, etc. Any attempts to make changes in a well-functioning organism of nature are fraught with a violation of direct and feedback links, through which the optimality of the internal structure of a given organism is realized. Human activity will be justified only when the motivation of our actions will be determined primarily by the role for which we were created by nature, when the needs of nature will be of greater importance to us than personal needs, when we will be able to largely meekly limit themselves for the benefit of the planet.
4 commoner's laws: Nothing comes for free. If we do not want to invest in nature protection, then we will have to pay with health, both for our own and for our descendants.
The issue of nature conservation is very complex. None of our impact on nature goes unnoticed, even if, it would seem, all the requirements of environmental cleanliness are met. If only because the development of eco-protective technologies requires high-quality energy sources, and high-quality enforceable laws. Even if the energy industry itself stops polluting the atmosphere and hydrosphere with harmful substances, the issue of thermal pollution still remains unresolved. According to the second law of thermodynamics, any portion of energy, having undergone a series of transformations, will sooner or later turn into heat. We are not yet able to compete with the Sun in terms of the amount of energy supplied to Earth, but our strength is growing. We are eager to discover new sources of energy. As a rule, we release the energy accumulated at one time by various forms of matter. This is much cheaper than capturing the scattered energy of the Sun, but directly leads to a violation of the thermal balance of the planet. It is no coincidence that the average temperature in cities is 2-3 (and sometimes more) degrees higher than outside the city in the same area. Sooner or later this “boomerang” will return to us.

3. Concepts of technoecology.
Ecologization of technologies - development, selection, implementation and rational use in production of technologies that meet modern requirements for preserving the quality of the environment?.
In our time, there is a rapid greening of various technical disciplines, which should be understood as the process of steady and consistent implementation of technological, managerial and other solutions that allow us to increase the efficiency of using natural resources along with improving or at least maintaining the quality of the natural environment (or the living environment in general) at the local, regional and global levels. There is also the concept of greening production technologies, the essence of which is the use of measures to prevent the negative impact of production processes on the natural environment. Ecologization of technologies is achieved by developing modern technologies with a minimum of harmful substances in the output - waste-free or low-waste technologies. Recently, a wide variety of areas of environmental research have been launched all over the world in order to provide specialists with the necessary environmental information from all spheres of human activity. Currently, about a hundred areas of environmental research have been formed, which can be combined according to the principles of industry affiliation, relationships, priority, theoretical and practical significance.
Industrial ecology is a branch of ecology that studies:
- the impact of industry - from individual enterprises to the technosphere - on nature
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1 - Geivandov E.A. Ecology: a dictionary-reference book for schoolchildren and students. In 2 vols. Vol. 2. - M .: Culture and traditions, 2002 - 416 p.
- influence of conditions natural environment on the functioning of enterprises and their complexes.
Ecologization of production is an expanded reproduction of natural resources by improving technology, organizing material production, and increasing labor efficiency in the environmental sphere. The following main areas of production greening can be distinguished:
1) save and restore ecological systems;
2) introduction of progressive technologies for the extraction of natural raw materials;
3) rational use of material resources;
4) creation and implementation of low-waste and non-waste industries;
5) expansion of nature reserves, sanctuaries and other protected areas;
6) environmentally acceptable location and territorial organization of production;
7) reduction and elimination of environmental pollution.
Interaction, contact, direct or indirect human economic activity with the environment is commonly called the term "nature management". In economic practice, such patterns and principles of environmental management as maximizing the social utility of natural resources, expanded reproduction of natural resources, the principle of greening production are implemented using the following particular principles.
The scientific principle suggests that nature management should be based on a deep knowledge of the objective laws of the development of nature and society (the biosphere), on the latest achievements of science and technology. We are talking about a scientifically based combination of environmental and economic interests of society, providing real guarantees of the rights of citizens to a healthy and favorable life. environment.
The principle of optimality provides for the most efficient use of natural resources, the choice of the best option for the reproduction and protection of natural resources, the optimal solution of economic problems, taking into account the environmental factor.
The principle of complexity requires the rational use, deep processing of natural raw materials, expanded involvement in the economic circulation of secondary raw materials, production and consumption waste, the introduction of low-waste, resource- and energy-saving technologies and industries.
The principle of payment provides for the paid use of natural resources, strengthening the economic responsibility of users of natural resources for environmental pollution.
Natural resources are directly involved in the process of expanded reproduction of material goods. The production function of the economy of nature management is especially noticeable in the process of reproduction with the participation of land, forest, water, fisheries and other natural funds. This function plays an important role in the development of environmental programs, justification of investments.
The spatial function of the economy of nature management is based on the territorial zoning of natural and economic complexes and largely depends on differences in the natural conditions of production, existing opportunities for energy and water supply, prospects for the economic development of the territory, its ecological capacity, socio-demographic and urban factors.
The ecological and economic function of the economy of nature management reflects the process of greening production relations. This function means that the further development of the productive forces can be carried out only if the methods of environmental regulation are mandatory. economic activity, principles of environmental audit and environmental and economic methods of management.
The reproductive function of the economy of environmental management involves considering the environment not only as an ecological factor of production, but also as its constituent element and result.
The main features of the ecological and economic function are:
environmental priorities in the regulation of economic relations;
socio-economic assessment of the environment and natural resources, determination of environmental costs of production and economic damage from environmental pollution;
introduction of environmental auditing and environmental accounting;
improvement of tax, pricing, investment policy, taking into account environmental factors;
development of a system of fees for natural resources and fees for environmental pollution;
development of the environmental insurance system, etc.
Environmental economics as a science is not limited to developing a conservation strategy based only on economic benefits. The environment - its quality - increasingly acts as an independent value, a consumer good, and society, having realized the priorities of environmental interests, should be ready to pay for it.

4. Ecology and engineering protection of nature.
Engineering ecology is a system of engineering and chemical enterprises aimed at preserving the quality of the natural environment in the face of growing industrial production.
Engineering ecology arose at the intersection of technical, natural and social sciences.
The object of research in engineering ecology are systems formed and functioning for a long time as a result of human interaction with the natural environment. The most characteristic and informative are natural-industrial systems near large industrial centers.
One of the main tasks of engineering ecology is the creation of engineering methods for studying and protecting the natural environment. In this aspect, of particular importance is an integrated approach to the problem of engineering and environmental support of industrial enterprises based on a unified methodology, taking into account the latest achievements in various fields of knowledge (environmental protection, industrial safety, engineering protection environment, etc.).
The concept of conservation has two meanings:
1) An integrated scientific discipline that develops social principles and methods for the conservation and restoration of natural resources.
2) A system of measures aimed at maintaining a rational interaction between human activities and the surrounding nature.
The concept of environment also has two meanings:
1) This is an external, but in direct contact with the subject or object environment.
2) This is a combination of abiotic (non-living), biotic (living) and social environments that jointly influence a person and his economy.
Environmental protection is a set of state, international, regional, administrative, economic, political and public measures aimed at maintaining the chemical, physical and biological parameters of the functioning of natural systems within the limits necessary from the point of view of human health and well-being.
According to V.I. Vernadsky biosphere- this is the shell of the earth, including both the area of ​​\u200b\u200bdistribution of living matter, and the living being itself. On Earth, life is concentrated in the hydrosphere, lithosphere and troposphere. The lower boundary of the atmosphere is located 2-3 km below the surface of the continents and 1-2 km below the ocean floor.
The upper boundary of the biosphere is the ozone layer, which is located in the stratosphere 20-25 km from the Earth's surface.
For several billion years of its existence, the biosphere has undergone a complex evolution.
The main stage was the emergence of life from inanimate matter. This was preceded by the formation of complex organic substances from hydrogen, ammonia, carbon dioxide, methane and water under the influence of high temperatures, electrical discharges, solar radiation and volcanic activity. Because of this, molecules of amino acids, nitrogenous bases were formed, i.e. substances that make up proteins, nucleic acids and energy carriers ADP, ATP.
The most important stage of evolution was that organic substances were subjected to the processes of decay and synthesis, and the decay products of some molecules were the source of synthesis for other molecules. So there was a primary whirlpool of organic substances. The concentration of organic matter in the water column was uneven. As a result, caloid thickenings appeared, which were called coacervates. A characteristic feature is the presence of a boundary with the environment. Coacervates were considered as the first biostructure. These drops were destroyed, formed again, divided. Ultimately, it turned out that only those drops could be preserved that did not lose their characteristics, chemical composition and structure in the daughter drops during division, i.e. acquired the ability to reproduce themselves. An important feature of coacervates was that they could selectively absorb the substances they needed from the environment and get rid of unnecessary substances. This moment gives rise to metabolism, energy and information transfer processes. According to the current theory, the first living organisms also appeared. Further complication of life is associated with the emergence of multicellular organisms. The most developed and recognized now is the colonial hypothesis of the emergence of multicellular organisms. According to this hypothesis, the following happened: the cell divided, but its daughter components did not separate, but began to exist together. Moreover, at first both cells were exactly the same, and then differences in the chemical composition and structure began to appear, which, accordingly, led to functional specialization. Some cells began to be responsible for absorption, others for movement, and others for reproduction. For millions of years multicellular organisms evolved and, in the end, a person appeared who is now transforming the biosphere into the noosphere.

Conclusion
Ecology - the science of the life of nature - is experiencing its second youth. Originating more than 100 years ago as a doctrine of the relationship between the organism and the environment, ecology has been transformed before our eyes into the science of the structure of nature, the science of how the living cover of the Earth works in its entirety. And since the work of the living is increasingly determined by human activity, the most progressive-minded ecologists see the future of ecology in the theory of creating a changed world. Before our eyes, ecology is becoming the theoretical basis of human behavior in an industrial society in nature.
So, the main content of modern ecology is the study of the relationship of organisms with each other and with the environment at the population-biocenotic level and the study of the life of biological macrosystems of a higher rank: biogeocenoses (ecosystems) and the biosphere, their productivity and energy.
Hence, the subject of ecology research is biological macrosystems (populations, biocenoses, ecosystems) and their dynamics in time and space.
One of the most acute problems of our time is the preservation of the human habitat. Any successes of scientific and technological progress will be devalued if they are accompanied by the destruction of nature. A person cannot live without clean air, free from harmful impurities of water and food.
Engineering ecology is an applied discipline, which is a system of science-based engineering and technical measures aimed at maintaining the quality of the environment in the context of growing industrial production.
etc.................

One of the most characteristic features of modern ecological knowledge is its ever-increasing relevance.

In the philosophical literature, environmental problems are very actively discussed at different levels and in a wide variety of aspects, there are a variety of opinions regarding the subject of ecology, clarity in determining the boundaries of its competence and research methods. Many variants of the name of modern ecology are proposed: global ecology, megaecology, human ecology, noogenics, natural sociology, noology, sozology, social ecology, social ecology, etc.

If you look at this problem from the point of view of philosophy, then it is impossible to form an adequate idea of ​​the biosphere without reliable analytical data on each of its fragments, and vice versa, it is impossible to solve any specific environmental problem without knowing the basic laws of the development of the biosphere as a whole, without determining , what role does the particular object under study play in this whole. Here, the principle of the dialectical relationship of the universal, the particular and the individual is fully implemented, where not only the individual components of the biosphere reflect its nature, but it itself, as an integral formation, determines the nature and essence of its individual components. Careful study of the largest possible range of individual specific ecological interactions is a necessary condition for the development of general ecological concepts. Moreover, the development of the latter has a beneficial effect on the improvement of the former. The mutually conditioning simultaneous development of general ecological and specifically ecological concepts leads to the complication of the structure of modern ecological knowledge and gives rise to significant difficulties of an epistemological and methodological nature. The specialization and integration of ecological trends, the strengthening of the role of probabilistic-statistical methods, the synthesis of historical and structural-functional approaches determine the rather complex epistemological situation that has developed in ecological research.

The traditional division of ecological knowledge is carried out on the basis of the following main criteria (11).

BY TYPES OF ORGANISMS (taxonomic division). It is based on the principle of specificity of taxonomic branches of the organic world. According to this criterion, ecology is primarily divided into animal ecology and plant ecology. Both the first and second ecologies are subdivided into a number of more particular ecologies. It should be noted that human ecology is of a specific nature, because the object of its consideration is a person whose essence is inseparable from his social nature, from the forms of his practical and social activities. The increasing influence of factors of anthropogenic origin on the natural environment gives special importance to human ecology, takes it beyond the scope of biological profile ecology.

BY ENVIRONMENT TYPES (biomes). Somewhat simplifying the structural features of the biosphere, we can say that it is. like a mosaic, it is composed of many different components (biomes, habitats), each of which has distinct natural boundaries and is characterized by a special set of climatic, biotic and abiotic factors, a specific relationship between intensive development (succession) and a period of relative equilibrium in the development of ecological systems (climax). However, it should be noted that the differentiation of ecological knowledge according to the characteristics of the habitat focuses not on functional, but rather on structural characteristics, taking into account the integrity of natural complexes of geographical landscapes. When developing private ecologies formed on the basis of the landscape approach, the researcher's attention is concentrated on a specific, clearly marked area. earth's surface. Such a division makes it possible not only to characterize each natural complex separately, but also to explore the relationship between them.

BY THE TYPES OF INTERACTION both between the organisms themselves and between the diverse forms of the organic world, through which organic forms carry out the trophic and detrital transfer of substances and energy, have always amazed researchers with their complexity and diversity.

BY THE LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF LIVING. Here, the differentiation of ecological knowledge is carried out in accordance with the concept of structural levels of organization of the living. Thus, Yu. Odum distinguishes the following divisions: the ecology of individuals, the ecology of populations and the ecology of communities.

The division of ecological research into separate special areas, according to the concept of structural levels of organization of living things, seems to be the leading one in modern ecology. This concept is based on the objective hierarchical ordering of the material world, which is equally inherent in both unity and diversity. The concept of structural levels of life organization, emphasizing at the same time the essential unity of life and the multi-qualitative nature of its manifestations at each specific moment and at a certain structural level, leads to an important conclusion about the inseparable connection between the specifics of living things and the way it is organized.

BY TYPES OF IMPACT OF ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS ON THE ENVIRONMENT. This includes such special departments of ecological research as resource science, soil science, city ecology (urbanization ecology), engineering ecology, the study of water and air cycles, the productivity of cultivated biocenoses (agrocenoses), agrochemical ecology, the study of all kinds of pollution by industrial waste, chemicals, radiation (radioecology), noise pollution, etc. Space ecology, or, as it is also called, space flight ecology (exo-ecology) can also be attributed to this type.

The development of these particular branches of modern environmental research is due to a number of negative consequences that accompany scientific and technological progress and have a decisive influence on the current environmental situation. As Y. Odum rightly notes, "" improving research techniques requires the new generation of ecologists to increase activity in these little-studied areas, because a deeper knowledge of nature is now stimulated not only by curiosity: ignorance in matters of maintaining balance in ecosystems becomes a threat to the very existence of man "" (eighteen).

All these branches of modern ecology, formed according to this criterion, are components of one of the most important areas of application of ecology - the protection of nature and the rational use of its resources. Therefore, these industries are called applied and technological aspects of ecology.

Separately, a group of GENERAL ecologies is singled out, reflecting the tendency to combine into a single concept the entire diversity of the fundamental relationship "man-nature" and the synthesis of all particular environmental aspects. They are currently the subject of discussion in the literature. This is primarily global ecology (megaecology), human ecology, economic ecology (econology), social ecology, social ecology.

The discussion about the status of modern general ecology is largely based on attempts to attribute it to the competence of social science or only natural science. “Global ecology is not interested in all types and forms of human (and society) relations with nature, but only certain, primarily relations with the nature of the Earth as an integral system. Global ecology does not develop the question of the spiritual relationship of man with the nature of the Earth” (7).

Modern ecology is fundamental science about nature. It is complex and combines knowledge of the foundations of several classical natural sciences: biology, geology, geography, climatology, landscape science, etc.

According to the main provisions of this science, a person is a part of the biosphere as a representative of one of species and, like other organisms, cannot exist without biota, i.e. without the totality of biological species now living on Earth, which constitute the habitat of mankind.

Ecological systems, like living systems of other levels of organization, are very complex, characterized by non-linear dynamics, and their behavior in mathematical models is described by such modern sciences as dynamic systems theory and synergetics. In modeling ecosystems, the ideas of cybernetics (the science of control) about the theory of regulation, stability and instability, and feedback also played a certain role.

In our time, the term "ecology" is increasingly used to denote the totality of the relationship between nature and society. It is possible to single out the main branches of ecology (Figure 2).

Global (universal) ecology considers the features of the interaction of nature and society within the entire globe, including global environmental problems (global warming, deforestation, desertification, pollution of living organisms, etc.).

Classical (biological) ecology explores the relationships between living systems (organisms, populations, communities) and their living conditions, both now and in the past (paleoecology). Different sections of biological ecology study different living systems: autecology - the ecology of organisms, population ecology - the ecology of populations, synecology - the ecology of communities.

Figure 2 Structure of ecology

Applied ecology determines the norms (limits) of use natural resources, calculates the permissible loads on the environment to maintain it in a state suitable for the life of natural systems.

Social ecology explains and predicts the main directions of development of interaction between society and the natural environment.

Such a subdivision of ecology occurs on a subject basis (depending on the subject of study). In addition, regional ecology is also distinguished. It reveals the features of the mutual influence of the natural environment and human activities in the specific conditions of individual territories, within administrative or natural boundaries.

Ecology closely interacts with other sciences: both biological and other fields of knowledge.

At the intersection of ecology and other biological sciences, there arose:

  • - ecomorphology - finds out how environmental conditions shape the structure of organisms;
  • - ecophysiology - studies the physiological adaptation of organisms to environmental factors;
  • - ecoethology - explores the dependence of the behavior of organisms on the conditions of their life;
  • - population genetics - studies the reactions of individuals with different genotypes to environmental conditions;
  • - biogeography - studies the patterns of placement of organisms in space.

Ecology also interacts with geographical sciences: geology, physical and economic geography, climatology, soil science, hydrology; other natural sciences (chemistry, physics). It is inseparable from morality, law, economics, etc. Modern ecology is closely connected with politics, economics, law (including international law), psychology and pedagogy, since only in alliance with them is it possible to overcome the technocratic paradigm of thinking inherent in the 20th century. , and to develop a new type of ecological consciousness, radically changing the behavior of people in relation to nature.

The structure of modern ecology.

Modern ecology is a fundamental science of nature, which is complex and combines knowledge of the foundations of several classical natural sciences: biology, geology, geography, climatology, landscape science, etc.
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According to the main provisions of this science, a person is a part of the biosphere as a representative of one of the biological species and, just like other organisms, cannot exist without biota.

Considering the structure of modern ecology, 3 main branches can be distinguished:

1. General ecology(bioecology) - ϶ᴛᴏ the study of the relationship of living systems of different ranks (organisms, populations, ecosystems) with the environment and among themselves. This part of the ecology, in turn, is divided into the following sections:

- autecology– the study of the patterns of relationships between organisms separate species with the environment;

- demoecology– ecology of populations;

- synecology– community ecology;

- ecosystem and biospheric ecology.

2. Geoecology- ϶ᴛᴏ study of geospheres, their dynamics and interaction, geophysical conditions of life, factors (resources and conditions) of inanimate OS acting on organisms.

3. Applied Ecology- ϶ᴛᴏ aspects of engineering, social, economic protection of the human environment, problems of the relationship between nature and society, environmental principles of nature conservation.

The global ecological crisis and the urgency of the problem of ecological danger.

Ecological problem arose with the appearance of man on Earth. In the natural and balanced cycle of substances in the biosphere wedged the factor of human economic activity, which steadily introduced an imbalance in the environment as it developed.

In the first years of Soviet power, an ecological approach to nature protection prevailed. Reserves were organized, which are unique institutions, with the functions of centers for environmental research, as well as standards for certain natural areas.

Despite initial successes, the position of environmentally oriented conservation was not truly sustainable. The main obstacles were the new priorities and objectives of the 5-year plans. There were ideas of transformation and conquest of nature. Progress in the development of mankind began to be identified with its complete dominance over the entire course of life on the planet.

Nature has been turned into an adversary that must be defeated in the process of creating a man-made OS. The result of this was the development of total logging operations with the destruction of forest ecosystems, development by turning rivers, work on the acclimatization of various game animals and the reclamation of valuable marsh ecosystems, the development of virgin lands, as well as many other projects that led to the destruction of many natural ecosystems in Russia.

Today, Russia actively participates in the work of international conferences and organizations on environmental protection, and has joined numerous international agreements in this area.

Through the efforts of the media and environmentalists, the concept of environmental security is being introduced into the consciousness of people and state practice in Russia, as an element of state and personal security.

In all cases, environmental hazard is associated with the presence or occurrence of threats. There are 4 main threats to general security:

1. Military threats– global nuclear war, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, international arms transfers, major wars and local conflicts;

2. Economic and social threats- massive poverty, causing famine, economic collapse, destabilization of the movement of capital, excessive population growth and urbanization; mass m / n migration, gene manipulation;

3. Environmental threats– changes in the composition of the atmosphere and their consequences, pollution of fresh natural waters, oceans and coastal waters, deforestation and desertification, soil erosion and loss of land fertility, man-made hazard, the source of which is industrial enterprises, transportation and use of toxic chemicals and materials, hazardous (toxic and radioactive) wastes and their export, the use of biotechnologies;

4. threats of terrorism.

There are external and internal environmental threats. For example, for Russia, external threats include negative events associated with the destruction of natural ecosystems due to the transboundary transfer of pollution.

Potential sources of environmental hazard are any objects of economic (industrial), domestic, military and other activities, since they contain environmental hazard factors (environmental risks). The latter include anthropogenic or natural impacts that can lead to negative changes in the environment and, in this regard, to a deterioration in human health.

Environmental hazard may arise as a result of environmental offenses and crimes.

The problem of environmental hazard is considered from the standpoint of the ʼʼtriadʼʼ: anthropocentric (quality of habitat), biosphere-ecological (conditions for the conservation of natural ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole) and resource (possibility of managing the economy with minimal damage to the environment).

Several levels of environmental hazard can be distinguished: global, national (state), regional, local, impact (point).

Global upheavals associated with genocide, first in relation to the animal, and then flora Finally, the crushing pressure on land, water resources and the atmosphere gave rise to that tangle of contradictions, which is commonly called the problem of human survival.

The main global environmental problems are: population growth; consumption of natural resources; air pollution.

The structure of modern ecology. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Structure of modern ecology." 2017, 2018.

What is modern ecology

The term ecology was first introduced by the German scientist Haeckel in 1866; this term was understood as a science that studied the interaction of a living organism and the environment. Today, ecology is more complex and understandable.

Definition 1

Modern ecology is an interdisciplinary science that studies not only the interaction between the organism and the environment, but also the role that a person plays in nature, studies the impact of anthropogenic factors on our planet.

Man occupies a special place both directly in modern ecology and on Earth as a whole, since, unlike all other organisms existing on Earth, he is endowed with reason. Man has created his own habitat, which is called human civilization. Man has interfered with the natural development of nature since ancient times. Today, the realization has finally come that if the rate of negative impact accelerates, our planet will be in danger of destruction. Modern ecology directs its actions towards the greening of all aspects of human life.

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Remark 1

The term "greening" refers to the implementation of measures that are aimed at preserving the environment.

Modern ecology mainly studies the biosphere, its interaction with man. Modern ecology links the natural sciences with the social sciences. The development of modern ecology is aimed at expanding the scope of study in other sciences. At the present stage, ecology solves a number of problems from completely different, but inextricably linked disciplines:

  • social issues
  • economic issues
  • technical questions
  • geographical issues
  • biological questions

At the present stage, ecology has a pronounced ideological aspect, so it is also associated with philosophy.

Goals and objectives of modern ecology

Remark 2

Today, the goal of modern ecology is to study the patterns of interaction between components in the "man-society-nature" model.

The main thing is to develop approaches that will help humanity embark on a path of development in which it will be possible to meet the needs of modern people and at the same time not harm the environment.

In order to achieve this goal, scientists set themselves a number of important tasks:

  • explore the role of man and society in the biosphere,
  • to study the criteria that determine the compatibility of man and the biosphere,
  • work towards the greening of human behavior,
  • to monitor the state of the environment,
  • make forecasts for the development of the environment,
  • to study the mechanisms of regulation of the number of living organisms.

Structure of modern ecology

Despite the fact that modern ecology is an interdisciplinary science, it is based on bioecology. In modern ecology, various directions are distinguished:

  • autecology - studies the interaction of the organism with the environment,
  • population ecology - studies the interaction of individuals of the same species,
  • synecology - studies the communities of living organisms and their relationship with the environment.

Applied ecology occupies a special place in modern ecological science. Applied ecology is a direction of general ecology that studies the mechanisms of human destruction of the biosphere, it also studies how to prevent or minimize the negative anthropogenic impact on the environment and develops methods for the rational and careful use of natural resources.

Applied ecology is also quite an extensive discipline, so a number of other directions follow from it. For example, the ecology of the biosphere is a branch of applied ecology that studies the changes that occur in the environment under the influence of anthropogenic influence.

Industrial ecology is also a part of modern applied ecology, it studies the damage caused by industrial enterprises to the environment, and develops possible options to reduce this negative impact. Scientists are working to invent better industrial technologies that will be less harmful to the environment and to invent more efficient treatment plants.

There is also such a branch of applied ecology as agricultural ecology. Agricultural ecology, in turn, studies how it is possible to obtain rich crops without soil depletion, the harmful effects of pesticides, and negative effects on the environment.

Medical ecology studies how environmental factors affect a person. The human body is constantly exposed to the environment, for example, accumulated in the environment chemical elements, radioactive radiation, atmospheric pressure affect a person. Medical ecology deals with the study of the relationship "environmental factors - human health".

Geoecology is a discipline formed at the intersection of geography and ecology. It studies how the composition, structure, properties of the geochemical fields of the geosphere affect the habitat of living organisms, including humans.

Economic ecology is a branch of social ecology. Scientists working in this area are studying the interaction of the rational use of land resources and the economic component.

Today, a special place in modern ecology is occupied by such a direction as legal ecology. Legal ecology is developing legal regulations that govern the relationship between society and nature. This direction is based on a number of important principles. For example, every person on Earth has the right to a favorable environment. Legal ecology oversees issues of protection of human life and health, issues of rational use of natural resources. For non-compliance with the rules that relate to environmental law, punishment is provided, most often large fines.