Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below
Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.
Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
FSBEI HPE "Samara State University of Economics"
INSTITUTE OF NATIONAL ECONOMY
DEPARTMENT OF LAND MANAGEMENT AND CADASTRES
courseworkJob
The soilasnaturalcomponentlandscape
Completed by: Andrey Zudilin
2nd year student
Supervisor:
Candidate of Biological Sciences, Associate Professor Vasilyeva D.I.
Samara 2014
Introduction
Relevance
Landscape is a geographical concept. This is a land area within which all natural components (relief, rocks, water, climate, soil, vegetation and animal world) are closely interconnected, forming a single whole - a complex and, to a certain extent, a closed system, for example, a mountainous, forest, desert landscape, etc. One of the most important tasks of the integrated science of nature conservation is the study, rational use and landscape protection. The soil is the mirror of the landscape. This expression originates from Dokuchaev. He was the first to say that the soil is a mirror of the environment (and therefore a mirror of the landscape). But of course, this aphorism cannot be taken literally. Firstly, the soil is a mirror not only of the modern landscape, but also of those landscapes that were here before. Secondly, the soil, of course, does not reflect the landscape like a mirror. This is a metaphor. A lot of controversy has been going on recently, whether this reflection is adequate or not. Adequacy is usually understood as two properties of phenomena. In a narrow sense, adequacy is the identity of two phenomena of the same class: the identity of two trees, two identical plants, two objects. For example, reflection in a mirror is adequate, identical to its prototype. In this sense, one cannot speak of the soil as an adequate reflection of the surrounding conditions. It, most likely, can be adequate, identical to other soil developing in such conditions. But there is another, more widely disclosed meaning in this word: correspondence. The soil meets these conditions. The study of soils in nature is built on this correspondence, and, it must be said, it helps very well in studying soils when mapping them, etc. The property of soil to reflect the influence of environmental conditions - soil formation factors can be compared with the ability of the famous portrait of Dorian Gray from Oscar Wilde: the portrait reflected everything that happened to Dorian, while Dorian Gray himself did not change, remained young. It seems to us that the surrounding conditions do not change, the climate, the relief remain the same, and the soil reflects in itself, "records" all the events in the life of the landscape and biogeocenosis and changes in accordance with these events. But deciphering these connections is very difficult. Of course, the same property of the soil can be associated with different factors, and it is impossible to judge the soil from one sample, and even more so from one property. For example, a sample fell into the hands of a researcher by its appearance - from the upper horizon of the soil, containing five percent of humus. Judging only by this property, the sample can refer to meadow, sod, and sod-podzolic soils, as well as to chestnut (dark chestnut), gray forest, and chernozem. But already the analysis of soil acidity will help to exclude a number of possible options. Therefore, the conformity of soils and environmental conditions can only be assessed by a set of properties. And in this respect, soil is a really good indicator of environmental conditions.
But, as Dokuchaev noted, the soil is a mirror of the local present and past climates and, of course, the present and former landscapes here. Therefore, the soil has properties associated with the history of landscape development.
Target: Find out what role soil plays in such a taxonomic unit as landscape.
Tasks
to get acquainted with the concept of "soil"
l To study the factors of soil formation
b To study the functions of the soil as the main component of the landscape
ü Get acquainted with the main types of landscape Russian Federation and their dominant soil cover.
1. concept" the soil" andfactorshereducation
Soil is a global formation that covers the continents like a cloak several meters thick and plays an important role in the processes taking place in the biosphere. All living things on Earth are connected with the soil: plants, animals, microorganisms. She has the same great importance in people's lives, like other natural spheres of our planet.
The soil, as a natural body, is well known to every person. The relationship between man and the soil is so multifaceted that each person has his own idea of the nature of the soil. For the builder, the soil is the foundation for the construction of buildings, the creation of cities, villages, roads and other structures. For an agronomist, soil is agricultural land: arable land, hayfields, pastures. For all of us, the soil is a source of food, clothing, shelter. Our well-being depends on the properties of soil and its use.
As an independent natural body, soil differs from other bodies of natural origin. The founder of the science of soil science V.V. Dokuchaev pointed out that all soils on the earth's surface are formed by "... an extremely complex interaction of the local climate, plant and animal organisms, the composition and structure of the parent rocks, the terrain, and, finally, the age of the country."
The main property of the soil is fertility. With the emergence and development of fertility, the soil becomes the main means of agricultural production, providing food products and raw materials for industrial processing.
The formation and development of the soil cover is closely related to a specific combination of natural factors of soil formation and the influence economic activity person.
climate landscape soil formation
Relief
The relief plays an important role in the redistribution of heat and moisture, weathering products and soil formation on the earth's surface. It determines the pattern of the soil cover and serves as the basis for soil cartography. In one natural zone, on different elements of the relief, the degree of soil moisture is different. According to Neustruev, several groups of soils are distinguished, differing in the degree of moisture: semi-hydromorphic, automorphic, hydromorphic.
Automorphic soils - formed on flat surfaces and slopes in conditions of free flow surface water, with deep groundwater (deeper than 6 m).
Hydromorphic soils - are formed under conditions of prolonged surface water stagnation or when groundwater occurs at a depth of less than 3 m (the capillary border can reach the soil surface).
Semi-hydromorphic soils - are formed during short-term stagnation of surface waters or when groundwater occurs at a depth of 3-6 m (the capillary border can reach the roots of plants).
It is customary to distinguish four types of relief: macrorelief, mesorelief, microrelief and nanorelief. The macrorelief determines the structure of the earth's surface in large areas (mountain ranges, plateaus, lowlands, plains) and reflects, in accordance with bioclimatic conditions, the latitudinal and altitudinal zonality of the soil cover. The mountainous relief on the territory of Russia is represented by the mountain systems of the Caucasus, the Urals, Eastern and Southern Siberia, Far East and Kamchatka. The formation and distribution of soils in mountainous areas obeys the law of vertical zonality. The main types of soils are located in the form of altitudinal belts (zones), successively replacing each other from the foot of the mountains to the peaks. According to a certain set of soil zones, successively changing with height, 20 types of zonality are distinguished. They are specific to different natural zones. In the mountains, with an increase in height for every 100 m, the average air temperature decreases by 0.5 ° C, atmospheric pressure decreases, humidity rises, and total solar radiation increases. In the steppe zone, with an increase in the height of the terrain, the foothill steppes are replaced by broad-leaved forests, then coniferous forests, above which there are belts of subalpine and alpine meadows, then vegetation disappears and snow cover often lies on the peaks. Soil-forming rocks in the mountains are represented by weathering products (eluvium and proluvium) of igneous and ancient (tertiary) sedimentary rocks of various compositions. A negative balance of substances due to denudation processes is characteristic of mountain soil formation under conditions of eluvial and transit landscapes. A negative balance of substances due to denudation processes is characteristic of mountain soil formation in conditions of eluvial and transit landscapes. The constant removal of soil formation products leads to soil rejuvenation and the involvement of new layers of soil-forming rocks in soil formation, which is favorable for the development of forests. Mountain soils are characterized by gravelly, low thickness and poor sorting of soil material. The thickness of the humus horizon is, as a rule, insignificant, the content of humus is relatively high. The mesorelief (ridges, hills, ravines, beams, etc.) causes a redistribution of soil formation products, moisture, and fine earth under the influence of a gravitational field. At the tops of the rises, eluvial processes predominate with the predominant removal of soil-forming products from the soils. AT lower parts slopes and in negative landforms, substances accumulate. A certain type of soil cover is associated with the mesorelief - a combination of soils of varying degrees of moisture. The role of micro- and nano-reliefs, which are small landforms with an excess of 10 to 50 cm and an area of up to 10 m2, is to redistribute mainly soil moisture, which leads to weakly contrasting moistening conditions for the growth of tree plantations.
1 .2 Climate
The climate has a direct impact on soils and soil cover. It determines the nature of the water-thermal regime of soils and the energetics of soil formation processes. Climate influences vegetation cover, which is an important factor in soil development. Climate is an average long-term indicator of the state of the atmosphere, characterizing the weather regimes and the impact of atmospheric processes on the soil. Climate is driven by the interaction solar radiation with the earth's surface, circulation of air masses, heat exchange and moisture circulation. Important characteristics of the climate as a factor of soil formation are the radiation balance, the average annual temperatures and the sums of annual active air temperatures (more than 10 ° C). They affect the formation of the zonal distribution of soil types in a long-term plan. Air temperature, wind, precipitation and evaporation create the temperature and humidity regime of the weather of each locality (landscape, region, zone, country, mainland). Temperature. The amount of solar radiation entering the soil surface depends on the latitude of the area (maximum solar energy enters the equator), the angle of incidence of the sun's rays on the surface of the relief elements and the height of the area above sea level. The regularities of the receipt of solar radiation are described by the law of geographical (natural) zonality. There is a direct relationship between soil temperature and atmospheric air from the soil-bioclimatic zone. Energy costs for soil formation processes depend on the amount of solar energy supplied to earth's surface, and are related to the radiation balance and air temperature. The energy entering the soil is spent on processes of a different nature: physical and chemical weathering, heat and moisture cycles in the soil layer, biological transformation and migration of substances in the soil profile. The largest share of soil formation energy (from 95.0 to 99.5%) goes to evaporation and transpiration. The rest of the energy is spent on cyclic biological processes: synthesis organic matter in soil - from 0.5 to 5.0%, decomposition of minerals of soil-forming rocks - 0.01%. The total energy consumption for soil-forming processes varies significantly in different geographical areas. They are minimal in the tundra and deserts - from 2,000 to 5,000 cal/(cm2 year) and very large in humid tropical areas - from 60,000 to 70,000 cal/(cm2 year). For forest and steppe soil formation in the temperate zone, the costs range from 10,000 to 40,000 cal/(cm2 year). Energy costs for soil-forming processes under conditions of high moisture increase from the tundra to the tropics by more than 20 times. The main accumulator of solar energy in the soil layer is soil humus. Up to 1019 kcal of solar energy is bound in soil humus. A consequence of the large spread in the values of energy costs for soil-forming processes is a different degree of transformation of the mineral mass of the soil. In the humid tropics, almost all primary minerals are destroyed in soils, and the share of iron and aluminum oxides (the result of soil formation) is up to 50% of the total chemical composition soil. In the soils of the tundra, the mineral composition is changed to a minimal extent. Precipitation. The amount of precipitation falling on the soil surface in different natural conditions, depends on many factors: geographical latitude and longitude, elevation of the area above sea level, features of atmospheric circulation and remoteness from the seas. Atmospheric moisture (precipitation, transpiration) is the main source of soil moisture and the formation of the soil liquid phase. To characterize the climate as the main factor that determines the annual regime of soil moisture, the moisture coefficient (CU) is used. KU \u003d Ros / Eis, where Ros is the average annual (monthly) amount of precipitation, mm; Eis - evaporation for the same period, mm. Territories with CL >1.0 mm are considered wet (humid), while those with CL<1,0 мм -- сухими. Подсчитано, что КУ для лесной зоны равен 1,38, для лесостепной -- 1,0, для степной черноземной -- 0,67 и для зоны сухих степей -- 0,33. Наблюдается тесная связь между влажностью почв и коэффициентом увлажнения. Между распределением разных типов почв на земной поверхности, радиационным балансом, температурой воздуха и суммой осадков существует определенная связь.
1 .3 Biologicalfactor
The biological factor in the formation of each soil is the leading one. The soil could have arisen only after the appearance of living organisms. Soil formation occurs due to a deep and complex interaction between plant and animal organisms and external factors. In this case, a significant transformation of the parent breed occurs. The main condition for ensuring the continuity of this process is the influx of radiant solar energy to the Earth's surface.
Vegetation, animals and microorganisms that process minerals of rocks and atmospheric gases take part in the formation of soils. The energy basis of the soil-forming process is solar radiation. On the earth's surface, dead mineral nature passes into organic and living, and the latter, dying and decaying, again passes into dead mineral matter. In the process of constant interaction between dead and living nature, as well as during their transition into each other in the surface layer of the lithosphere, various soils are formed and the main and specific property of each soil develops - its fertility.
The role of vegetation. Green plants serve as the main supplier of soils with fresh organic matter. Together with biomass, solar energy is accumulated in soils, the amount of which can be equal to 9.33 kcal per 1 g of carbon, which, with an average accumulation of plant residues of 10 t/ha, is 9.33.107 kcal of solar heat. Such huge energy resources are included in the natural processes of soil formation, and can also be used by people.
Plant communities extract nutrients from parent rocks (and later from soils), synthesize biomass and thereby convert these easily mobile chemical elements into complex organic compounds (humus), and also return these compounds to the developing soil in the form of dying ground litter and roots. .
Forests are characterized by the highest biomass compared to other phytocenoses. But in forests (with the exception of the subtropics), its annual growth is less than in the meadow steppes, and in herbaceous communities, up to 85% of the biomass is roots, organic matter here almost completely returns to the soil. Therefore, soils under meadow herbaceous associations are more fertile than under forests and dry steppes.
In forest phytocenoses, deep wetting of the soil stratum occurs, as a result of which soluble forms of organic and mineral compounds are eluted (washed out) from the soil. In herbaceous phytocenoses, abundant annual plant residues are concentrated in the upper part of the soil profile, forming a humus-accumulative horizon. Under the moss cover, plant residues accumulate in the form of peat (due to waterlogging and their slow decomposition).
The process of decomposition of organic residues also depends on the chemical composition: in coniferous forests, the ash content of the litter is 1–2%, in deciduous forests it increases to 4%, in steppes and semi-deserts it is 2–4%, and in the litter of halophytic vegetation of saline deserts it reaches 14%. .
Plants have a selective absorption capacity, which is expressed in the fact that their roots extract chemical elements from the mineral substrate in the right proportions. For example, in the ashes of plants (especially in cereals, sedges, horsetails, diatoms) a lot of silica accumulates, while the soil solution contains a negligible amount of it. Desert plants accumulate a large amount of mineral salts.
The role of animals in soil formation is inseparable from the significant influence of vegetation and microorganisms. The soil is the living environment for a huge number of vertebrate and invertebrate animal organisms. In the process of feeding, they crush the plant mass and move it to the underlying horizons, mixing organic matter with the mineral part.
Vertebrate animals (ground squirrels, hamsters, marmots, moles, mole rats, mice, jerboas, lizards, snakes, snakes, etc.) create their burrows and nests in the soils. Earthmovers move the mineral mass from the depth of the soil profile and bring it to the surface. For example, in the steppe belt, in places where these animals settled, dug up chernozems, chestnut and other soils were formed.
Especially large work on the transformation of organic residues in the soil is carried out by earthworms, and also partly by the larvae of numerous insects. They carry out mechanical and chemical processing of the organo-mineral part of the soil.
The distribution of animals in nature obeys the law of zonality and is closely related to the nature of the vegetation cover, climate, and soil-forming rocks.
All organisms of plant and animal origin are actively involved in the small biological cycle of substances, and, being in close interaction with each other and with the mineral part, they contribute to the development of soil fertility.
1 .4 Time
A very special factor in soil formation is time. The duration of soil formation processes leaves a certain imprint on the properties and appearance of each soil that develops from a particular rock. In this regard, soils can differ in absolute and relative age.
The absolute age of soils is related to the geological past in each region. Since then, when any particular territory became land and plants and animals settled on it, terrestrial soil formation began. However, in defining the concept of absolute soil age, one should also take into account the underwater period of soil formation, which is associated with the age of parent rocks.
Relative soil age is characterized by different times and different rates of biological, physicochemical, and other processes in the compared soils. The relative age of soils is closely related to human agricultural activities. Accounting for soil age is important for assessing the results of land reclamation, as well as promising opportunities for improving soil fertility.
1.5 Vegetation
Vegetation is the leading factor in soil formation, which depends both on modern ecological conditions and on evolutionary successive ones. Higher plants as producers and the main source of organic matter entering the soil play a special role in soil formation. They are a kind of powerful pump that pumps chemical elements and water from the soil into their organs. The roots of plants, penetrating into the soil, loosen it and actively influence its phase composition. The area of forests on the planet is about 30%. The optimal conditions for forest vegetation are the excess of the total amount of precipitation over evaporation. Excess moisture under the predominance of woody, especially coniferous vegetation promotes intensive leaching of dissolved compounds, deep destruction of minerals and removal of soil formation products beyond the profile. Under forest vegetation in soils, a specific biocenosis is formed from vertebrates, invertebrates, and fungi. The total phytomass of forest vegetation ranges from 3,000 to 5,000 centners/ha, with about 500 centners/ha accounted for by rhizomass, i.e., roots. The main role in forest soil formation belongs to ground litter and thin roots. The total surface area of sucking root ends of a century-old pine stand per 1 ha can be up to 1.5 ha. In conifers, up to 95% of the rhizomass is concentrated in the upper soil layer (0--30 cm). Mycorrhiza is always associated with the roots of trees. Therefore, a significant number of microorganisms live in the rhizosphere of trees, and the number of protozoa is 5-10 times higher compared to their average content in soils. The acidity of the soil in coniferous forests is increased due to the leaching of acidic substances from living leaves, needles and bark by rainwater. Acidification to pH 3.3-4.5 can be caused by the activity of mosses and lichens. In the rhizosphere of conifers, the concentration of the hydrogen ion is always higher (pH lower by 0.2–0.6) than outside the rhizosphere. A water extract from spruce needles has a pH of about 4, from pine litter - 4.5, and leaves of broad-leaved species - about 7. Sharp differences in the reaction of solutions of products from leaves and needles are explained by the fact that leaves and needles are characterized by different ash content and base content. At low ash content, the litter may have a pH of about 4.5-4.6. The neutral reaction is typical for the forest floor of deciduous forests. The roles of woody and herbaceous vegetation in soil formation are essentially different. This is due to the depth of penetration into the soil and the distribution of the root system, as well as differences in the amount and nature of the input of plant residues into the soil, their ash composition. The totality of the processes of absorption by plants of chemical elements from the soil, the synthesis and decomposition of organic matter, the return of chemical elements to the soil is called the biological cycle of substances in the plant-soil system. Some chemical elements participating in the biological cycle are not retained by the soil, are carried out by geochemical intrasoil runoff outside the soil profile and are included in the large geological cycle of chemical elements. To characterize the biological cycle of substances, the following indicators are used: phytomass reserves (c/ha) in the aboveground and underground parts of plants, the value of the annual growth of phytomass and litter, the content of ash chemical elements in different parts of plants and in the litter. The ratio of the mass of litter to the mass of annual litter serves as an indicator of the intensity of the biological cycle. The root system of plants absorbs macroelements (Ca, N, K, P, S, Al, Fe) and microelements (Zn, B, Mn ...) of mineral nutrition from the soil solution and releases ions (H +, OH-), enzymes in an equivalent amount and other organic compounds actively involved in soil processes. On average, the vegetation of a temperate climate absorbs 100–600 kg/ha of minerals from the soil annually. The amount of chemical elements absorbed from the soil and returned to it with plant litter depends on the type of phytocenoses. Agrocenoses, replacing biogeocenoses, make huge changes in the biological cycle of substances. With the harvest of cultivated plants, a colossal amount of ash elements is irrevocably removed from the soil. Thus, with a wheat harvest of 20-25 c/ha, up to 150-200 kg/ha of the main elements of mineral nutrition are alienated from the soil. The rate of decomposition of organic residues and the nature of the substances formed as a result of this process depend on climatic conditions and the composition of vegetation. The chemical composition of organic substances formed during photosynthesis depends on the type of plants. Mosses and wood have a high lignin content. There is a lot of hemicellulose in cereals, in pine needles - wax, fats and resins. In the process of decomposition of organic residues, ash elements absorbed by plants from the soil return to the soil. The intensity index of the biological cycle of substances is maximum in swampy landscapes (more than 50), where there is a progressive accumulation of peat and the formation of marsh peat soils. In dark coniferous taiga forests, the intensity index of the biological cycle is much lower (10--17). Mineralization of litter in coniferous forests occurs slowly and organic horizons form on the soil surface, the formation of a peat layer is often observed. The intensity of the biological cycle in the steppes is 1.0--1.5. Formed in natural steppe ecosystems, steppe felt from herbaceous vegetation decomposes during the year. Decomposition products of needles, leaves, grasses, trunks are different in chemistry and influence on soil formation. Thus, the decomposition products of steppe grasses have a reaction close to neutral (pH = 7). Extracts from the needles of spruce, heather, lichen, sphagnum moss have an acidic reaction (pH 3.5--4.5). Wormwood extracts are alkaline (pH 8.0-8.5).
1.6 maternalbreeds
Soil-forming rocks (or parent rocks) are the rocks from which soils are formed. The soil-forming rock is the material basis of the soil and transfers to it its mechanical, mineralogical and chemical composition, as well as physical, chemical and physico-chemical properties, which subsequently gradually change to varying degrees under the influence of the soil-forming process, giving certain specifics to each type of soil.
Soil-forming rocks differ in origin, composition, structure and properties. They are divided into: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.
The mineralogical, chemical and mechanical composition of rocks determines the conditions for plant growth, has a great influence on humus accumulation, podzolization, gleying, salinization and other processes. Thus, the carbonate content of rocks in the taiga-forest zone creates a favorable reaction of the environment, contributes to the formation of the humus horizon, its structure. On acidic rocks, these processes are much slower. The increased content of water-soluble salts leads to the formation of saline soils. Depending on the mechanical composition, the nature of the composition of the rocks, they differ in water permeability, moisture capacity, porosity, which determines their water, air, and thermal regimes in the process of soil development.
Thus, from the studied material it is clearly seen that the factors of soil formation play the most important role in the level of soil fertility. Factors prevailing in a particular landscape form the environment for the formation of a new fertile layer. But whether this layer is stable or shows a tendency to degradation depends only on the person.
2 . Functionssoilasmaincomponentlandscape
The word function as applied to the landscape in the domestic scientific literature is not very common, functioning prevails. It means an established mechanism for the interaction of landscape components. In this interaction, each of the components performs a certain function or several functions in relation to others. The simplest example is one of the functions of the soil in relation to plants - providing them with nutrients. In general, the word function is always associated with a chain of relations that have the nature of use or influence. In some situations, the word function is synonymous with the word role. In the definition of landscape planning, function is one of the keywords. Here, first of all, we mean relations in the system "man and landscape", and in relation to the cultural landscape, in which a person with his activity is not just a user, but one of the natural components - the whole set of relations within this landscape. It is also important to take into account that any landscape - natural or cultural - is part of a larger system called the "human environment" and in this sense performs certain functions not only in relation to a person or other landscape components, but also to the environment. generally. Since the most important goal of landscape planning is to preserve the functions of the landscape, it is necessary to explain what these functions are. In Russian literature, resource, environmental, informational, and aesthetic functions of landscapes are distinguished. In this case, predominantly socio-economic functions are considered in more detail (Preobrazhensky et al., 1988). The aesthetic functions of the landscape have also recently been described in sufficient detail in the book by V.A. Nikolaeva (2003). One of the most complete and multifaceted lists of landscape functions was proposed by Van der Maarel (quoted in Preobrazhensky et al., 1988), including the following groups of them: "functions of supplying resources, regulation, bearing (meaning the provision of space for human activities) and information." This list combines ideas about both the natural and socio-economic functions of the landscape. This approach is also reflected in the European Landscape Convention, which entered into force in 2004. Modern landscape ecology recognizes not only its polystructural nature (K. Raman's term) but also its multifunctionality as a fundamental feature of the landscape (see, for example, Barbel & Guiiter Tress, 2000 , http://wvw.geo.ruc.dk/vlb/bgt). When solving the problems of landscape planning, obviously, one should rely on such integrative ideas about the structures and functions of the landscape, since this planning itself must be multifunctional. Therefore, in order to correlate the main functions of the landscape with various aspects of planning designed to use, provide and protect these functions, the following grouping is proposed: 1) the function of bioproduction (and bioresource); 2) biotopic; 3) gas exchange, water and climate forming and regulating; 4) soil-forming, partly also mineral- and rock-forming; 5) residential, transport, forest, water and agricultural; 6) sanitary and hygienic and recreational; 7) informational and culture-forming in general (including the formation of emotional and psychological characteristics of people's character, their knowledge and worldview). Each of these groups of functions is a complex combination of many more specific functions. Their content is revealed in special courses in landscape science and in other disciplines - in biology, soil science, hydrology, agriculture and forestry, construction, hygiene, history, and so on. The range of such disciplines is extremely wide. The landscape planner does not have to have the full baggage of information contained in all these branches of knowledge. But he must have a general idea of the main functions of the landscape. He must also know from what sources the necessary information can be obtained. Let's take a closer look at these seven groups of functions. Conventionally, they can be divided into two parts. The first part includes groups of functions from the first to the fourth. They reflect predominantly natural relationships. The second part consists of the last three groups of functions and mainly reflects the direct "consumer" connections of man with the natural components of the landscape. These last three groups of functions can be designated as socio-economic, and the first four groups as natural. But none of all these seven groups of functions can be carried out on its own, outside the general interconnection of the natural and socio-economic components and functions of the landscape. Thus, the bioproduction function in relation to direct human needs is expressed in the ability of the landscape to provide people with food and raw materials for the manufacture of various materials. At the same time, organic matter produced by green plants (namely, they supply more than 90% of the biomass) serves as the basis for the functioning of the entire ecosystem, the most important part of the biological cycle. The bioproductive capacity of a landscape is determined, on the one hand, by soil properties and climate, and, on the other hand, by human influence (fertilization, selection of crops, etc.). In this sense, soils, climate, and man participate in the fulfillment by the landscape of its bioproductive function. At the same time, to understand the complexity and importance of the relationship between the natural and anthropogenic components of the landscape, it is enough to point out the fact that the consumption (withdrawal from the ecosystem) of more than 10% of the organic matter created by plants without compensating effects leads to the inevitable destruction of the ecosystem. This means, for example, that if an excessive number of sheep are released onto a pasture, then this pasture will soon irreversibly or almost irreversibly degrade. If all the available crops are regularly removed from the field ecosystem, then soon its soil will become almost barren. But we know that there are soils that are more resistant and less resistant, that some of them need compensatory influences to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent. Some can withstand without damage a significant pasture load, others - a very small one. We also know that a degraded pasture ceases to properly perform not only productive, but also other functions, for example, the function of regulating runoff and the function of shaping the climate. From the above examples of functional relationships, it follows that many functions of the landscape are "tied" to its specific components and their properties. At the same time, it is necessary to understand the dual functional role of landscape components and their properties. On the one hand, they act as a resource, as a blessing used by people. On the other hand, the same components are a "resource or boon" for the landscape itself, ensuring its sustainable functioning. In this sense, it is better to talk about components and functions as conditions for the existence of a landscape, and about components and functions as resources for human consumption. At the same time, the existence of a normally functioning landscape is a condition for the existence of people. Thus, the seven groups of functions mentioned above are seven aspects of the analysis and consideration of the significance of all components of the landscape in landscape planning procedures undertaken for the purposes of sustainable development of territories. It is necessary to briefly comment on the importance of taking into account other landscape functions in landscape planning, to show the meaning of singling out just the named groups from the complex set of landscape functions in the above formulations. Biotopic function means the ability of a landscape and all its habitats to maintain the necessary level of biological diversity, including the diversity of plant and animal species, as well as the genetic fund of nature. The significance of biological diversity in the preservation of the foundations of life on Earth has been recognized by science for a long time. But only relatively recently, the understanding of the natural links between the stability of individual ecosystems and the entire biosphere and the conservation of their inherent biological diversity has received public recognition. Now it is enshrined in the relevant convention, which has been ratified by most countries. And since in every landscape there are many biotopes, that is, many different habitats suitable and habitual for different plants and animals, it is necessary to maintain this diversity at a certain level. This is the most important condition for maintaining the stability of the landscape. Indeed, in the general case, any system copes with violations more effectively, the higher the diversity of its constituent elements. A group of landscape functions responsible for maintaining the gas composition of the atmosphere, for a stable cycle and a sufficient amount of clean fresh water on the planet, for the stability of such a dynamic system as the Earth's climate - this group of functions is provided, first of all, by the normal state of vegetation and soil cover. It is these two components of the landscape that are the main regulators of many processes that link the composition of the atmosphere, the hydrological cycle and climate into an integral system. Combining them into one group of functions is due precisely to these close ties. And it is precisely this entire system of connections that can be significantly disrupted by a person if, by his activity, he damages any link in the chain of these connections. Thus, a degraded pasture or a forest massif destroyed for the sake of plowing new lands will no longer ensure the release by plants of sufficient amounts of oxygen and latent heat fluxes that go into the atmosphere with transpiration moisture. The compacted soil of this pasture or former forest will no longer filter a sufficient amount of precipitation into the groundwater and support sustainable nutrition of both plants and rivers with this clean water. The soil surface exposed from the closed vegetation cover will increase the flow of not latent, but turbulent heat into the atmosphere, which will change the heat balance of the atmosphere and affect the climate. A person influences these processes also in a direct way, for example, by throwing out large quantities from the pipes of industrial enterprises, thermal power plants, boiler houses, from cars, etc. carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide, which changes both the heat balance of the atmosphere and the chemical composition of air and raindrops (this is how acid rain is formed). Soil formation is one of the most important functions of the landscape. It takes a long time to form a mature, full-fledged soil - hundreds and thousands of years. Almost all components of the landscape are involved in this process. But disturbances of the soil, and often irreversible, can occur very quickly - in a few years. Deforestation, improper plowing, the use of heavy machinery, excessive amounts of fertilizers, the use of hazardous pesticides to control weeds, and much more can lead to intensive erosion and complete erosion of fertile soil horizons, to significant changes in soil composition and many other properties. The soil will lose not only its productivity, but also the normal functions of regulating other processes (already mentioned above, water runoff, heat exchange with the atmosphere, etc.). At the same time, the soil, to some extent, is able to prevent the spread of a number of pollutants in the environment, accumulating them and transferring them from a mobile state to a bound one. Along with the soil, the normal functioning of the system of landscape connections is a condition for the formation of a number of valuable deposits, minerals, and even rocks. These can be, for example, peat deposits, medicinal silt deposits, etc. They also take a long time to form, and therefore the functions of soil formation and mineral and rock formation are combined into one group. The fifth group of functions is the most extensive and heterogeneous. But all of them are connected with the landscape and its many components by relations of the same type - in order to carry out the listed types of economic activity, people need quite extensive spaces of the landscape with its complex structure and variety of properties of the components. Therefore, when planning these types of activities, it is especially important to take into account spatial (they are called horizontal or lateral), and not just intercomponent landscape connections (they are called vertical or radial). The sixth group of functions is well known. Its common feature is the need to take into account when planning those landscape properties that ensure people's health. This is clean air, clean water, and the opportunity to relax in a natural environment. The implementation of these functions is the social meaning of nature conservation. The last group of functions is of particular importance, which is by no means always taken into account in planning if it is carried out solely for the sake of satisfying direct economic benefits. The properties of the landscape, which ensure the fulfillment of the functions of this group, most often do not have a direct consumer value. But they are responsible for the preservation of people's culture, which ultimately determines the development and fate of society. The information function mentioned in this group is ensured by the ability of the landscape to serve as an archive of nature, preserving the most valuable objects in the scientific and general cultural sense. Quite often such qualities of some objects are found out far not at once. But if it is a rare object, it certainly needs to be preserved. These objects include archaeological, geological, biological rarities and simply monuments of the past. All landscapes without exception have these seven groups of functions. Some of them turn out to be the arena of mining, but this function is not universal and landscape planning should not be interested in it in all cases, but where this activity takes place or can take place and significantly affects or can affect the entire landscape and people's lives. . These examples demonstrate the importance of understanding the functions of the landscape in order to plan for the sustainable use of its benefits by man, and this is precisely the most important task of landscape planning. At the same time, it should be taken into account that a number of functions are largely mutually exclusive (for example, residential and forestry), others can and should be compatible. In landscape planning, these circumstances must be carefully analyzed and both priority and additional forms of use should be envisaged for a particular territory. The grounds for selection should be ideas about the interaction and interdependence of functions (see above), as well as weighted estimates of the socio-economic significance of landscape functions. More details about the methodology for such an assessment and the selection of priorities for the use of the territory will be discussed in subsequent chapters.
Hosted on Allbest.ru
Hosted on Allbest.ru
Similar Documents
Characteristics of the components of the natural environment: geology, climate, relief, hydrogeography, soils, vegetation, population, transport, physical-geographical (landscape) zoning of the Ubyt landscape. Assessment of resistance to technogenic loads.
term paper, added 07/19/2008
The concept of the soil-forming process and its main factors. The role of climate and relief in soil formation. Characteristics of the soil of the Kamchatka province (genesis, properties, distribution). Factors influencing the formation of the modern relief of Kamchatka.
control work, added 08/22/2010
The concept of landscape and climate. Landscape components and their classification, landscape-forming factors. The boundaries and morphological structure of the landscape: facies, podurochische, tract, locality. Conditions for the allocation of boundaries of areas. Landscapes and river basins.
abstract, added 02/21/2009
Physical and geographical conditions of soil formation in the study area: climate, relief, hydrography and hydrology, soil-forming rocks, vegetation. Characteristics of the main types of soils, their agricultural production grouping, description of the structure of the profile.
abstract, added 07/16/2012
General information about the economy. Soil formation conditions: relief, soil-forming rocks, climate, vegetation and human economic activity. Soil fertility and modern ways of its conservation. Humus balance in crop rotations and its regulation.
term paper, added 01/11/2012
Characteristics of the essence of dynamics and types of stability: inertial, resistant (elastic), adaptive or adaptations (tolerance, tolerance, plasticity). Landscape succession. History and directions of anthropogenization of the landscape sphere of the Earth.
abstract, added 06/23/2010
Economic assessment and value of landscapes and their dynamics. Agrogeosystem as a techno-natural resource-reproducing and environment-forming geosystem. Fundamentals of systematization and organization of the territory of the landscape. General criteria for the natural stability of geosystems.
abstract, added 03/26/2009
Description of the factors of formation of chestnut soils: climate, relief, water and weathering. Morphological structure of soils, thickness of individual horizons, granulometric composition. The degree of susceptibility to erosion processes. Economic use of soils.
term paper, added 10/17/2011
The concept of soil formation factors, the role of climate in this process. Solar radiation as a leading factor in the "global" climate. The concept of radiation balance. The concept of moisture coefficient and dryness index. Soil climate and its main components.
abstract, added 03/24/2015
Brief description of soil formation conditions: relief, geology, surface and ground waters, agro-climatic characteristics and vegetation. Classification, characteristics of soil types, their distinctive features in the studied economy.
The meaning of this figurative expression lies in the variety of factors of soil formation and in the clear dependence of the formation and distribution of various types of soils on inland waters, rocks, vegetation, microorganisms, human activities, etc.
The distribution of the main types of soils is subject to the law of geographic zoning.
The soils of the Arctic deserts are located on the islands: thin, frozen and absolutely infertile.
In the tundra zone in the regions of the Far North, there are tundra-gley soils - thin, swampy, frozen and infertile.
In the taiga zone in the European part of Russia and in Western Siberia, podzolic soils predominate, the thickness of which is somewhat greater, the soil horizons are clearly defined, the humus horizon is weak, which is explained by the large washing of the soil with water, often swampy and infertile.
In the taiga zone of Central Siberia, permafrost-taiga soils are formed - thin, heavily frozen, infertile.
The zone of mixed forests is characterized by soddy-podzolic soils - medium-thick, with a clear upper layer - turf, where other main soil horizons are pronounced. The humus horizon is small, so the soddy-podzolic soils are of medium fertility.
In the zone of deciduous forests, brown forest and gray forest soils are located - medium-thick, with pronounced soil horizons, weakened soil washing contributes to the accumulation of humus, therefore these soils have good fertility.
The most fertile soils are formed in the steppes - chernozems, in which the thickness of the humus horizon can reach 1 m. Voronezh chernozems are the world standard of fertility.
In the dry steppes, chestnut soils predominate, which, unlike chernozem, have a lower humus content, and in the semi-desert zone, brown semi-desert soils form under conditions of insufficient moisture and sparse vegetation. These soils are often saline, and with a close location of groundwater, solonchaks are formed here.
Special soil types are formed in the mountains (mountain soil types) and in river valleys (alluvial soils).
Agriculture can seriously affect changes in soil fertility. Improper land use (including overgrazing) leads to depletion of soil fertility, soil degradation, washout and weathering of the fertile layer, desertification processes occur in the southern regions, and waterlogging or salinization of soils occurs with excessive irrigation. With rational land use (proper plowing, crop rotation, reasonable chemical and water reclamation, creation of shelterbelts from the impact
Desert soils are located on: thin, frozen and absolutely infertile.
In the tundra zone in the regions of the Far North, there are gley soils - thin, swampy, frozen and infertile.
In the zone in the European part of Russia, podzolic soils predominate, the thickness of which is somewhat greater, the horizons are clearly defined, the humus content is weak, which is explained by the large washing of the soil with water, often swampy and infertile.
In the taiga zone of Central Siberia, permafrost-taiga soils are formed - thin, heavily frozen, infertile.
The zone is characterized by sod-podzolic soils - medium-thick, with a clear upper layer - turf, where other main soil horizons are pronounced. The humus horizon is small, so the soddy-podzolic soils are of medium fertility.
In the zone of deciduous forests, brown and gray forest soils are located - medium-thick, with pronounced soil horizons, weakened soil washing contributes to the accumulation of humus, therefore these soils have good fertility.
In the most fertile soils are formed - chernozems, in which the thickness of the humus horizon can reach 1 m. Voronezh chernozems are the world standard of fertility.
In the dry steppes, chestnut soils predominate, which, in contrast, have a lower humus content, and in the zone - brown semi-desert soils, which form under conditions of insufficient moisture, sparse vegetation. These soils are often saline and, at close proximity, solonchaks form here.
Special soil types are formed in mountains (mountain soil types) and in valleys (alluvial soils).
Agriculture can seriously influence change
"The soil is a mirror of the landscape" the work of the team "Bees" mou school No. 1 in Sobinki
The land covered with grass, What a miracle it is! And the smell of meadow mint No one knows where. A. Zhigulin
Soil is the top layer of land on the earth. The most important property of soil is fertility. Soils were studied by V.V. Dokuchaev. Landscape in geography implies a section of the earth's surface with the same type of characteristics of its components: relief, climate, vegetation, geological basis
The soil is the mirror of the landscape. The soil reflects in itself, records all the events in the life of the landscape and changes in accordance with them. The formation and development of soils is closely connected with all other components of nature and is the result of their interaction. All components are involved in the formation of soils, therefore Dokuchaev V.V. called them factors of soil formation. They also include human activities.
Urbanozem is anthropogenically modified soil. It combines layers of artificial origin, different in color and thickness, in different proportions, as evidenced by sharp transitions and a smooth border between them. The skeletal material is represented by construction and household waste (brick chips, pieces of asphalt, broken glass, coal, etc.), combined with industrial waste, peat-compost mixture or inclusions of fragments of natural soil horizons.
The soil cover of Russia is surprisingly variegated. But we are more interested in the soils of the Vladimir region: soddy-podzolic, podzolic, gray forest, floodplain, marsh.
3 2 1 Consider the soils of the Klyazma river valley, near which our school is located. In the river valley, there is a change of several natural facies: oak forest, meadow, arable land (garden), city park (mixed forest). Each of these facies is formed by a homogeneous soil with its own plant community.
Outcrop No. 1 - terraced floodplain of the Klyazma River, flood plain. Vegetation: meadow - pike. The soil is alluvial, the humus is small -5 cm, since these are young underdeveloped soils with signs of waterlogging - iron oxides are present in large quantities. Poorly decomposed plant remains in the humus, groundwater lies close to it. The parent horizon is sand. Outcrop No. 2 - mixed forest in the park area. Vegetation - snotty oak forest. The soil is sod-podzolic. Ground waters lie deep, but are soaked to a great depth. Forest litter (leaf litter) is small - 0.5 cm, as a young forest. Podzolic horizon of great thickness (30-35 cm). As a result of the leaching activity of surface waters, the whitish tongues of podzols penetrate into horizon B. Soils are formed on clays.
Outcrop No. 3 - oak forest. Gray forest soils. Vegetation is an absolute dry land. Represented by cereals and legumes. The relief is a watershed. The groundwater horizon is deep. Forest litter 2-5 cm thick, consists of browned forest litter; Humus horizon 10-55 cm thick, gray or dark gray, sometimes brownish-dark gray, granular, indistinctly lumpy-powdery structure, contains many living plant roots; Transitional horizon, on a brown, dark brown or brown background, whitish spots, tongues and powder. Illuvial horizon, dark brown or dark brown, nutty or nutty-prismatic structure, dense, edges of structural units covered with shiny glossy films; soil-forming rock - loam.
CONCLUSION: Having laid a transverse profile through the Klyazma river valley, we identified elementary natural complexes located in different parts of the river valley and proved the relationship between vegetation, climate, waters and soils. Considering that people have been living in these territories for a long time, it is not surprising that the soils in the river valleys are greatly changed. From century to century, it was believed that the soil is a bio-inert creation. Born under the influence of plants, microbes and other living beings, She turned from a geo-envelope into the thinnest layer that bestows good on us.
And finally, the soil is the mirror of the landscape. This expression originates from Dokuchaev. He was the first to say that the soil is a mirror of the environment (hence the mirror of the landscape). But of course, this aphorism cannot be taken literally. Firstly, the soil is a mirror not only of the modern landscape, but also of those landscapes that were here before. Secondly, the soil, of course, does not reflect the landscape like a mirror. This is a metaphor. Recently, there has been much debate about whether this reflection is adequate or not. Usually, adequacy is understood as two properties of phenomena. In a narrow sense, adequacy is the identity of two phenomena of the same class: the identity of two trees, two objects. For example, reflection in a mirror is adequate, identical to its prototype. In this sense, one cannot speak of the soil as an adequate reflection of the surrounding conditions. Rather, it can be adequate, identical to other soil that develops under such conditions.
But there is another, broader meaning in this word: conformity. The soil meets these conditions. The study of soils in nature is based on this correspondence, and, it must be said, it helps very well in the study of soils during their mapping, etc.
The ability of soil to reflect the impact of environmental conditions - soil formation factors can be compared with the ability of the famous portrait of Dorian Gray from Oscar Wilde's novel: the portrait reflected everything that happened to Dorian, while Dorian Gray himself did not change, remained young. It seems to us that the surrounding conditions do not change, the climate, the relief remain the same, and the soil reflects in itself, “records” all the events in the life of the landscape and biogeocenosis and changes in accordance with these events. But deciphering these connections is very difficult.
Of course, the same soil property can be associated with different factors, and one sample, and even more so one property, cannot be used to judge the soil. For example, a sample fell into the hands of a researcher by its appearance - from the upper horizon of the soil, containing five percent of humus. Judging only by this property, the sample can refer to both soddy, meadow, and soddy-podzolic soils, as well as gray forest, chestnut (dark chestnut), chernozem. But already the analysis of soil acidity will help to exclude a number of possible options. Therefore, the conformity of soils and environmental conditions can only be assessed by a set of properties. And in this respect, soil is a really good indicator of environmental conditions.
But, as Dokuchaev noted, the soil is a mirror of the local present and past climates and, of course, the present and former landscapes here. Therefore, the soil has properties associated with the history of landscape development. For example, our Central Russian strip, where, as A.P. Chekhov said, all the landscapes are “Levitan”, was once a taiga. The remains of this taiga are still preserved in reserves, for example, in the Central Forest, which turned fifty years old in 1981.
For more than one and a half thousand years, farmers have intensively changed the taiga landscapes. They burned forests, arranged arable land, hayfields. Part of the land was again thrown under forests, part has been in agricultural use for more than a thousand years. It is clear that the history of each field can affect the properties of its soils. Therefore, even if the soils today exist under the same conditions, this does not mean that they should be completely identical to one another. Different history can leave a different mark on these soils.
The work of the Biogeocenological Expedition of Moscow University in the Central Russian zone showed the complexity of soil assessment in terms of reflecting landscape conditions. In protected areas where forests have retained their taiga appearance, the researcher is struck by the diversity of soils, the richness of colors in soil horizons, the presence in one profile of areas of different colors, composition, and structure. The color of the podzolic horizon in these soils ranges from brown to fawn, gray or whitish (bleached). At the same time, soils on arable lands retained a lighter shade of the lower part of the arable layer and lost the entire palette of colors of natural soils. Centuries-old forests grown on arable land enhance the diversity of soil horizons. But even after a hundred years, an arable horizon is still visible (visible in color) in them. What's the matter? The climate was constant for several centuries, the plants did not change, but the soil reflected all those diverse and small events that happened to this landscape. The task of soil science is to learn how to decipher the phenomena that have occurred.