In ancient times, Persia became the center of one of the greatest empires in history, stretching from Egypt to the Indus River. It included all previous empires - Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Hittites. The later empire of Alexander the Great included almost no territories that would not have previously belonged to the Persians, while it was smaller than Persia under King Darius.
Since its inception in the 6th c. BC. before the conquest by Alexander the Great in the 4th century. BC. for two and a half centuries, Persia occupied a dominant position in the ancient world. Greek domination lasted for about a hundred years, and after its fall, the Persian state was revived under two local dynasties: the Arsacids (Parthian kingdom) and the Sassanids (New Persian kingdom). For more than seven centuries, they kept Rome in fear, and then Byzantium, until in the 7th century. AD the Sassanid state was not conquered by Islamic conquerors.
The geography of the empire.
The lands inhabited by the ancient Persians only roughly coincide with the borders of modern Iran. In ancient times, such boundaries simply did not exist. There were periods when the Persian kings were the rulers of most of the then known world, at other times the main cities of the empire were in Mesopotamia, to the west of Persia proper, and it also happened that the entire territory of the kingdom was divided between warring local rulers.
A significant part of the territory of Persia is occupied by high arid highlands (1200 m), crossed by mountain ranges with individual peaks reaching 5500 m. Zagros and Elburs mountain ranges are located in the west and north, which frame the highlands in the form of the letter V, leaving it open to the east. The western and northern borders of the highlands roughly coincide with the current borders of Iran, but in the east it extends beyond the borders of the country, occupying part of the territory of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan. Three areas are isolated from the plateau: the coast of the Caspian Sea, the coast of the Persian Gulf and the southwestern plains, which are the eastern continuation of the Mesopotamian lowland.
Directly to the west of Persia lies Mesopotamia, home to the world's most ancient civilizations. The Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Babylonia and Assyria had a significant impact on the early culture of Persia. And although the Persian conquests ended almost three thousand years after the rise of Mesopotamia, Persia was in many ways the heir to the Mesopotamian civilization. Most of the important cities of the Persian Empire were located in Mesopotamia, and Persian history is largely a continuation of Mesopotamian history.
Persia lies on the paths of the earliest migrations from Central Asia. Slowly moving westward, the settlers skirted the northern tip of the Hindu Kush in Afghanistan and turned south and west, where through the more accessible regions of Khorasan, southeast of the Caspian Sea, they entered the Iranian plateau south of the Elburz mountains. Centuries later, the main trade artery ran parallel to the early route, linking the Far East with the Mediterranean and providing control of the empire and the transfer of troops. At the western end of the highlands, it descended into the plains of Mesopotamia. Other important routes connected the southeastern plains through the heavily rugged mountains with the highlands proper.
Away from a few main roads, the settlements of thousands of agricultural communities were scattered in long and narrow mountain valleys. They led a subsistence economy, due to their isolation from their neighbors, many of them remained aloof from wars and invasions and for many centuries carried out an important mission to preserve the continuity of culture, so characteristic of the ancient history of Persia.
STORY
Ancient Iran.
It is known that the most ancient inhabitants of Iran had a different origin than the Persians and their kindred peoples, who created civilizations on the Iranian plateau, as well as the Semites and Sumerians, whose civilizations arose in Mesopotamia. During excavations in caves near the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, skeletons of people dated to the 8th millennium BC were discovered. In the north-west of Iran, in the town of Goy-Tepe, the skulls of people who lived in the 3rd millennium BC were found.
Scientists have proposed calling the indigenous population the Caspians, which indicates a geographical connection with the peoples who inhabited the Caucasus Mountains to the west of the Caspian Sea. The Caucasian tribes themselves, as is known, migrated to more southern regions, to the highlands. The "Caspian" type, apparently, has been preserved in a greatly weakened form among the nomadic Lurs in modern Iran.
For the archeology of the Middle East, the central issue is the dating of the appearance of agricultural settlements here. Monuments of material culture and other evidence found in the Caspian caves indicate that the tribes inhabiting the region from the 8th to the 5th millennium BC. engaged mainly in hunting, then switched to cattle breeding, which, in turn, approx. IV millennium BC replaced by agriculture. Permanent settlements appeared in the western part of the highlands before the 3rd millennium BC, and most likely in the 5th millennium BC. The main settlements include Sialk, Goy-Tepe, Gissar, but the largest were Susa, which later became the capital of the Persian state. In these small villages, adobe huts crowded together along winding narrow streets. The dead were buried either under the floor of the house or in the cemetery in a crooked ("uterine") position. The reconstruction of the life of the ancient inhabitants of the highlands was carried out on the basis of a study of utensils, tools and decorations that were placed in the graves in order to provide the deceased with everything necessary for the afterlife.
The development of culture in prehistoric Iran proceeded progressively over many centuries. As in Mesopotamia, large brick houses began to be built here, objects were made from cast copper, and then from cast bronze. Carved stone seals appeared, which were evidence of the emergence of private property. Found large jugs for food storage suggest that stocks were made between harvests. Among the finds of all periods there are figurines of the mother goddess, often depicted with her husband, who was both her husband and son.
The most noteworthy is the huge variety of painted pottery, the walls of some of which are no thicker than the shell of a chicken egg. The bird and animal figurines depicted in profile testify to the talent of prehistoric artisans. Some pottery depicts the man himself, hunting or performing some rituals. Around 1200–800 BC painted pottery is replaced by one-color - red, black or gray, which is explained by the invasion of tribes from as yet unidentified regions. Pottery of the same type was found very far from Iran - in China.
Early history.
The historical era begins on the Iranian plateau at the end of the 4th millennium BC. Most of the information about the descendants of the ancient tribes who lived on the eastern borders of Mesopotamia, in the mountains of Zagros, is gleaned from the Mesopotamian chronicles. (There is no information about the tribes that inhabited the central and eastern regions of the Iranian Highlands, because they had no ties with the Mesopotamian kingdoms.) The largest of the peoples inhabiting the Zagros were the Elamites, who captured the ancient city of Susa, located on a plain at the foot of Zagros, and founded the powerful and prosperous state of Elam there. The Elamite Chronicles began to be compiled c. 3000 BC and fought for two thousand years. Further to the north lived the Kassites, barbarian tribes of horsemen, who by the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. conquered Babylonia. The Kassites adopted the civilization of the Babylonians and ruled southern Mesopotamia for several centuries. Less significant were the tribes of the Northern Zagros, the Lullubei and Gutii, who lived in the area where the great Trans-Asian trade route descended from the western tip of the Iranian Highlands to the plain.
The Aryan Invasion and the Median Kingdom.
Starting from the II millennium BC. waves of invasions of tribes from Central Asia hit the Iranian plateau one after another. These were the Aryans, Indo-Iranian tribes who spoke dialects that were the proto-languages of the present-day languages of the Iranian Highlands and Northern India. They also gave Iran its name ("homeland of the Aryans"). The first wave of conquerors surged approx. 1500 BC One group of Aryans settled in the west of the Iranian Highlands, where they founded the state of Mitanni, another group - in the south among the Kassites. However, the main flow of the Aryans passed Iran, turning sharply to the south, crossed the Hindu Kush and invaded North India.
At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. along the same path, a second wave of newcomers, the Iranian tribes proper, arrived in the Iranian Highlands, and much more numerous. Some of the Iranian tribes - Sogdians, Scythians, Sakas, Parthians and Bactrians - retained a nomadic lifestyle, others left the highlands, but two tribes, the Medes and Persians (Pars), settled in the valleys of the Zagros ridge, mixed with the local population and took their political , religious and cultural traditions. The Medes settled in the vicinity of Ecbatana (modern Hamadan). The Persians settled somewhat to the south, on the plains of Elam and in the mountainous region adjacent to the Persian Gulf, which was later called Persis (Parsa or Fars). It is possible that the Persians initially settled northwest of the Medes, west of Lake Rezaye (Urmia), and only later moved south under the pressure of Assyria, which was then at the peak of its power. On some Assyrian bas-reliefs of the 9th and 8th centuries. BC. battles with the Medes and Persians are depicted.
The Median kingdom with its capital in Ecbatana gradually gained strength. In 612 BC the Median king Cyaxares (reigned from 625 to 585 BC) entered into an alliance with Babylonia, captured Nineveh and crushed the Assyrian power. The Median kingdom stretched from Asia Minor (modern Turkey) almost to the Indus River. During just one reign, Media from a small tributary principality turned into the strongest power in the Middle East.
Persian state of the Achaemenids.
The power of Media did not last longer than the life of two generations. The Persian dynasty of the Achaemenids (named after their founder Achaemenes) began to dominate Pars even under the Medes. In 553 BC Cyrus II the Great, Achaemenid ruler of Parsa, raised an uprising against the Median king Astyages, son of Cyaxares, as a result of which a powerful alliance of the Medes and Persians was created. The new power threatened the entire Middle East. In 546 BC King Croesus of Lydia led a coalition directed against King Cyrus, which, in addition to the Lydians, included the Babylonians, Egyptians and Spartans. According to legend, the oracle predicted to the Lydian king that the war would end with the collapse of the great state. Delighted, Croesus did not even bother to ask which state was meant. The war ended with the victory of Cyrus, who pursued Croesus all the way to Lydia and captured him there. In 539 BC Cyrus occupied Babylonia, and by the end of his reign expanded the borders of the state from the Mediterranean Sea to the eastern outskirts of the Iranian Highlands, making the capital of Pasargada, a city in southwestern Iran.
Organization of the Achaemenid state.
Apart from a few brief Achaemenid inscriptions, we draw the main information about the state of the Achaemenids from the works of ancient Greek historians. Even the names of the Persian kings entered the historiography as they were written by the ancient Greeks. For example, the names of the kings known today as Cyaxares, Cyrus, and Xerxes are pronounced in Persian as Uvakhshtra, Kurush, and Khshayarshan.
The main city of the state was Susa. Babylon and Ecbatana were considered administrative centers, and Persepolis - the center of ritual and spiritual life. The state was divided into twenty satrapies, or provinces, headed by satraps. Representatives of the Persian nobility became satraps, and the position itself was inherited. Such a combination of the power of an absolute monarch and semi-independent governors was a characteristic feature of the political structure of the country for many centuries.
All provinces were connected by postal roads, the most significant of which, the "royal road" 2400 km long, ran from Susa to the Mediterranean coast. Despite the fact that a single administrative system, a single monetary unit and a single official language were introduced throughout the empire, many subject peoples retained their customs, religion and local rulers. The reign of the Achaemenids was characterized by tolerance. The long years of peace under the Persians favored the development of cities, trade and agriculture. Iran was experiencing its golden age.
The Persian army differed in composition and tactics from the previous armies, for which chariots and infantry were typical. The main striking force of the Persian troops was mounted archers, who bombarded the enemy with a cloud of arrows, without coming into direct contact with him. The army consisted of six corps of 60,000 soldiers each and elite formations of 10,000 people, selected from members of the noblest families and called "immortals"; they also constituted the personal guard of the king. However, during campaigns in Greece, as well as during the reign of the last Achaemenid king Darius III, a huge, poorly controlled mass of horsemen, chariots and foot soldiers went into battle, unable to maneuver in small spaces and often significantly inferior to the disciplined infantry of the Greeks.
The Achaemenids were very proud of their origin. The Behistun inscription, carved on a rock by order of Darius I, reads: “I, Darius, the great king, the king of kings, the king of countries inhabited by all peoples, have long been the king of this great land that stretches even further, son of Hystaspes, Achaemenides, Persian, son Persians, Aryans, and my ancestors were Aryans. However, the Achaemenid civilization was a conglomeration of customs, culture, social institutions and ideas that existed in all parts of the Ancient World. At that time East and West came into direct contact for the first time, and the resulting exchange of ideas never ceased thereafter.
Hellenic dominion.
Weakened by endless rebellions, uprisings and civil strife, the Achaemenid state could not resist the armies of Alexander the Great. The Macedonians landed on the Asian continent in 334 BC, defeated the Persian troops on the Granik River and twice defeated huge armies under the command of the mediocre Darius III - at the Battle of Issus (333 BC) in southwestern Asia Minor and under Gaugamela (331 BC) in Mesopotamia. Having captured Babylon and Susa, Alexander went to Persepolis and set it on fire, apparently in retaliation for the burning of Athens by the Persians. Continuing to move east, he found the body of Darius III, who had been killed by his own soldiers. Alexander spent more than four years in the east of the Iranian Highlands, founding numerous Greek colonies. He then turned south and conquered the Persian provinces in what is now West Pakistan. After that, he went on a hike in the Indus Valley. Returning in 325 BC in Susa, Alexander began to actively encourage his soldiers to take Persian women as their wives, cherishing the idea of a single state of Macedonians and Persians. In 323 BC Alexander, at the age of 33, died of a fever in Babylon. The huge territory conquered by him was immediately divided between his military leaders, who competed with each other. And although the plan of Alexander the Great to merge together Greek and Persian culture was never realized, the numerous colonies founded by him and his successors for centuries retained the originality of their culture and had a significant impact on local peoples and their art.
After the death of Alexander the Great, the Iranian Highlands became part of the Seleucid state, which got its name from one of its commanders. Soon the local nobility began the struggle for independence. In the satrapy of Parthia, located southeast of the Caspian Sea in the area known as Khorasan, a nomadic tribe of Parns rebelled, expelling the governor of the Seleucids. The first ruler of the Parthian state was Arshak I (ruled from 250 to 248/247 BC).
Parthian state of the Arsacids.
The period following the uprising of Arshak I against the Seleucids is called either the Arsacid period or the Parthian period. Constant wars were waged between the Parthians and the Seleucids, ending in 141 BC, when the Parthians, under the leadership of Mithridates I, took Seleucia, the capital of the Seleucids on the Tigris River. On the opposite bank of the river, Mithridates founded the new capital of Ctesiphon and extended his dominion over most of the Iranian plateau. Mithridates II (reigned from 123 to 87/88 BC) further expanded the boundaries of the state and, having taken the title of “king of kings” (shahinshah), became the ruler of a vast territory from India to Mesopotamia, and in the east to Chinese Turkestan.
The Parthians considered themselves the direct heirs of the Achaemenid state, and their relatively poor culture was replenished by the influence of Hellenistic culture and traditions introduced earlier by Alexander the Great and the Seleucids. As before in the Seleucid state, the political center moved to the west of the highlands, namely to Ctesiphon, so few monuments testifying to that time have been preserved in Iran in good condition.
During the reign of Phraates III (ruled from 70 to 58/57 BC), Parthia entered into a period of almost continuous wars with the Roman Empire, which lasted almost 300 years. The opposing armies fought over a vast area. The Parthians defeated the army under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus at Carrhae in Mesopotamia, after which the border between the two empires ran along the Euphrates. In 115 AD Roman emperor Trajan took Seleucia. Despite this, the Parthian power resisted, and in 161 Vologes III devastated the Roman province of Syria. However, long years of war bled the Parthians, and attempts to defeat the Romans on the western borders weakened their power over the Iranian highlands. Riots broke out in a number of areas. The satrap of Fars (or Parsa) Ardashir, the son of a religious leader, declared himself ruler as a direct descendant of the Achaemenids. After defeating several Parthian armies and killing the last Parthian king Artaban V in battle, he took Ctesiphon and inflicted a crushing defeat on the coalition trying to restore the power of the Arsacids.
State of the Sassanids.
Ardashir (reigned from 224 to 241) founded a new Persian empire known as the Sassanid state (from the ancient Persian title "sasan" or "commander"). His son Shapur I (reigned from 241 to 272) retained elements of the former feudal system but created a highly centralized state. The armies of Shapur first moved east and occupied the entire Iranian Highlands up to the river. Indus and then turned west against the Romans. At the Battle of Edessa (near modern Urfa, Turkey), Shapur captured the Roman emperor Valerian along with his 70,000-strong army. The prisoners, among whom were architects and engineers, were forced to work on the construction of roads, bridges and irrigation systems in Iran.
Over the course of several centuries, about 30 rulers changed in the Sassanid dynasty; often successors were appointed by the higher clergy and the feudal nobility. The dynasty waged continuous wars with Rome. Shapur II, who ascended the throne in 309, fought three times with Rome during the 70 years of his reign. The greatest of the Sassanids is Khosrow I (ruled from 531 to 579), who was called the Just or Anushirvan ("Immortal Soul").
Under the Sassanids, a four-tier system of administrative division was established, a flat rate of land tax was introduced, and numerous artificial irrigation projects were carried out. In the southwest of Iran, traces of these irrigation facilities are still preserved. Society was divided into four estates: warriors, priests, scribes and commoners. The latter included peasants, merchants and artisans. The first three estates enjoyed special privileges and, in turn, had several gradations. From the highest gradation of the estate, the Sardars, governors of the provinces were appointed. The capital of the state was Bishapur, the most important cities were Ctesiphon and Gundeshapur (the latter was famous as a center of medical education).
After the fall of Rome, Byzantium took the place of the traditional enemy of the Sassanids. Violating the treaty on eternal peace, Khosrow I invaded Asia Minor and in 611 captured and burned Antioch. His grandson Khosrow II (reigned from 590 to 628), nicknamed Parviz ("Victorious"), briefly restored the Persians to their former glory of the Achaemenid times. During several campaigns, he actually defeated the Byzantine Empire, but the Byzantine emperor Heraclius made a bold throw at the Persian rear. In 627 Khosrow II's army suffered a crushing defeat at Nineveh in Mesopotamia, Khosrow was deposed and slaughtered by his own son Kavad II, who died a few months later.
The powerful state of the Sassanids found itself without a ruler, with a destroyed social structure, depleted as a result of long wars with Byzantium in the west and with the Central Asian Turks in the east. Within five years, twelve half-ghostly rulers were replaced, unsuccessfully trying to restore order. In 632, Yazdegerd III restored central authority for several years, but this was not enough. The exhausted empire could not withstand the onslaught of the warriors of Islam, irresistibly rushing north from the Arabian Peninsula. They struck the first crushing blow in 637 at the battle of Kadispi, as a result of which Ctesiphon fell. The Sassanids suffered their final defeat in 642 at the Battle of Nehavend in the central part of the highlands. Yazdegerd III fled like a hunted beast, his assassination in 651 marked the end of the Sassanid era.
CULTURE
Technology.
Irrigation.
The entire economy of ancient Persia was based on agriculture. Rainfall in the Iranian Plateau is insufficient for extensive agriculture, so the Persians had to rely on irrigation. The few and shallow rivers of the highlands did not provide irrigation ditches with sufficient water, and in summer they dried up. Therefore, the Persians developed a unique system of underground canals-ropes. At the foot of the mountain ranges, deep wells dug out, passing through hard but porous layers of gravel to the underlying impermeable clays that form the lower boundary of the aquifer. The wells collected melt water from the mountain peaks, covered in winter with a thick layer of snow. From these wells erupted underground conduits the height of a man with vertical shafts located at regular intervals, through which light and air entered for the workers. Water conduits came to the surface and served as sources of water all year round.
Artificial irrigation with the help of dams and channels, which originated and was widely used on the plains of Mesopotamia, also spread to the territory of Elam, similar in natural conditions, through which several rivers flow. This area, now known as Khuzistan, is densely indented with hundreds of ancient canals. Irrigation systems reached their highest development during the Sasanian period. Numerous remains of dams, bridges and aqueducts built under the Sassanids still survive today. Since they were designed by captured Roman engineers, they are like two drops of water reminiscent of similar structures found throughout the Roman Empire.
Transport.
The rivers of Iran are not navigable, but in other parts of the Achaemenid Empire, water transport was well developed. So, in 520 BC. Darius I the Great reconstructed the canal between the Nile and the Red Sea. In the Achaemenid period, extensive construction of land roads was carried out, but paved roads were built mainly in swampy and mountainous areas. Significant sections of narrow, stone-paved roads built under the Sassanids are found in the west and south of Iran. The choice of the place for the construction of roads was unusual for that time. They were laid not along the valleys, along the banks of the rivers, but along the ridges of the mountains. Roads descended into the valleys only to make it possible to cross to the other side in strategically important places, for which massive bridges were erected.
Along the roads, at a distance of a day's journey from one another, postal stations were built, where horses were changed. A very efficient postal service operated, with postal couriers covering up to 145 km per day. Since time immemorial, the breeding center of horses has been a fertile region in the Zagros Mountains, located next to the Trans-Asian trade route. Iranians from antiquity began to use camels as beasts of burden; this “mode of transport” came to Mesopotamia from Media ca. 1100 BC
Economy.
The basis of the economy of Ancient Persia was agricultural production. Trade also flourished. All the numerous capitals of the ancient Iranian kingdoms were located along the most important trade route between the Mediterranean and the Far East or on its branch towards the Persian Gulf. In all periods, the Iranians played the role of an intermediate link - they guarded this route and kept part of the goods transported along it. During excavations in Susa and Persepolis, beautiful items from Egypt were found. The reliefs of Persepolis depict representatives of all the satrapies of the Achaemenid state, offering gifts to the great rulers. Since the time of the Achaemenids, Iran has exported marble, alabaster, lead, turquoise, lapis lazuli (lapis lazuli) and carpets. The Achaemenids created fabulous stocks of gold coins minted in various satrapies. In contrast, Alexander the Great introduced a single silver coin for the entire empire. The Parthians returned to the gold monetary unit, and during the Sassanid times, silver and copper coins prevailed in circulation.
The system of large feudal estates that developed under the Achaemenids survived until the Seleucid period, but the kings in this dynasty greatly facilitated the position of the peasants. Then, during the Parthian period, huge feudal estates were restored, and this system did not change under the Sassanids. All states sought to obtain maximum income and established taxes on peasant farms, livestock, land, introduced poll taxes, and collected tolls on roads. All these taxes and fees were levied either in imperial coin or in kind. By the end of the Sassanid period, the number and magnitude of taxes became an unbearable burden for the population, and this tax pressure played a decisive role in the collapse of the social structure of the state.
Political and social organization.
All Persian rulers were absolute monarchs who ruled over their subjects according to the will of the gods. But this power was absolute only in theory, but in reality it was limited by the influence of hereditary large feudal lords. The rulers tried to achieve stability through marriages with relatives, as well as by taking as wives the daughters of potential or actual enemies, both internal and foreign. Nevertheless, the rule of monarchs and the continuity of their power were threatened not only by external enemies, but also by members of their own families.
The Median period was distinguished by a very primitive political organization, which is very typical for peoples moving to a settled way of life. Already among the Achaemenids, the concept of a unitary state appears. In the state of the Achaemenids, the satraps were fully responsible for the state of affairs in their provinces, but could be subjected to an unexpected check by inspectors, who were called the eyes and ears of the king. The royal court constantly emphasized the importance of the administration of justice and therefore constantly moved from one satrapy to another.
Alexander the Great married the daughter of Darius III, retained the satrapies and the custom of prostrating himself before the king. The Seleucids adopted from Alexander the idea of the fusion of races and cultures in the vast expanses from the Mediterranean Sea to the river. Ind. During this period, there was a rapid development of cities, accompanied by the Hellenization of the Iranians and the Iranianization of the Greeks. However, there were no Iranians among the rulers, and they were always considered outsiders. Iranian traditions were preserved in the area of Persepolis, where temples were built in the style of the Achaemenid era.
The Parthians tried to unite the ancient satrapies. They also played an important role in the fight against the nomads from Central Asia advancing from east to west. As before, satrapies were headed by hereditary governors, but a new factor was the lack of natural continuity of royal power. The legitimacy of the Parthian monarchy was no longer undeniable. The successor was chosen by a council made up of the nobility, which inevitably led to an endless struggle between rival factions.
The Sasanian kings made a serious attempt to revive the spirit and the original structure of the Achaemenid state, partly reproducing its rigid social organization. In descending order were vassal princes, hereditary aristocrats, nobles and knights, priests, peasants, slaves. The state administrative apparatus was led by the first minister, to whom several ministries were subordinate, including the military, justice and finance, each of which had its own staff of skilled officials. The king himself was the supreme judge, while justice was administered by the priests.
Religion.
In ancient times, the cult of the great mother goddess, a symbol of childbearing and fertility, was widespread. In Elam, she was called Kirisisha, and throughout the Parthian period, her images were cast on Luristan bronzes and made in the form of statuettes of terracotta, bone, ivory and metals.
The inhabitants of the Iranian Highlands also worshiped many deities of Mesopotamia. After the first wave of Aryans passed through Iran, such Indo-Iranian deities as Mithra, Varuna, Indra and Nasatya appeared here. In all beliefs, a pair of deities was certainly present - the goddess, personifying the Sun and the Earth, and her husband, personifying the Moon and the natural elements. The local gods bore the names of the tribes and peoples who worshiped them. Elam had its own deities, primarily the goddess Shala and her husband Inshushinak.
The Achaemenid period was marked by a decisive turn from polytheism to a more universal system reflecting the eternal struggle between good and evil. The earliest inscription from this period, a metal tablet made before 590 BC, contains the name of the god Aguramazda (Ahuramazda). Indirectly, the inscription may be a reflection of the reform of Mazdaism (the cult of Aguramazda), carried out by the prophet Zarathushtra, or Zoroaster, as narrated in the Gathas, ancient sacred hymns.
The identity of Zarathushtra continues to be shrouded in mystery. He appears to have been born c. 660 BC, but possibly much earlier, and perhaps much later. The god Ahuramazda personified the good beginning, truth and light, apparently in opposition to Ahriman (Angra Mainu), the personification of the evil beginning, although the very concept of Angra Mainu could appear later. Darius' inscriptions mention Ahuramazda, and the relief on his grave depicts the worship of this deity at the sacrificial fire. Chronicles give reason to believe that Darius and Xerxes believed in immortality. Worship of the sacred fire took place both inside the temples and in open places. Magi, originally members of one of the Median clans, became hereditary priests. They oversaw the temples, took care of strengthening the faith by performing certain rituals. Ethical doctrine based on good thoughts, kind words and good deeds. Throughout the Achaemenid period, the rulers were very tolerant of local deities, and starting from the reign of Artaxerxes II, the ancient Iranian sun god Mithra and the fertility goddess Anahita received official recognition.
The Parthians, in search of their own official religion, turned to the Iranian past and settled on Mazdaism. Traditions were codified, and magicians regained their former power. The cult of Anahita continued to enjoy official recognition, as well as popularity among the people, and the cult of Mithras crossed the western borders of the kingdom and spread to most of the Roman Empire. In the west of the Parthian kingdom, they tolerated Christianity, which became widespread here. At the same time, in the eastern regions of the empire, Greek, Indian and Iranian deities united in a single Greco-Bactrian pantheon.
Under the Sassanids, the continuity was preserved, but there were also some important changes in religious traditions. Mazdaism survived most of the early reforms of Zoroaster and became associated with the cult of Anahita. To compete on equal terms with Christianity and Judaism, the sacred book of the Zoroastrians was created Avesta, a collection of ancient poems and hymns. The Magi still stood at the head of the priests and were the keepers of the three great national fires, as well as the holy fires in all important settlements. By that time, Christians had long been persecuted, they were considered enemies of the state, since they were identified with Rome and Byzantium, but by the end of the Sassanid reign, the attitude towards them became more tolerant and Nestorian communities flourished in the country.
During the Sasanian period, other religions also arose. In the middle of the 3rd c. preached by the prophet Mani, who developed the idea of combining Mazdaism, Buddhism and Christianity, and especially emphasized the need to liberate the spirit from the body. Manichaeism demanded celibacy from priests, and virtue from believers. The followers of Manichaeism were required to fast and offer prayers, but not to worship images or perform sacrifices. Shapur I favored Manichaeism and, perhaps, intended to make it the state religion, but this was sharply opposed by the still powerful priests of Mazdaism and in 276 Mani was executed. Nevertheless, Manichaeism persisted for several centuries in Central Asia, Syria and Egypt.
At the end of the 5th c. preached another religious reformer - a native of Iran Mazdak. His ethical doctrine combined both elements of Mazdaism and practical ideas about non-violence, vegetarianism and communal life. Kavad I initially supported the Mazdakian sect, but this time the official priesthood turned out to be stronger and in 528 the prophet and his followers were executed. The advent of Islam put an end to the national religious traditions of Persia, but a group of Zoroastrians fled to India. Their descendants, the Parsis, still practice the religion of Zarathushtra.
Architecture and art.
Early metalwork.
In addition to the enormous number of ceramic objects, items made of such durable materials as bronze, silver and gold are of exceptional importance for the study of ancient Iran. A huge number of so-called. Luristan bronzes were discovered in Luristan, in the Zagros mountains, during illegal excavations of the graves of semi-nomadic tribes. These unparalleled examples included weapons, horse harness, jewelry, and objects depicting scenes from religious life or ceremonial purposes. Until now, scientists have not come to a consensus on who and when they were made. In particular, it was suggested that they were created from the 15th century. BC. by 7th c. BC, most likely - by Kassites or Scythian-Cimmerian tribes. Bronze items continue to be found in the province of Azerbaijan in northwestern Iran. In style, they differ significantly from the Luristan bronzes, although, apparently, both belong to the same period. Bronze items from northwestern Iran are similar to the latest finds made in the same region; for example, the finds of the accidentally discovered treasure in Ziviya and the wonderful golden goblet found during excavations in Hasanlu-Tepe are similar to each other. These items belong to the 9th-7th centuries. BC, in their stylized ornament and the image of deities, Assyrian and Scythian influence is visible.
Achaemenid period.
No architectural monuments of the pre-Achaemenid period have been preserved, although the reliefs in the palaces of Assyria depict cities on the Iranian Highlands. It is very likely that even under the Achaemenids, the population of the highlands led a semi-nomadic lifestyle for a long time, and wooden buildings were typical for the region. Indeed, the monumental structures of Cyrus at Pasargadae, including his own tomb, resembling a wooden house with a gabled roof, as well as Darius and his successors at Persepolis and their tombs at nearby Nakshi Rustem, are stone copies of wooden prototypes. In Pasargadae, royal palaces with pillared halls and porticos were scattered over a shady park. In Persepolis under Darius, Xerxes and Artaxerxes III, reception halls and royal palaces were built on terraces raised above the surrounding area. At the same time, it was not arches that were characteristic, but columns typical of this period, covered with horizontal beams. Labor, building and finishing materials, as well as decorations were delivered from all over the country, while the style of architectural details and carved reliefs was a mixture of artistic styles then prevailing in Egypt, Assyria and Asia Minor. During excavations in Susa, parts of the palace complex were found, the construction of which was begun under Darius. The plan of the building and its decoration reveal a much greater Assyro-Babylonian influence than the palaces in Persepolis.
Achaemenid art was also characterized by a mixture of styles and eclecticism. It is represented by stone carvings, bronze figurines, figurines made of precious metals and jewelry. The best jewelry was discovered in a random find made many years ago, known as the Amu Darya treasure. The bas-reliefs of Persepolis are world famous. Some of them depict kings during ceremonial receptions or defeating mythical beasts, and along the stairs in the large reception hall of Darius and Xerxes, royal guards lined up and a long procession of peoples is visible, bringing tribute to the ruler.
Parthian period.
Most of the architectural monuments of the Parthian period are found to the west of the Iranian Highlands and have few Iranian features. True, during this period an element appears that will be widely used in all subsequent Iranian architecture. This is the so-called. iwan, a rectangular vaulted hall, open from the side of the entrance. Parthian art was even more eclectic than that of the Achaemenid period. In different parts of the state, products of different styles were made: in some - Hellenistic, in others - Buddhist, in others - Greco-Bactrian. Plaster friezes, stone carvings and wall paintings were used for decoration. Glazed earthenware, the forerunner of pottery, was popular during this period.
Sasanian period.
Many buildings of the Sasanian period are in relatively good condition. Most of them were built of stone, although burnt bricks were also used. Among the surviving buildings are royal palaces, temples of fire, dams and bridges, as well as entire city blocks. The place of columns with horizontal ceilings was occupied by arches and vaults; square rooms were crowned with domes, arched openings were widely used, many buildings had aivans. The domes were supported by four trompas, cone-shaped vaulted structures that spanned the corners of the square chambers. The ruins of palaces have been preserved in Firuzabad and Servestan, in the southwest of Iran, and in Kasre-Shirin, on the western outskirts of the highlands. The largest was considered the palace in Ctesiphon, on the river. The tiger known as Taki-Kisra. In its center was a giant iwan with a 27-meter-high vault and a distance between supports of 23 m. More than 20 fire temples have survived, the main elements of which were square rooms topped with domes and sometimes surrounded by vaulted corridors. As a rule, such temples were erected on high rocks so that the open sacred fire could be seen at a great distance. The walls of the buildings were covered with plaster, on which a pattern made by the notching technique was applied. Numerous reliefs carved into the rocks are found along the banks of reservoirs fed by spring waters. They depict kings before Aguramazda or defeating their enemies.
The pinnacle of Sassanid art are textiles, silver dishes and goblets, most of which were made for the royal court. Scenes of royal hunting, figures of kings in solemn attire, geometric and floral ornaments are woven on thin brocade. On silver bowls, there are images of kings on the throne, battle scenes, dancers, fighting animals and sacred birds made by the technique of extrusion or appliqué. Fabrics, unlike silver dishes, are made in styles that came from the west. In addition, elegant bronze incense burners and wide-mouthed jugs were found, as well as clay items with bas-reliefs covered with brilliant glaze. The mixture of styles still does not allow us to accurately date the found objects and determine the place of manufacture of most of them.
Writing and science.
The oldest script in Iran is represented by as yet undeciphered inscriptions in the proto-Elamite language, which was spoken in Susa c. 3000 BC much more developed written languages The Mesopotamians quickly spread into Iran, and in Susa and the Iranian Highlands the Akkadian language was used for many centuries.
The Aryans who came to the Iranian Highlands brought with them Indo-European languages, different from the Semitic languages of Mesopotamia. In the Achaemenid period, royal inscriptions carved on rocks were parallel columns in Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian. Throughout the Achaemenid period, royal documents and private correspondence were either written in cuneiform on clay tablets or written on parchment. At the same time, at least three languages \u200b\u200bare in use - Old Persian, Aramaic and Elamite.
Alexander the Great introduced the Greek language, and his teachers taught about 30,000 young Persians from noble families the Greek language and military science. In the great campaigns, Alexander was accompanied by a large retinue of geographers, historians and scribes who recorded everything that happened day after day and got acquainted with the culture of all the peoples they met along the way. Particular attention was paid to navigation and the establishment of maritime communications. Greek language continued to be used under the Seleucids, while at the same time, the ancient Persian language was preserved in the Persepolis region. Greek served as the language of trade throughout the entire Parthian period, but the main language of the Iranian Highlands became Middle Persian, which represented a qualitatively new stage in the development of Old Persian. For many centuries Aramaic script, used for records in the Old Persian language, was transformed into the Pahlavi script with an undeveloped and inconvenient alphabet.
During the Sasanian period, Middle Persian became the official and main language of the inhabitants of the highlands. Its writing was based on a variant of the Pahlavi script known as the Pahlavi-Sasanian script. The sacred books of the Avesta were recorded in a special way - first in Zend, and then in the Avestan language.
In ancient Iran, science did not rise to the heights that it reached in neighboring Mesopotamia. The spirit of scientific and philosophical research awakened only in the Sasanian period. The most important works were translated from Greek, Latin and other languages. It was then that they were born Book of Great Deeds, Book of ranks, Iran countries and Book of Kings. Other works from this period have survived only in a later Arabic translation.
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In the middle of the VI century BC. That is, a hitherto little-known tribe, the Persians, entered the historical arena, who, by the will of fate, soon managed to create the greatest empire at that time, a powerful state that stretched from Egypt and Libya to the borders. In their conquests, the Persians were active and insatiable, and only courage and courage during the Greco-Persian wars managed to stop their further expansion into Europe. But who were the ancient Persians, what is their history, culture? Read about all this further in our article.
Where is Persia
But first, let's answer the question of where ancient Persia is located, or rather, where it was located. The territory of Persia at the time of its highest prosperity stretched from the borders of India in the East to modern Libya in North Africa and part of mainland Greece in the West (those lands that the Persians managed to conquer from the Greeks for a short time).
This is what ancient Persia looks like on a map.
History of Persia
The origin of the Persians is associated with the warlike nomadic tribes of the Aryans, some of which settled on the territory of the modern state of Iran (the word "Iran" itself comes from the ancient name "Ariana", which means "country of the Aryans"). Once on the fertile lands of the Iranian highlands, they switched from a nomadic lifestyle to a sedentary one, nevertheless, retaining their military traditions of nomads and the simplicity of morals characteristic of many nomadic tribes.
The history of ancient Persia as a great power of the past begins in the middle of the 6th century BC. e. when, under the leadership of a talented leader (later the Persian king) Cyrus II, the Persians first completely conquered Media, one of the large states of the then East. And then they began to threaten themselves, which at that time was the greatest power of antiquity.
And already in 539, near the city of Opis, on the Tiber River, a decisive battle took place between the armies of the Persians and the Babylonians, which ended in a brilliant victory for the Persians, the Babylonians were completely defeated, and Babylon itself, the greatest city of antiquity for many centuries, was part of the newly formed Persian empire. . In just a dozen years, the Persians from a seedy tribe turned into truly the rulers of the East.
Such a crushing success of the Persians, according to the Greek historian Herodotus, was facilitated, first of all, by the simplicity and modesty of the latter. And of course iron military discipline in their troops. Even having gained enormous wealth and power over many other tribes and peoples, the Persians continued to revere these virtues, simplicity and modesty most of all. It is interesting that during the coronation of the Persian kings, the future king had to put on the clothes of a simple person and eat a handful of dried figs, and drink a glass of sour milk - the food of commoners, which, as it were, symbolized his connection with the people.
But back to the history of the Persian Empire, the successors of Cyrus II, the Persian kings Cambyses and Darius, continued their active policy of conquest. Thus, under Cambyses, the Persians invaded ancient Egypt, which by that time was undergoing a political crisis. Having defeated the Egyptians, the Persians turned this cradle of ancient civilization, Egypt, into one of their satrapies (provinces).
King Darius actively strengthened the borders of the Persian state, both in the East and in the West, under his rule, ancient Persia reached the pinnacle of its power, almost the entire civilized world of that time was under its rule. With the exception of ancient greece in the West, which did not give rest to the warlike Persian kings, and soon the Persians, under the reign of King Xerxes, the heir of Darius, tried to subdue these wayward and freedom-loving Greeks, but that was not the case.
Despite the numerical superiority, military luck for the first time betrayed the Persians. In a number of battles, they suffered a series of crushing defeats from the Greeks, however, at some stage they managed to conquer a number of Greek territories and even sack Athens, but still the Greco-Persian wars ended in a crushing defeat for the Persian Empire.
From that moment on, the once great country entered a period of decline, the Persian kings who grew up in luxury increasingly forgot the former virtues of modesty and simplicity, which were so valued by their ancestors. Many conquered countries and peoples were just waiting for the moment to rise up against the hated Persians, their enslavers and conquerors. And such a moment has come - Alexander the Great, at the head of the united Greek army, has already attacked Persia himself.
It seemed that the Persian troops would wipe out this arrogant Greek (more precisely, not even quite a Greek - Macedonian) to powder, but everything turned out to be completely different, the Persians again suffer crushing defeats, one after another, a close-knit Greek phalanx, this tank of antiquity, over and over again crushes superior Persian forces. The peoples once conquered by the Persians, seeing what is happening, also rebel against their rulers, the Egyptians even meet the army of Alexander as liberators from the hated Persians. Persia turned out to be a real ear of clay with feet of clay, formidable in appearance, it was crushed thanks to the military and political genius of one Macedonian.
Sasanian state and Sasanian revival
The conquests of Alexander the Great turned out to be a disaster for the Persians, who, in order to replace their arrogant power over other peoples, had to humiliately submit to ancient enemies - the Greeks. Only in the II century BC. e. the tribes of the Parthians managed to expel the Greeks from Asia Minor, although the Parthians themselves adopted a lot of things from the Greeks. And in the year 226 of our era, a certain ruler of Pars with the ancient Persian name Ardashir (Artaxerxes) raised an uprising against the ruling Parthian dynasty. The uprising was successful and ended with the restoration of the Persian power, the Sassanid state, which historians call the "second Persian empire" or the "Sasanian revival".
The Sasanian rulers sought to revive the former greatness of ancient Persia, which at that time had already become a semi-legendary power. And it was under them that a new flowering of Iranian, Persian culture began, which everywhere displaces Greek culture. Temples are being actively built, new palaces in the Persian style, wars are being waged with neighbors, but not as successfully as in the old days. The territory of the new Sasanian state is several times smaller than the size of the former Persia, it is located only on the site of modern Iran, the actual ancestral home of the Persians and also covers part of the territory of modern Iraq, Azerbaijan and Armenia. The Sasanian state existed for more than four centuries, until exhausted by continuous wars, it was finally conquered by the Arabs, who carried the banner of a new religion - Islam.
culture of persia
The culture of ancient Persia is most notable for their system of government, which was admired even by the ancient Greeks. In their opinion, this form of government was the pinnacle of monarchical rule. The Persian state was divided into so-called satrapies, headed by the satrap itself, which means “guardian of order”. In fact, the satrap was a local governor-general, whose broad duties included maintaining order in the territories entrusted to him, collecting taxes, administering justice, and commanding local military garrisons.
Another important achievement of Persian civilization was the beautiful roads described by Herodotus and Xenophon. The most famous was the royal road running from Ephesus in Asia Minor to the city of Susa in the East.
The post office also functioned well in ancient Persia, which was also facilitated by good roads. Also in ancient Persia, trade was very developed, a well-thought-out tax system similar to the modern one functioned throughout the state, in which part of the taxes and taxes went to conditional local budgets, while part went to the central government. Persian kings had a monopoly on the minting of gold coins, while their satraps could also mint their own coins, but only silver or copper. The “local money” of the satraps circulated only in a certain territory, while the gold coins of the Persian kings were a universal means of payment throughout the Persian empire and even beyond.
Coins of Persia.
Writing in ancient Persia had an active development, so there were several types of it: from pictograms to the alphabet invented in its time. The official language of the Persian kingdom was Aramaic, coming from the ancient Assyrians.
The art of ancient Persia is represented by local sculpture and architecture. For example, bas-reliefs of Persian kings skillfully carved in stone have survived to this day.
Persian palaces and temples were famous for their luxurious decoration.
Here is an image of a Persian master.
Unfortunately, other forms of ancient Persian art have not come down to us.
Religion of Persia
The religion of ancient Persia is represented by a very interesting religious doctrine - Zoroastrianism, named so thanks to the founder of this religion, the sage, the prophet (and possibly the magician) Zoroaster (aka Zarathushtra). At the heart of the teachings of Zoroastrianism lies the eternal opposition of good and evil, where the good beginning is represented by the god Ahura Mazda. The wisdom and revelation of Zarathushtra are presented in the sacred book of Zoroastrianism - the Zend-Avesta. In fact, this religion of the ancient Persians has a lot in common with other monotheistic later religions, such as Christianity and Islam:
- Belief in a single God, which among the Persians was actually represented by Ahura Mazda. The antipode of God, the Devil, Satan in the Christian tradition in Zoroastrianism is represented by the demon Druj, personifying evil, lies, destruction.
- Availability scripture, Zend-Avesta among the Zoroastrian Persians, like the Koran among the Muslims and the Bible among the Christians.
- The presence of a prophet, Zoroaster-Zarathushtra, through whom divine wisdom is transmitted.
- The moral and ethical component of the doctrine, so Zoroastrianism preaches (however, like other religions) the renunciation of violence, theft, murder. For an unrighteous and sinful path in the future, according to Zarathustra, a person after death will end up in hell, while a person who performs good deeds after death will stay in paradise.
In a word, as we can see, the ancient Persian religion of Zoroastrianism is strikingly different from the pagan religions of many other peoples, and is very similar in nature to the later global religions of Christianity and Islam, and by the way, it still exists today. After the fall of the Sassanian state, the final collapse of Persian culture and religion in particular occurred, since the conquering Arabs carried the banner of Islam with them. Many Persians also converted to Islam at this time and assimilated with the Arabs. But there was a part of the Persians who wanted to remain true to their ancient religion of Zoroastrianism, fleeing the religious persecution of Muslims, they fled to India, where they have preserved their religion and culture to this day. Now they are known under the name of the Parsis, on the territory of modern India and today there are many Zoroastrian temples, as well as adherents of this religion, real descendants of the ancient Persians.
Ancient Persia, video
And in conclusion, an interesting documentary about ancient Persia - "The Persian Empire - an empire of greatness and wealth."
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The Persian Empire was a centralized monarchical state. The successes and defeats of the Persians depended on the personal qualities of the king and his ability to make the right decisions. The main turns in Persian foreign policy are connected with the decisions that the kings made. Even the most powerful satraps, commanders and rulers of vassal regions depended on the mercy of the Achaemenids. The main stages in the history of the Persian Empire can be associated with the activities of its supreme rulers, who ruled the state from Persepolis.
First Achaemenids. The royal family from which Cyrus II and Darius I emerged ruled the Persians at least from the 7th century BC. Achaemenes, who reigned at the turn of the 8th-7th centuries BC, was considered its founder. The next king was his son Chishpish (Teisp).
It is known that in the 7th century BC. was the king of Persia Cyrus I. In the first half of the VI century BC. The Persians were ruled by Cambyses I, and after him the throne was inherited by his son named Cyrus.
Cyrus II ruled in 559-530. BC. This ruler was able to become the founder of a world empire from the king of little Persia. He conquered Media, Babylonia, Asia Minor and its Greek cities, vast lands in Central Asia. Cyrus allowed the Jews who had been driven to Mesopotamia after the Babylonian conquest to return to their homeland.
Cambyses II(530-522 BC). He was the closest associate of his father Cyrus. For several months during the life of his father, he ruled as king of Babylon. Before the last campaign against the Massagetae, Cambyses became co-ruler of Cyrus.
In 525-522 BC. King Cambyses II organized an invasion and subjugated Egypt. He was proclaimed king of this country in accordance with Egyptian tradition and is considered the founder of the XXVI dynasty.
Herodotus created the image of Cambyses as a cruel and insane tyrant, mocking the religious traditions of the Egyptians. Authentic texts do not confirm this, emphasizing the king's respect for the Egyptian religion.
Darius I(522-486 BC). Achieved power after the turmoil that followed the death of Cambyses. He overthrew the usurper Bardia and crushed the uprisings. Reorganized the system of satrapies. Under Darius I, the borders of the empire reached their maximum: northwestern India, part of Thrace, the Greek islands in the Aegean were conquered.
Artaxex I(465-424 BC). Under this king, the wars with the Greeks ended. He managed to maintain control over the rebellious Egypt and Cyprus. He began a policy of cooperation with the Greek policies for the benefit of Persia.
Artaxerxes II(404-359 BC). Soon after coming to power, he suppressed the uprising of his brother Cyrus the Younger, who spoke to Babylon. Under Artaxex II, Persia actively interfered in the affairs of the Greek policies, supporting alternately different policies so that the Greeks could not become dangerous.
In 386 BC. in alliance with Sparta, he dictated to the Greeks the Antalkid (Royal) peace, according to which the Hellenic policies of Ionia and Aeolis returned to the Achaemenid Empire. In 375, 371, 366 BC. with the participation of Artaxerxes II, new peace treaties were concluded between the Greek policies. In 391-382 BC. subjugated the strong ruler of Cyprus, Evagoras.
Artaxex III(359-338 BC). He continued his father's policy regarding the Greek policies. In 355 BC. intervened in the Allied War of Athens against Byzantium, Rhodes and Chios. He promised these policies support against Athens and achieved the conclusion of a peace according to which Byzantium, Rhodes and Chios left the union led by Athens.
In 349-344 BC. crushed uprisings in Phoenicia. During the campaigns of 344-342 BC. the commanders of Artaxerxes again conquered Egypt, which had detached at the end of the 5th century BC.
Darius III(336-330 BC). He was a representative of the side branch of the royal house, raising the origin to Darius II. Before coming to power, he was the governor of Armenia under the name Kodoman. Received the throne in adulthood as a result of a conspiracy organized by the court eunuch. Alexander the Great invaded during his reign. After a series of defeats and the loss of the capital, Darius was killed by his close associates.
After the death of most of the kings in Persia, revolts shook the empire. Satraps and dependent rulers tried to break away from the central empire, and representatives of the side branches of the Achaemenids to take the throne. To keep power from the king, determination, cruelty and the gift of a politician were required.
The activity of the kings from the Achaemenid family was connected, first of all, with the acquisition of new lands and the desire to keep the conquered ones in subjection.
- OK. 1300 BC e. The Medes and Persians found their settlements.
- OK. 700-600 AD BC e. - the creation of the Median and Persian kingdoms.
- Achaemenid Empire (550-330 BC);
- 559-530 BC e. - Reign of Cyrus II in Persia.
- 550 BC e. Cyrus II defeats the Medes.
- 522-486 BC e. - the reign of Darius I in Persia. Rise of the Persian Empire.
- 490-479 BC e. Persians are at war with Greece
- 486-465 BC e. - The reign of Xerxes I in Persia.
- 331-330 BC e. - Conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great. The burning of Persepolis.
- The Parthian kingdom or the Arsacid Empire (250 BC - 227 AD).
- Sassanid state or Sassanid Empire (226-651 AD). material from the site
Persia is the old name for the country we now call Iran. Around 1300 BC. e. two tribes invaded its territory: the Medes and the Persians. They founded two kingdoms: Median - in the north, Persian - in the south.
In 550 BC. e. The Persian king Cyrus II, having inflicted a defeat on the Medes, seized their lands and created a colossal power. Years later, during the reign of King Darius I, Persia becomes the largest state in the world.
For many years Persia was at war with Greece. The Persians won several victories, but in the end their army was defeated. Upon the death of Darius' son, Xerxes I, the state lost its former strength. In 331 BC. e. Persia was conquered by Alexander the Great.
Darius I
Politics
King Darius I, collecting taxes from the conquered peoples, became fabulously rich. He allowed the population to adhere to their beliefs and way of life, as long as they regularly paid tribute.
Darius divided the huge state into regions, which were supposed to be managed by local rulers, satraps. The officials who looked after the satraps ensured that the latter remained loyal to the king.
Construction
Darius I built good roads throughout the empire. Now the messengers could move faster. The royal road stretched for 2700 km from Sardis in the west to the capital city of Susa.
Darius used some of his wealth to build a magnificent palace at Persepolis. During the celebration of the New Year, officials from all over the empire came to the palace with gifts for the king. The main hall, where the king received his subjects, could accommodate 10 thousand people. Inside the front hall was decorated with gold, silver, ivory and ebony (black) wood. The top of the columns was decorated with bull heads, and the stairs were decorated with carvings. During the gathering of guests for various holidays, people brought with them gifts to the king: vessels with golden sand, golden and silver goblets, ivory, fabrics and golden bracelets, lion cubs, camels, etc. The arrivals waited in the courtyard.
The Persians were followers of the prophet Zarathustra (or Zoroaster), who taught that there was only one god. The fire was sacred, and therefore the priests did not allow the sacred fire to go out.