Revolution of 1848-49 in Hungary, a bourgeois revolution, the tasks of which were to eliminate the feudal serf system and national oppression in the country, and to win national independence for Hungary. Appeared final stage pan-European Revolution of 1848-49. Its main driving forces were peasants, artisans, the urban poor, and workers. It began on March 15, 1848, with a popular uprising in Pest, which flared up under the influence of news of the victory of the revolution in Vienna. In the course of the uprising, led by S. Petőfi and P. Vashvari, a program of bourgeois-democratic reforms ("Twelve Points") was adopted at the people's meetings, power passed into the hands of the Committee of Public Salvation created from representatives of the democratic forces. Soon, detachments of the National Guard were organized. At the call of the committee, popular uprisings took place in Szeged, Gyor, Miskolc, and other cities and regions, and organs of revolutionary power arose. On March 17, Emperor Ferdinand I (Hungarian King Ferdinand V) was forced to appoint an "independent and responsible Hungarian government" headed by Count L. Batthyani. The government included representatives of the land magnates and the middle nobility - I. Széchenyi, F. Deak, L. Meszaros, the Democrats were represented by L. Kossuth, who received the post of Minister of Finance. On March 18, the State Assembly carried out a number of bourgeois reforms (the abolition of serfdom, corvée and tithes, monetary payments, the landlord court, etc.), and established universal taxation. However, these laws were accompanied by reservations that depreciated them. The National Assembly declared the independence of Hungary in financial and military matters, but Hungary remained connected to the empire by a common monarch from the Habsburg dynasty. Under the new electoral law, the right to vote was not granted to the rural and urban poor, a significant part of the non-Hungarian population (for elected deputies, knowledge of the Hungarian language was mandatory). The incomplete resolution of the issue of the country's independence and the reforms did not satisfy the masses. From March to August 1848, protests were held by the working people of the city and countryside (the most active were in Pest, under the slogan: "Bread for the people!"). The "Workers' Newspaper" ("Munkásokujsága"), founded by M. Tancic, became a platform for the urban and rural poor. The peasant movement was growing, covering by the end of April 29 counties out of 72. An anti-feudal and national movement of the non-Hungarian peoples of the Kingdom of Hungary developed. In Croatia, Transylvania, Slavonia, Transcarpathia, the peasants seized and divided the landlords' lands. However, the Batthyani government refused to recognize the national autonomy of Croatia, proclaimed on June 5, 1848 by the Croatian Council, as well as the national demands of the Serbs of Vojvodina and the Slovak people. In the Hungarian National Assembly, which opened on July 5, 1848, the upper chamber, which consisted of representatives of the landed magnates and the new administration of the committees, occupied reactionary positions. The majority of the lower chamber (400 people) also advocated an alliance with the Habsburgs. Only a group of left-wing deputies (30-40 people), headed by L. and I. Madaras, M. Perzel adhered to the anti-Habsburg line. The vacillating position of the Batthyani government on peasant and national questions, on the organization of revolutionary defense, and others, aroused widespread dissatisfaction among the masses. Under the onslaught of revolutionary forces on July 11, the State Assembly decided to create a Hungarian national army (Konved). Using the desire of the Croatian bourgeois-noble circles to implement their national-political program with the help of military force, the Habsburgs supported the Croatian ban (ruler) I. Jelachich, who declared war on Hungary on September 7, 1848. On September 11, Jelacic's army invaded Hungary. On September 21, the Committee for the Defense of the Motherland was formed, headed by Kossuth. On September 29, the Hungarian revolutionary troops defeated the Jelachich army near the village. Pakozd. In October, after the resignation of the Batthyani government in September, Kossuth was elected ruler of the state. The reactionary elements of the Hungarian army and the State Assembly, contrary to the order of Kossuth, prevented the entry of Hungarian troops into Austrian territory to complete the defeat of the counter-revolutionary Croatian troops and help the revolutionary forces of Vienna. Having crushed the October uprising in Vienna, in December 1848 the Habsburgs sent their main forces against revolutionary Hungary. On January 5, 1849, Austrian troops occupied Pest. The Homeland Defense Committee and the State Assembly moved to Debrecen. The Committee for the Defense of the Motherland carried out a number of measures to equip the army (up to 100 thousand people) and to equip it. A galaxy of talented commanders advanced: D. Klapka, N. Sandor and others. On the territory of Hungary unfolded partisan movement. Detachments of revolutionary youth arrived from Austria to defend the revolution. Military units were formed from volunteers of the non-Hungarian population. Many Polish revolutionaries and military leaders (J. Bem, G. Dembinski, and others) joined the Hungarian army. In February 1849, the imperial troops launched an offensive against Debrecen. On February 26-27, a fierce battle took place, which ended inconclusively for both sides. In April 1849, the Hungarian troops inflicted a number of defeats on the imperial troops, almost completely clearing the territory of Hungary from them. On April 14, 1849, the State Assembly adopted the "Declaration of Independence", according to which the Habsburgs were declared deposed. The liberal nobility, frightened by the growing activity of the people, openly called for an end to the revolution and an agreement with the Habsburgs. The Hungarian government formed on May 2, 1849, headed by B. Semere, pursued a policy of condoning the counter-revolutionary nobility. The command of the Hungarian army in the person of A. Görgey and others paralyzed its activity. On April 21, 1849, Emperor Franz Joseph turned to Nicholas I with a request for help against revolutionary Hungary. In May 1849 tsarism launched an armed intervention against the Hungarian revolution. On August 13, 1849, at Vilagos, the main forces of the revolutionary troops, led by Gergely, surrendered to the commander of the troops tsarist Russia I. F. Paskevich. A few weeks later the revolution was crushed. Despite the defeat, R. 1848-1849 dealt a blow to the feudal-serf system in Hungary. Its patriotic and revolutionary traditions inspired the Hungarian people in the subsequent struggle for freedom and independence.
After the suppression of the revolution, a military dictatorship unfolded in Hungary. On October 6, Battyani was executed in Pest, and on October 13, in Arad, 13 generals of the Hungarian army were executed. Over 1,500 people were sentenced to long prison terms. Censorship and police surveillance of dissidents was revived in the country. Hungarian self-government was abolished, and the absolute power of the center was established. In 1851, the Octroized Constitution was abolished. The entire territory of the kingdom was divided into several administrative districts, abolishing committee meetings. Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, Banat and Vojvodina were separated from Hungary and formed separate units subordinated to Vienna. German became the only official language of the Kingdom of Hungary.
Despite the brutal repressions and curtailment of the reforms of the Hungarian Revolution, it played a colossal role in the history of the country. The emancipation of the peasants and the elimination of feudalism were confirmed in 1853 by the agrarian reform in the Austrian Empire. Economic transformations became the impetus for the rapid capitalist development of the country. The democratic conquests and the national upsurge of the Hungarian revolution were also not in vain, but became the basis of new liberal movements that arose in the 1850s, which led the country to gain sovereignty and transform the empire in 1867 into a dual Austro-Hungarian monarchy with an independent parliament and responsible ministry. Leaders of the Hungarian Revolution 1848-1849 (Kossuth, Petofi, Bem, Battyani) became the national heroes of Hungary, serving as an example for new generations of Hungarian youth to follow.
March 15th Hungarian public holiday is celebrated - the day of the beginning of the revolution of 1848-49.
It was on this day that the youth and urban intelligentsia, under the influence of the “Twelve Points” program of J. Irini and the “National Song” of S. Petofi, raised an uprising in Pest.
Power passed into the hands of the Committee of Public Safety formed from representatives of various democratic circles and clubs, which abolished censorship and announced the creation of a national guard.
18th of March The Batthyani government passed a law abolishing corvée and transferring land to peasants.
In August the emperor canceled the laws adopted by the Hungarian parliament and government. A crisis broke out that turned into a war.
In September 1848 at the call of the Committee for the Defense of the Motherland, led by L. Kossuth, a revolutionary national army was formed, which inflicted a number of defeats on the Austrian and Croatian troops.
Spring 1849 The revolutionary army liberated most of Hungary and all of Transylvania.
April 14, 1849 in Debrecen, the Hungarian parliament proclaimed the complete independence of Hungary from the Habsburgs and announced their deposition from the Hungarian throne. Kossuth was elected supreme ruler of Hungary.
However, the conservative elements of the nobility and the aristocracy, seeking an agreement with the Habsburgs, sabotaged the efforts of Kossuth and the radical wing to strengthen the country's defense capability. This enabled the Austrian reaction to gain a respite, to save its own forces from final defeat, and to turn to tsarist Russia for help. The Austrian envoy publicly, on his knees, kissed the hand of Field Marshal Paskevich, begging to save the power of the Habsburgs. Help, at the direction of Nicholas I, was provided, and the 140,000-strong army of Paskevich invaded Hungary.
August 13, 1849 Gergely, the commander of the largest remnants of the Hungarian army, in view of the senselessness of the inevitable bloodshed, capitulated at the Vilagos fortress to the Russian troops. The fate of the participants in the revolution was tragic. The first prime minister, Batthyani, was shot, followed and prevented from committing suicide before his execution.
In total, the Austrians shot and hanged 13 generals and 400 soldiers. 1,500 activists were sentenced to long terms.
Petofi Sandor, who fought in the army of General Bem, died in one of the last battles in a skirmish with the Cossacks. His grave has not been found, although according to one of the legends, it is located on the shore of Lake Baikal.
But the blood of the revolutionaries was not shed in vain, and over the following years, most of the demands of the rebels came true.
BUT in 1867 The dual Austro-Hungarian Empire was formed, where Hungary was equalized in rights with Austria.
In 1941, on the eve of the Great Patriotic War, The Soviet government returned to Hungary the revolutionary banners captured by Paskevich's Russian army in 1849.
And the suppression of the rebellion
Russian empire Russian empire
Hungarian Revolution of 1848 was a local version of the pan-European revolution, complicated by the acute crisis of the Austrian Empire and the growth of the national consciousness of the Hungarians. The main slogans of the Hungarian revolution were the decentralization of the Austrian Empire, democratization and Magyarization. The driving force behind the revolution was the liberal middle nobility and urban intelligentsia. However, the Magyarization policy ran into the resistance of the Slavic peoples, led to an increase in interethnic tension and a large-scale war, in which Russia (Paskevich's expeditionary force) was involved. As a result, the revolution was defeated. Hungary's independence was delayed for 70 years, and the Hungarians lost their positions in Transylvania, Slovakia and Vojvodina.
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Subtitles
Prerequisites
Socio-political position of Hungary
National movements on the eve of the revolution
| revolutions 1848-1849 years |
|---|
| France |
| Austrian Empire : |
| Austria |
| Hungary |
| Czech Republic |
| Croatia |
| Vojvodina |
| Transylvania |
| Slovakia |
| Galicia |
| Slovenia |
| Dalmatia and Istria |
| Lombardy and Venice |
| Germany |
| South Prussia (Greater Poland) |
| Italian states: |
| Sicily |
| Neapolitan kingdom |
| Papal States |
| Tuscany |
| Piedmont and duchies |
| Poland |
| Wallachia and Moldavia |
| Brazil |
At the same time, in the 1830s began a stormy upsurge of the national movement. Istvan Szechenyi came up with the idea of a broad renewal of the country, primarily in the economic sphere, and the dismantling of the feudal system. Szechenyi's speeches received great public outcry and prompted many Hungarian nobles to engage in political activities. Miklos Veshshelenyi went even further and put forward the idea of eliminating absolutism and creating a constitutional monarchy in Hungary. Liberal ideas quickly spread among the nobility, especially the middle class, and the intelligentsia. By the end of the 1830s. several currents of the national movement developed: the “new conservatives” (Aurel Dezhevfi, György Appony, Shama Yoshik and Istvan Szechenyi) advocated certain democratic reforms while strengthening centralization and maintaining the dominance of the aristocracy; liberals (Lajos Battyani, Ferenc Deak, Lajos Kossuth and, in part, Josef Eötvös) demanded the complete elimination of feudal remnants, the introduction of democratic freedoms, the expansion of Hungary's autonomy and the transformation of the country into a parliamentary monarchy. Later, a more radical movement of students and part of the intelligentsia arose, concentrating around the Young Hungary group (Sandor Petofi, Pal Vasvari and Mihai Tancic) and speaking from the standpoint of republicanism and the need for an armed uprising.
A feature of the Hungarian liberal movement was the fact that the bearer of the ideas of democratic reforms and the driving force of the revolution was the nobility. This was due to the underdevelopment of cities in Hungary, the weakness of the bourgeoisie and the historically established role of the nobility as a defender of the rights and freedoms of the Hungarian nation against foreign domination. Another essential feature of the movement was the inattention to the national question: the liberals believed that democratic reforms and the assertion of the priority of individual freedom would make unnecessary the corporate rights of national minorities, which they considered a relic of the feudal system. This belief in the conditions of the Kingdom of Hungary, in which representatives of the titular nation made up only 38% of the population, threatened with a surge in national conflicts. In parallel with the development of the Hungarian movement, the self-consciousness of other peoples of the country - Croats, Serbs, Slovaks, Romanians and Rusyns, was strengthened, often contradicting the interests of the Hungarians.
Reform attempts and their failure
At the state meeting - Messrs. the liberals succeeded in obtaining an amnesty for political prisoners, expanding the scope of the Hungarian language in the administration, and approving the possibility of emancipating the peasants for a ransom. In the 1840s a whole network of societies for social protection, mutual assistance, and support for domestic industry arose throughout the country. The newspaper became famous Peshti khirlap”, published by L. Kossuth and spreading the ideas of the immediate release of the peasants and the introduction of universal taxation. In the city of Vienna, the government handed over the reins of control of Hungary to the new conservatives: D. Apponyi was appointed Vice-Chancellor of the Kingdom of Hungary, and S. Yoshik - of Transylvania. At the same time, centralization was strengthened, and the powers of administrators and feishpans, representatives of the central government in committees, were expanded. The new state assembly that opened in the city, however, reached an impasse due to contradictions between liberals and conservatives and could not decide on reforms.
The beginning of the revolution
On March 18, 1848, the State Assembly of Hungary approved a whole range of reforms. A law on urbarial duties was adopted, which abolished corvée, landlord court, church tithes and other feudal vestiges. Serfdom was abolished, and the land was transferred to the ownership of the peasants, and the redemption payments to the landowners were to be paid by the state. The implementation of this reform led to the elimination of feudalism in agrarian relations and opened the way for the transition of Hungarian agriculture to capitalist rails. A law was also passed introducing universal taxation and depriving the nobility and clergy of tax privileges. Freedom of the press, inviolability of the person and property, equality of Christian denominations, the responsibility of the government to parliament were introduced, suffrage was expanded (up to 7-9% of the population), and the state assembly was to be convened annually from now on. The union of Hungary and Transylvania was proclaimed.
Radicalization of Hungary
Based on the National Guard created in the first days of the revolution, the Hungarian government began to create its own army. This caused a conflict with Vienna demanding Hungarian soldiers to put down the revolution in Italy. Batthany agreed to send part of the Hungarian army contingents to the Italian front, on the condition that the king pacify Jelacic and the Serbs and undertake not to use Hungarian soldiers to suppress the freedoms of the Italian people.
Kossuth appointed Artur Görgey as commander-in-chief of the Hungarian rebel army. He rapidly began training troops and preparing for combat operations. At the same time, the Defense Committee began to recruit recruits and organize the military industry. By the spring of the year, the Hungarian army had reached 170,000 men.
In December 1848 successful actions revolutionary army led by a Polish immigrant
Hungary in the first half of the 19th century was one of the most powerful countries in Europe, constantly suffering from minority uprisings and crises. An attempt to change the existing state of affairs was the revolution of 1848-1849, which in Europe was called the "Spring of Nations". The rise of national liberation uprisings in Central Europe began with the Czechs, spreading to other peoples, including the Hungarians. It was possible to calm the rebels only with the help of Russian troops.
Socio-economic development of Hungary in the first half of the XIX century.
Kingdom during the first four decades of the 19th century. was dominated by the system of absolutism. But, if in the early 1800s. absolutism met the conditions of that time, then by the 1840s. the situation began to change. The population of the country no longer perceived the existing order, wanting to carry out reforms. The need for transformation was also understood in Vienna, which exercised control over the internal and external development of the Kingdom of Hungary. However, the Austrian monarchy did not at all seek to change the existing order in the political and administrative spheres.
The main trends in the development of the kingdom before the "Spring of Nations" include:
- The preserved bureaucratic system.
- Total control of Austria over all spheres of life.
- Constant persecution of those who disagree with the Habsburg regime.
- The police and censorship authorities punished anyone who opposed the existing regime.
- Taxes and fees in the empire were established in accordance with the interests of Austrian industry.
- The kingdom was used as a raw material appendage of the Austrian Empire. All raw materials were exported to Austria and the Czech Republic, which by the 1840s. began to develop economically.
- unresolved peasant question. The kingdom was still dominated by the system of serfdom, the willfulness of the landowners, the peasants lived very poor, feudal relations hindered the development of agriculture.
- The agrarian nature of the country's economy.
- Constant increase in fees for peasants.
- In the political, economic and social spheres, the dominance of old traditions and customs was observed.
Thus, Hungary was completely controlled by Vienna, which forbade the convening of the State Duma of the kingdom. State language Latin remained, the Hungarians could not at all influence internal politics took a limited part in the work of local self-government bodies (committees).
The rise of national consciousness
Despite the crisis in the socio-economic sphere and the total control of Austria over all spheres of life of the Kingdom of Hungary, in the 1830s. national movements of the Hungarians and the peoples they conquered developed in the state.
Hungarian Revolution 1848-1849 led to two main points:
- First, the rise of the national liberation movement among the Hungarians began.
- Secondly, attempts were made to carry out reforms. Although they failed, their effect had a positive effect on the revolutionary consciousness of the Hungarian population.
The resonance in public life began with the speeches of István Széczenia and Miklós Veshsheleni, who demanded to renew the structure of the country, the economy, to eliminate feudalism, absolutism, and the introduction of a constitutional monarchy in Hungary. Ideas were picked up by representatives of the nobility and the intelligentsia. By the end of the 1830s, several currents of the national Hungarian movement already existed in the country. Interestingly enough, the nobles became the bearers of ideas about democratic reforms and the main force of the future revolution. Historians explain this state of affairs by the following factors:
- Poor urban development in Hungary.
- The weakness of the new class - the bourgeoisie.
- The nobles expressed the interests of the rights and freedoms of the Hungarian nation.
The liberals, like the nobles, practically ignored the solution of the national question. It was believed that the implementation of democratic reforms and the introduction of the right to personal freedom would relieve tension in society and make it unnecessary to introduce rights for national minorities. This was clearly a miscalculation, since the Hungarians were a clear minority in the state. At the end of the 1830s they numbered only 38% in the kingdom. The remaining percentages are national minorities, which were numerically larger than representatives of the titular nation. Therefore, the Hungarians "missed" the moment when the national identity of the Croats, Serbs, Rusyns, Slovaks, Romanians, Czechs began to actively form. Their demands did not meet the aspirations and interests of the Hungarians.
Separately, it is worth mentioning the attempts to carry out democratic reforms. They started at the state meeting in 1839-1840, when the liberals obtained the following concessions from the government:
- Amnesty for political prisoners.
- Expansion of the sphere of use of the Hungarian language.
- The output of peasants from serfdom through the system of redemption.
As a result, various social organizations began to appear offering protection and support to the Hungarians, and industry began to develop. On the eve of the revolution itself, Vienna transferred all administration in the kingdom to the Hungarian conservative government. More reforms were needed, but the decision was never made, because. in 1847 liberals and conservatives could not agree among themselves at the state meeting.
What triggered the revolution?
There were many prerequisites that caused the rise of the national self-consciousness of the Hungarians. The main ones among them are:
- The dominance of the Austrian and the Austrians wherever possible in Hungary.
- The presence of a personal union between Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary.
- The economic backwardness of Hungary.
- The crisis in the economy, to which Vienna tried not to pay attention.
- The gradual formation of the national liberation movement.
The reasons for the "Spring of Nations" were deeper and more ambitious. Firstly, the population was dissatisfied with Austrian Chancellor Metternich. Secondly, different groups of the population demanded reforms that would be able to defeat feudalism and crisis phenomena. Thirdly, the nobles sought to obtain the independence of Hungary. Fourth, the elimination of national oppression.
Features and driving forces
The Hungarian national movement was not a unique phenomenon. Similar events took place in other regions of Europe, including Austria. The revolution in the kingdom was closely connected with all the events that took place in the monarchy.
By its nature, it was a democratic, national and liberation war, which was supposed to solve national and peasant issues.
The main participants of the Hungarian "Spring of Nations" were:
- Workers.
- Students.
- Intelligentsia.
- Liberals.
- part of the nobility.
- Artisans.
Despite the involvement of almost all social groups society, the revolution was unfinished and contradictory. On the one hand, it gave the peoples of the kingdom a chance for self-determination. On the other hand, national pressure and the monarchy were not eliminated.
Main events
The beginning of the revolution was an uprising in March 1848 in Buda, and then in Pest. By that time, these two cities were separated, only in 1872 Buda and Pest were united into one settlement.
In mid-March 1848, an uprising began in Pest, the participants of which demanded the granting of democratic freedoms. The revolution was led by the radicals, who demanded that the government abolish the serf system and labor for peasants for feudal lords, withdrew Austrian troops from Hungary, and gave the country more powers.
The emperor of Austria was forced to accept the demands of the Hungarian opposition, as a result of which the first national Hungarian government was formed. It included Kossuth, one of the active figures of the revolution. Under his pressure, all duties for the peasants in Hungary were canceled, which was the first step towards the complete abolition of the serf system.
The truce with Austria did not last long and already in September 1848 an armed struggle broke out between the Hungarians against Austria. Parliament dissolved the old government and created a new one headed by Kossuth. The emperor responded quite harshly to such actions of revolutionary and recalcitrant Hungary - the military operations of the empire against the rebellious kingdom began. Among the main events is the autumn of 1848 - the summer of 1849. can be distinguished:
- October 1848 - Austrian invasion of Hungary, resulting in the capture in January 1849 of Buda and Pest.
- Hungary was turned into a province of the Austrian Empire.
- Decisions of the Hungarian parliament adopted in 1848 were canceled.
- March 1849 - the Hungarian counteroffensive, the expulsion of Austria from the kingdom.
- April 1849 - Hungary becomes an independent republic, the Habsburg dynasty realized that they had lost control of the country and the right to occupy the throne in the former kingdom.
- Kossuth became president, carried out internal reforms, the main of which was the military. The creation of a 170,000-strong army allowed Kossuth with troops to launch an offensive against Vienna.
As happens in such conflicts, there was no consensus among the leadership of Hungary and the army regarding the campaigns and the conquest of Austria. If the aristocracy strove for peace and negotiations with the Habsburgs, then the nobles and peasants wanted to completely get rid of Austrian domination. The situation was worsened by the fact that the nobles did not want to cancel the duties for serfs for free, they demanded that equal rights be not established for Hungarians, Croats, Ukrainians, Slovaks, Serbs.
The President of the country, Kossuth, hesitated in resolving national and peasant issues, and while he was thinking, the campaign against Vienna failed. This pause took advantage of the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph II. He turned to Nicholas II with a request for help. This decision of the Habsburg dynasty was fatal for Hungary. Russian army numbering 200 thousand people was sent to Hungary. There they united with the Austrians and began a joint campaign against the rebels.
Numerical superiority, lack of unity, internal strife contributed to the fact that the Hungarians lost a number of important battles. Kossuth in such conditions made concessions for the peasants, declaring the equality of all nations in the country, but it was too late.
The capitulation of Hungary took place on August 13, 1849, 9 generals were taken prisoner, many soldiers, weapons and armaments.
Results and consequences
The revolution in Hungary did not fully achieve its aims and tasks. The struggle for independence and independence turned out to be unfinished, as the domination of the Habsburgs in Hungary continued, and the monarchy was also not abolished. Due to the disorganization of the rebels, the indecision of the leadership of Hungary, the lack of clear tasks for the revolution led to the fact that the joint efforts of Austria and Russia were able to suppress the growing national movement in Central Europe. It is also worth taking into account the fact that there were serious national contradictions within the country, which were constantly deepening. The national question was not the main thing for the Habsburgs who rebelled against the power. The aristocrats and nobles only wanted to free themselves from total Austrian control, while retaining their property and rights to the peasants. The latter no longer wanted to work out unbearable feudal duties, so they became active participants in the revolution. But the lack of experience and organization among the peasants, leaders reflecting their interests, led to the fact that the interests of peasants and urban residents were not taken into account by other social groups.
To the negative results of the events of 1848-1849. relate:
- Massacre of the high military command of the Hungarian army.
- Harsh reprisals against the peasants.
- Carrying out punitive expeditions and military courts.
- Mass arrests and executions of participants in the revolution.
There are also positive moments in the Hungarian revolution. First, it gave a powerful impetus to the development of national movements of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula and Central and Eastern Europe. Secondly, reforms began to be carried out in order to relieve social tension and eliminate the economic crisis. This gave impetus to the rapid development of industry, production, and the formation of market relations. Thirdly, Hungary was "heard". The Austrian monarchy, after almost two decades, went on to create a dual Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867). Fourthly, serfdom and feudal obligations were abolished.