Scientific and practical journal
udk 34 on the issue of the influence of the Golden Horde on the development of the state of Rus
Tsirulnikov Igor Sergeevich, student of the Murom Institute (branch) of Vladimir State University named after A. G. and N. G. Stoletovs
Annotation: The article deals with the question of the influence of the Golden Horde on the development of the state of Rus, describes the concepts of a number of historians and authors on this issue with references to their works describing their opinion and arguments on a particular position. Key words: Golden Horde, Russia, positive influence, insignificant influence, negative influence, concepts of historians.
The question of the influence of the Golden Horde on Russia, more precisely, in determining the nature of this influence, has been and remains open and debatable. There is still no common position. Why can't historians reach consensus on the question raised earlier? There are many reasons: a huge time difference, a small amount of accurate information and documents to establish the nature of influence, different arguments of the historians themselves. All this gave the basis for differences in the positions of different historians of different times. But the debatability of this issue allows us to consider it from different sides and points of view, to evaluate both positive and negative aspects,
which is very important for analyzing the issue of the influence of the Horde on Russia. This topic is very important both for studying it by historians and for society as a whole, since the process contained in the question was very long and left a huge imprint on Russia in various aspects: political, social, spiritual. Therefore, the study of this issue should not be suspended or reduced to "no", since the analysis of that time to resolve the issue will help to find out more information about Russia at that time, about how Russia developed and what was the influence of the Horde on this development: the oppression of Iga, diplomatic cooperation or little
About a question of influence of the Golden Horde on development of the state of Russia
Tsirul"nikov Igor" Sergeevich student of the Murom Institute (branch) of Vladimir State University named after A. G. and N. G. Stoletovs
Annotation: In the article the question of influence of the Golden Horde on development of the state of Russia is considered, concepts of a number of historians and authors on the matter with references to their works describing their opinion and arguments on this or that position are described. Keywords: Golden Horde, Russia, positive influence, insignificant influence, negative influence, concepts of historians.
significant for the development of Russia as a state. It is these three positions of historians that will be analyzed below. But it is worth noting that these three "camps" of positions are not final and generally accepted. The question is debatable, and therefore there are much more positions of historians.
Let's formulate them as follows:
1) the predominantly positive influence of the Golden Horde on Russia;
2) insignificant influence of the Golden Horde on Russia;
3) the extremely negative influence of the Golden Horde on Russia.
It is also worth noting that, despite
such a division, in each of these points the opinions of historians are different in the level of influence: if we take the first point of view (the first "camp" of historians) as an example, then one historian may believe that the influence of the Horde on Russia was exclusively positive, and the other historian , who also belongs to this "camp", will consider that the influence was positive, but not without negative features. There is only one conclusion: there are differences between historians of the same "camp", and, therefore, this issue is very difficult to study and analyze.
Let's take a closer look at each of these positions.
1) The predominantly positive influence of the Horde on Russia. N. M. Karamzin is considered the founder. In order to understand Karamzin's position on this issue, it is worth referring to his book "History of the Russian State". Let us examine excerpts from Chapter IV (“The State of Russia from the Invasion of the Tatars to John III”) of Volume V, since it best traces Karamzin’s conclusions on the influence of the Horde on Russia.
Karamzin identifies two sides in characterizing the influence of the Yoke on Russia: negative and positive. “The invasion of Batyevo, the heap of ashes of corpses, captivity, slavery for so long are, of course, one of the greatest disasters known to us from the annals of the States ...”, the author writes, thereby emphasizing, and therefore agreeing with many authors of the third point of view, that the Horde left an indelible and negative mark on the history of Russia. But Karamzin highlights a considerable number of positive aspects. “Another hundred years or more could have passed in the Princely civil strife: what would these be? Probably the death of our fatherland: Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, Sweden could share it; then we would lose both statehood and Faith, which were saved by Moscow; Moscow owes its greatness to the Khans, ”concludes Karamzin. That is, the author emphasizes that without the invasion of the Horde and, as a result, the rallying of the princes and people of Russia, the state could cease to exist due to internecine wars and the division of the territory of Russia by European states. Also Karam-
Zin also sees other positive aspects from the Yoke for Russia: “One of the memorable consequences of the Tatar domination over Russia was the rise of our Clergy, the multiplication of Monks and church estates,” writes Karamzin. Also, because of the Horde, trade in Russia also developed, which, undoubtedly, was a good consequence for the state. But the main positive factor, which was announced earlier, is the rallying of the state in front of a common enemy, the end of civil strife, which could be disastrous for Russia. It is this point of view that N. M. Karamzin adheres to.
N. I. Kostomarov, as another of the representatives of this point of view, in the article “The Beginning of Autocracy in Ancient Russia” claims that “in northeastern Russia, before the Tatars, no step was taken to destroy the specific veche system”, thereby agreeing with the position of Karamzin on the need for the Horde invasion to unite Russia.
L. N. Gumilyov adheres to a special point of view, although he is attributed precisely to this "camp" of historians. In the book “Ancient Russia and the Great Steppe,” he argues as follows: “No, of course, the Mongols were not good-natured! They could not act otherwise, because on all three fronts - Chinese, Western Asian and Kumano-Russian - they were opposed by forces that significantly exceeded them in numbers and weapons.<...>Another thing is important: the collision of different fields of perception of the world always gives rise to a violent reaction - death
redundant passionaries, bearers of different traditions. Gumilyov does not prioritize enmity and clashes between the Horde and Russia, he believes that the main thing is the symbiosis of ethnic groups, which gave rise to new turns in the culture of these ethnic groups, thereby the author emphasizes the influence of the Horde on the culture of Russia. In his book, some views of the “Eurasians” are traced, who saw only positive aspects in the conquest of Russia by the Horde, but even if we draw a conclusion from the positions of the above authors, with the expectation that they relate to the position of the positive influence of the Horde on Russia, we will notice that they see both positive and negative features, which is historically more plausible than the views of the "Eurasians".
It can be concluded that many authors of the first point of view, with the exception of the "Eurasians", believe that even with the negative impact of the Horde on Russia, the enslavement of one state by another, oppression and raids, the Yoke also left positive "fruits" for Russia: unity states, the end of civil strife, raising the spirit of the people, the clergy, the strengthening of autocracy and imprint in the cultural heritage.
2) Insignificant influence of the Golden Horde on Russia. Yes, most authors are inclined to believe that the Horde left an indelible imprint on Russia, whether it was good or bad. But there are historians and authors who believe that, despite the existence of the Horde invasion of the Russian state, its further formation and change in politics, both internal and external
this phenomenon had little effect and practically did not give any impetus for this or that change. Russia went to everything on its own, and whether Igo or not, civil strife would cease to outlive itself, and the state from a fragmented and divided state would be transformed into a single and cohesive state that could stand on a par with European ones.
We single out three main representatives: S. M. Solovyov, K. D. Kavelin and V. O. Klyuchevsky. Let's analyze their points of view, united under one concept about the insignificant influence of the Horde on Russia.
S. M. Solovyov in the book “The History of Russia from Ancient Times” concludes that the domination of the Tatars came to an end “due to the concentration and strengthening of the European state that began here” (by “here” is meant Russia). Consequently, Solovyov argues that the formation of a single state was carried out without the influence of the Horde, it only accelerated this process. But due to the fact that Solovyov paid little attention to the study of this issue, most historians criticize his position.
K. D. Kavelin in the article “A look at the legal life of ancient Russia” argues that “foreign conquerors never settled among us and therefore could not give our history their national character” .
“Their [Tatars] influence on our domestic life was limited to sending tax collectors to Russia.<...>And the Mongol influence was limited to a few words included in
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our dictionary; maybe, and even probably, by several customs, not entirely flattering to us. Kavelin, like Solovyov, does not see the great role of the Horde in the formation of a single state, traditions and orders in Russia. Only a small imprint was left by raids, tribute and other things that happened during the Tatar invasion.
V. O. Klyuchevsky in his work “Russian History” also believes that the Horde was not even interested in interfering in the affairs of Russia, therefore, its contribution to the development of Russia is practically zero. He writes: “The Horde khans did not impose any of their orders on Russia, being content with tribute, they even poorly understood the order that operated there. Yes, and it was difficult to delve into it, because in the relations between the local princes it was impossible to see any order. Klyuchevsky is categorical in relation to Russia itself, considering relations in the state of that time to be a semblance of chaos, so there was no point for the Tatars to interfere in such relations between the princes.
As can be seen from the conclusions of these authors, the positions about the insignificant influence of being and there are arguments for this. But even with the insignificant influence of the Horde on Russia, the historians of this point of view still do not deny the very invasion of the Horde and admit small, but still existing imprints in the history of Russia left by Ig.
3) The negative impact of the Golden Horde on the Russian state.
Let's move on to the most common point of view among historians. Let's highlight how
and before, the main representatives: A. Richter, M. S. Gastev and B. D. Grekov together with A. Yu. Yakubovsky. It should be understood that the list does not end with these authors.
A. Richter, as a successor to the ideas of Karamzin, brought up by his books, in his work “Studies on the Influence of the Mongol-Tatars on Russia”, transmitted through the materials “Notes of the Fatherland”, claims that “under the rule of the Mongols and Tatars, the Russians almost degenerated into Asiatics, and although they hated their oppressors, they imitated them in everything and entered into kinship with them when they converted to Christianity. From this excerpt it is clear that Igo had a detrimental effect on Russia, on the orders, traditions, and faith of the people.
M. S. Gastev also believes that the influence of the Yoke on Russia was detrimental and negative for the entire Russian people and for the development of the state as a whole. He writes that the time of the Tatar invasion is "the time of the greatest disorder, the greatest misfortune for our fatherland, one of those times that weigh on a person, suffocate him." As you can see, both authors are unanimous in their opinion about the influence of the Horde on Russia.
B. D. Grekov together with Yakubovsky A. Yu. in the work “The Golden Horde and its fall” condemn many authors of both the first and second points of view for their assessment of the influence of the Horde on Russia and their lack of understanding of the real reasons for the cessation of civil strife and other reasons " inhibition" of the development of Russia. “Not with the assistance of the Tatars, but precisely in the process of the hard struggle of the Russian people against the Golden Horde-
the Russian state was created with Moscow at its head, ”the authors conclude, emphasizing the heavy and irreparable consequences of the Tatar Yoke for Russia.
Most of the authors of this point of view are inclined to believe that the Tatar-Mongol Yoke stopped Russia in development, throwing it back several hundred years, it united not because of assistance with the Horde, but in the fight against it, in defending the sovereignty of the state. This point of view is directly opposite to the first, although it has its own differences in assessing the severity of the consequences for Russia of the Tatar Yoke, which makes it possible to notice the controversy of each point of view.
So, we can summarize all of the above. The question of the nature of the influence of the Golden Horde on Russia remains debatable and controversial to this day. Each group of historians presents its own arguments in support of its conclusions and positions. This makes this issue relevant and unresolved both in the past and now, and possibly in the future. It should be noted that one of the reasons for the disagreement is the large time difference between generations, as well as the small number of reliable sources of that time that can give a complete picture of the events of those centuries. Therefore, persistent study and the search for answers to it will give more diverse information both about the state of Russia and about neighboring tribes and states.
Notes
1. Karamzin N. M. History of the Russian state. St. Petersburg, 1616-1829.
2. Kostomarov N. I. The beginning of autocracy in Ancient Russia. SPb., 1872.
3. Gumilyov L. N. Ancient Russia and the Great Steppe. M., 1997. Part 4. Chapter XX.
4. Solovyov S. M. History of Russia since ancient times. SPb., 1851-1879.
5. Kavelin KD A look at the legal being of ancient Russia. M., 1989.
6. Klyuchevsky V. O. Russian history. M., 1993. Lecture XXII.
7. Research on the influence of the Mongol-Tatars on Russia // Otechestvennye zapiski. 1825. T. XXII. N 62.
8. Gastev M. S. Reasoning about the reasons that slowed down civil education in the Russian state to Peter the Great. M., 1832.
9. Grekov B. D., Yakubovsky A. Yu. The Golden Horde and its fall. M., 1950. Part 2. Chapter 7.
Two main blind spots in Russian history in the second third of the 13th - the last third of the 15th centuries: what kind of socio-economic system existed in the north of the East Russian Plain; how did the Golden Horde influence the development of Russia of the specific period?
The Mongol-Tatars could influence and influence the following spheres of the socio-political and socio-economic life of Russia in the XIII-XV centuries. First, on the economy of the Old Russian state. According to the most conservative estimates, the horror of the siege and assault in 1237-1241. 76 urban centers of Ancient Russia were tested. A. A. Kuza, compiling a map of the main Russian cities of the 13th century, placed 183 names on it. That is, 40% of all craft and trade centers were ruined. But, the thesis about the catastrophic defeat of Batu needs serious clarification. Ryazan, Pereyaslav, Chernigov, Novgorod, Seversk, Kiev principalities are literally trampled under the hooves of Tatar horses. On the territory of the "Russian land" and the Ryazan principality in the first third of the XIII century. 61 cities were equipped. Batu's troops ravaged 40. Vladimir-Suzdal Rus was seriously damaged, but it must be remembered that Batu passed through the central and southern regions of the Zalesky land, the northern part of the principality was little affected by the invasion. This specificity manifested itself to an even greater extent (the locality of the devastation inflicted by the Mongol-Tatars in 1237-1241) during the campaign against southwestern Russia. The Beresteiskaya land and the Gorodensky principality - the constituent parts of the power of Daniel of Galicia, passed the pogrom of Batu. The same can be said about the western and southeastern parts of Chervonnaya Rus. The volosts, concentrating around Kolomyia, Terebovlya, Yaroslavl, successfully survived the horrors of the winter of 1240-1241. Novgorod land suffered little. All the damage fit in the burning of Torzhok. Finally, the Turov-Pinsk, Polotsk and Smolensk principalities passed the bitter fate of Ryazan and the "Russian Land". Baty passed by.
The ancient Russian principalities have a different fate. They can be conditionally divided into four categories. The first is the Ryazan principality and the so-called Russian land, here the situation is close to disaster. The second is the Vladimir-Suzdal principality and Galicia-Volyn Rus, the destruction is large-scale, but local. The third category is Novgorod land - the destruction is episodic. The fourth group should include the Polotsk, Smolensk and Turov-Pinsk principalities, where in 1237-1241. there were no nukers of Jochi's son.
Archaeological research shows that in the second half of the XIII century. in the ancient Russian cities, the production of: cloisonne enamel; filigree production stopped for a whole century; the blackening technique also fell into disuse after the invasion, and there is no evidence of molding in the late thirteenth and fourteenth centuries of glazed polychrome ceramics. In the second half of the century, the production of glass bracelets, cornelian and bronze beads was completely stopped; The jewelry business of Ancient Russia suffered enormous damage. The art of stone carving has also been lost. A serious regression is observed in the building trades. Stone buildings in the first century of Mongol rule were erected much less than in the twelfth century, with huge claims to quality.
How did these changes affect the economy of Ancient Russia; on the life of a medieval city? The first thing you pay attention to is that the high-tech industries of handicraft production suffered the main damage. We do not have data on the number of artisans Kievan Rus, about the number of skillful stone carvers, specialists capable of making polychrome glazed ceramics, blowing glass beads. But it is appropriate to assume that there could not have been many of them. Russian, Arabic, European sources are full of references to the special policy of Ogedei, Ogul-Gaymysh, Guyuk, Munk. The kagans and regents resettled the best artisans in Mongolia to decorate the Karakorum. Batu, Sartak, Berke and other khans of the Golden Horde followed the example of the khagans. In the twentieth century excavated significant settlements of Russian artisans in Sarai-Batu, Sarai-Berke, Ukek. Such a policy could not contribute to the development of crafts in the cities of Northern Russia. But, the best were exported to the Horde and Mongolia. A priori, there could not be many of them. In the second half of the XIII - early XIV centuries. in the cities of Suzdal, Novgorod and Pskov, the Ryazan principality, artisans lost the art of cloisonné enamel, blackening, and forgot how to make filigree. The loss is palpable, but it is impossible to consider filigree or polychrome ceramics as a product of mass demand. The consumer of high-tech crafts was a small stratum of the inhabitants of Ancient Russia. The economy could no longer meet their demand. It is hard, but not fatal for the economy and the old Russian city. Mass crafts: blacksmithing and pottery, everyday ceramics, according to modern archeology, have not suffered irreparable damage. Finally, it must be remembered that we are talking about a traditional society. The economy of such crops has been well studied by M. Weber. The German sociologist came to the conclusion: the style, form, image of the production of the traditional economy does not imply a sharp drop.
The impact of the invasion and yoke on the economy of medieval Russia was not stimulating. We can talk about the stagnation and even regression of handicraft production in the second half of the 13th - the first half of the 14th centuries. The question of the role and significance of the Mongol-Tatars in this process is debatable. Can it be argued that they initiated the fall of the second half of the thirteenth century? In our opinion, no. The invasion was not all-Russian. The vast territory happily escaped Batu's horsemen. Approximately 1/3 of the Old Russian state was not affected by the Batu pogrom. The muzzle of the Mongolian horses was not seen by Novgorod and Pskov, Smolensk and Polotsk. Meanwhile, Novgorod, just as Vladimir was, was affected by the industrial depression of the second half of the 13th century. The development of Pskov and Smolensk followed the same scenario. There is no direct fault of Batu and Genghisides in the stagnation of these territories. It can be assumed that it is indirect. Having defeated the principality of Vladimir and the "Russian Land", the grandson of Genghis Khan narrowed the markets for the artisans of Novgorod and Smolensk to the limit. This, no doubt. But the Novgorod "republic", as well as the principality of Smolensk, are the most important transit centers, export citadels of Ancient Russia. Probably, filigree and polychrome ceramics were bought not only and not so much in the East Russian Plain. The general rule of any economy is the export of high-tech production. That is, it is possible to consider that Batu initiated the crisis of the second half of the thirteenth century on one condition, if we do not take into account the sad experience of Novgorod, Pskov and Smolensk. Finally, there is certain, albeit indirect, evidence that the crisis began long before the 1340s. Handicraft production in Kyiv, Polotsk, Rostov, Suzdal and even Smolensk has been in recession since the end of the 12th century.
This is our first conclusion: jihangir was not the ancestor of the crisis of the second half of the 13th - the first half of the 14th centuries. It started thirty or forty years earlier. Undoubtedly, Batu and his heirs made their considerable contribution to its development. But, is it possible to say that this influence is all determining? The list of crafts lost by Russia after 1237 includes: the art of cloisonné enamel; filigree and blackening techniques, molding of glazed polychrome ceramics, production of glass bracelets, carnelian and bronze beads, stone carving, etc. It is highly doubtful that their disappearance was decisive in the conditions of the traditional economy of the Middle Ages.
As a second conclusion, it can be assumed that the establishment of foreign domination stimulated the depression, was one of the many factors in the economic crisis of the second half of the 13th century. There are no grounds for reducing everything to the Golden Horde yoke or attaching special importance to it, and this is not supported by historical facts. Batu is one of many and in all is not a right-flank reason.
G. V. Vernadsky wrote in his monograph:
“The disappearance of urban crafts in the first century of Mongol domination made for a time a serious gap in the satisfaction of consumer demand. The villagers had to depend on what they could produce at home. Princes, boyars and monasteries had no alternative to the development of crafts in their own estates.
The thesis is very serious. Is it possible to talk about the manorization of crafts in specific Russia? And, if so, what role did the Golden Horde play in this? Manorization cannot be denied. The number of facts testifying in favor of this position is enormous. What are the reasons for the transfer of handicraft production in the second half of the XIII century. from city to village? In our opinion, the answer is in the date of the transfer. Second half of the 13th century It is well known that relations between the prince and the ancient Russian city were never cloudless. But such intensity, such tension as in the days of Alexander Yaroslavovich, Andrei Alexandrovich did not happen before. The main city of Northern Russia - Veliky Novgorod tirelessly rebels and rebels against all the great princes of the second half of the 13th century. In 1262, a grandiose citywide anti-Horde uprising arose, not supported by the Rurikovichs. Relations between the city and the prince are rapidly and irreparably deteriorating. Vsevolodovichi are preparing to strike a decisive blow. It is this scenario of the manorization of crafts that seems to us the most plausible. In the second half of the XIII century. between the princes and the city is not the usual opposition. The subjects of history offer a different discourse of development. Princes - go to bow to the Khan. The city is to rise. The manorization of crafts is not only an economic act. It has clear political overtones. Princes, transferring crafts to their residences, weaken their political rival. Since they have two strong allies: the church, and, most importantly, the boyars, that is, the urban patriciate, the process of manorization becomes irreversible. Otherwise, we must admit that the main consumers of filigree, blackening, cloisonne enamel, etc. were smerds and other rural residents of Ancient Russia.
So, the invasion of Batu had a serious impact on the economy of Ancient Russia. At least 40% of the country's urban centers were destroyed in 1237-1241. From the second half of the XIII century. begins a deep and comprehensive crisis of handicraft production. It is wrong to believe that Batu Khan initiated it. Many of the largest craft centers of Kievan Rus happily escaped the fate of Kyiv and Kozelsk. Despite this, there were depressions in Novgorod, Polotsk, and Smolensk. Its first flashes can be dated to the end of the XII century. During these years, the art of the artisans of Polotsk, Kyiv, and Southern Pereyaslavl dramatically weakened. The Mongols did not initiate the crisis, but they certainly stimulated it. The deepening of the crisis, on the other hand, can be interpreted as a versification of handicraft production in medieval Russia. The disappearance of only high-tech industries of handicraft production can be directly connected with the Mongols. In the historical realities of the XIII century. it was not the art of filigree and blackening or stone carving that determined the trend. The manorization of the craft, its transfer from city walls to rural fences, acquired great importance. The role of the khans of the Golden Horde in this is clearly visible. Faced with the opposition of the city of Northern Russia of the 13th century, imposing a huge tribute on it, and at the same time, providing tax preferences to the church, the opportunity for Kalita and his ilk to establish close relations with the rulers of the Horde, the Genghisides contributed to the development of the manorial craft, and as a result, the weakening of the craft urban.
Ergo, if we talk about the impact and influence of the Tatars on the economy (craft) of specific Russia, it must be admitted that high-tech industries were the first to suffer from Batu and his sons and nephews. The policy of the Golden Horde allowed the Russian princes to vigorously and forcefully develop the manorial craft. That is, the influence of the state created by Batu on the handicraft production of Northern Russia in the second half of the XIII - the first half of the XV centuries. doubly. On the one hand, the Genghisides allowed the Rurikoviches to weaken the urban handicraft production. On the other hand, they helped the descendants of Vsevolod III develop the manorial craft. If I may say so, in the second half of the XIII - the first half of the XIV centuries. the agrarianization of the craft of medieval Russia took place.
The economy is not limited to the craft sector. Another important occupation of the Old Russian townspeople was trade. How was the situation in this area in 1242-1462? Kievan Rus is located in the center of the most important trade routes of medieval Eurasia. In many ways, successful geography predetermined the power and wealth of the Old Russian state. For the worse, the situation began to change in the second half of the XII - the end of the XII century. The collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1204 was a severe blow to the Varangian-Greek trade. The IV Crusade and the events preceding it (the maximum weakening of Byzantium in the second half of the 12th century) played an important role in the "fall" of Kyiv. The decay of the Volga trade route allowed Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod III to overcome Rostov the Great. It would seem that the invasion of Batu, the unprecedented defeat of ancient Russian cities in 1237-1241, the yoke regime adopted by Yaroslav Vsevolodovich would only intensify the crisis of ancient Russian trade. Sources do not confirm this. Genghisides perfectly understood the importance of trade relations, control over transport arteries is the most important aspect of Mongolian politics. If you do not take the decade of Berke, when a powerful corporation of Muslim merchants of Central Asian origin monopolized foreign trade, the rest of the time the khans of the Golden Horde patronized the international trade of Northern Russia. Novgorod and other “hundreds” got a chance and knew perfectly well how to use it. Mengu-Timur, Uzbek did a lot for the development of foreign trade of medieval Russia with the Italian colonies in the Crimea and Azov. The story about the death of Mikhail of Tver shows that not only in Saray, but also on the outskirts of the Golden Horde, on the banks of the Terek, there was a numerous and powerful Russian merchant brotherhood. Tokhtamysh, during the campaign of 1382, complained that Russian merchants completely controlled shipping on the Volga. The Crimea received special significance in the foreign trade of Northern Russia. Factories of Novgorod, Moscow, Tver merchants were in the main cities of the peninsula: Cafe, Mangup and, first of all, Surozh. Surozhans are the first merchants, guests both in Moscow and in Vladimir-Volynsky. Thanks to Mengu-Timur, they did not stop, on the contrary, the ties between Russia and the West strengthened and strengthened. At the end of the Middle Ages, Novgorod achieved significant success here. He joined the Hanseatic League. The undoubted flourishing of handicrafts, especially cloth-making in Northern and Central Europe, led to the closest contacts with Moravia, Bohemia, Ypres, etc. To say that the Golden Horde interfered with the trade of specific Russia is to sin against historical truth. The decline in the trade turnover of Horde Russia is recorded only in the 40s - 60s of the XIII century. After Mengu-Timur settled in the khan's tent, the affairs of the guests of Northern Russia went uphill. The stagnation of the times of Batu-Berke can only partly be explained by the influence of the Golden Horde. Probably, these are echoes of the general economic crisis that began at the end of the 12th century. Economic science teaches that the first to emerge from a recession is a business that assumes greater volatility. In the thirteenth century there was nothing more valliative than international trade. The Jochids, having created a powerful state, were able to breathe new life a new life in the ancient and rather decayed trade routes "From the Varangians to the Greeks" and "From the Varangians to the Persians". The volumes of cargo sailing along the Dnieper, the Western Dvina, the Volga are so significant that no trading corporation, be it the Hansa, the Raddhonites or the Muslims of Khorezm, could single-handedly monopolize the East Russian trade bridge between Europe and Asia.
So, our conclusion regarding the trade relations of Northern Russia of specific time: the Horde stimulated the international trade turnover of the northern Russian principalities in the second half of the 13th - first half of the 15th centuries.
Despite the fact that Russia of the 13th century bore the proud name of "Gardarika", the majority of the inhabitants of the East Russian Plain did not live in cities at all. Neither craft and trade are the main occupation of the "citizens" of Kievan Rus. Before the Great Turn of the 20th Century. Russia is an agricultural country. In the XIII-XV centuries. 99% of the population live in villages and villages and are engaged in agriculture.
How was the situation in the agrarian sphere of Northern Russia; how did invasion and yoke affect the medieval tiller? Sources and experts agree that agriculture was the least affected by the Mongol invasion. The khans are not interested in reducing the productivity of agriculture in specific Russia. The main taxpayer supplying the lion's share of the "national wealth" of the Golden Horde is a medieval Russian peasant. Prosperous was the case with crafts, salt production, and fishing. All scientists agree - in the XIV-XV centuries. the agricultural sector (agriculture, arable farming) becomes the main branch of the national economy. According to the apt remark of V. O. Klyuchevsky, Russia is turning from a commercial city into an agricultural country. Agriculture, a very, very inert thing, hardly amenable to technical improvements, has taken a significant step forward in a specific period. First, the crop rotation system is changing. Most of the arable land goes to the three-field. Secondly, the tools of labor are being improved. Oratay of this time used three main types of plow: a heavy plow, an improved plow with an iron plow share, and a light wooden plow. Ralo species have been zoned. The plow itself was used infrequently, mainly in the Novgorod volosts. The light plough, pulled by one horse, is typical of the northern forest regions, just involved in crop rotation. The plowmen of the Moscow principality raised the land with an improved plow. It was pulled by three horses at once. At one time, P. P. Smirnov suggested that during the reign of Ivan I, a completely new type of plow was invented, which gave a big impetus to the agriculture of Muscovy. In his view, this invention was one of the main reasons for the rise of the Moscow principality. Another major historian, referring to the hypothesis of P. P. Smirnov, noted:
"the theory is ingenious, but there is not enough evidence to support it."
Something else is interesting: Smirnov's mistake concerned precisely the Moscow principality, and precisely from the second quarter of the fourteenth century. Sometimes an incorrect hypothesis is as indicative as a brilliance, an approved postulate.
Another important branch of agriculture is animal husbandry. Here the situation was not so brilliant. Breeding small and large livestock is a side occupation of orphans and peasants of specific Russia. There are many explanations for this. The traditional food culture of the Eastern Slavs did not contribute to the livestock boom. Geography and climate also prevented the emergence of huge herds of sheep and cows in Suzdal or Novgorod. Colonization, which took place rapidly in the XIV-XV centuries. did not allow the peasants to be distracted from the uplift of virgin lands and wastelands.
The only place where the situation was slightly different was horse breeding. Stallions, herds of mares, riding and riding horses are often mentioned in the wills of the Grand Dukes of Moscow. Obviously, horse breeding was an important branch of the grand ducal economy. Needing cavalry squads, Vsevolodovich patronized horse breeding.
It is difficult to say how the Golden Horde influenced the agriculture of specific Russia. The rise of the agricultural sector in the XIV-XV centuries. no doubt, but was this the merit of the khan's headquarters? In contrast to trade, where the role of Genghisides is obvious, in agriculture we will be careful not to say the same. The following constant is most probable - the agriculture of Northern Russia of specific time indifferently perceived 250 years of foreign domination.
Let's sum up the final conclusion, how did the yoke affect the national economy? First, it is necessary to reject the assertion that the Horde initiated the all-Russian economic crisis of the 13th century. The chronology of the crisis needs to be revisited. In certain territories of Kievan Rus: Kyiv, Polotsk, Pinsk, Southern Pereyaslavl, it began in the last quarter of the previous century. Secondly, the invasion and the yoke in a certain way influenced (stimulated) the handicraft production of medieval Russia. In this case, the Tatars showed themselves in two guises. Batu directly caused significant damage to the high-tech craft industries of the ancient Russian city. Not wanting to sin against the historical truth, we note that most likely the regression of jewelry, skillful ceramics, etc. began before 1237. These products, a priori, were largely export-oriented. Since the second half of the XII century, the intensity of the two main export arteries of Ancient Russia: shipping along the Dnieper and the Volga has been sharply reduced. The heirs of Batu in the second half of the XIII century. gave the grandchildren of Vsevolod the Big Nest a trump card for the manorization of the craft. This is precisely the main influence of the Golden Horde on the handicraft production of specific Russia. Khans contributed to its agrarianization. At the same time, we note that not the Genghisides, but the Rurikovichs were the instigators of the process. Thirdly, the influence of the khans on trade is beneficial and positive. The Golden Horde allowed the export-import trade of Ancient Russia to overcome the remission of the second half of the 12th - the first half of the 13th centuries. The powerful state formed by Batu in the Volga steppes gave an additional impetus to the international trade of Novgorod, Tver, Nizhny, Moscow. Fourth, the influence of the Golden Horde on agriculture is highly doubtful. If there was an impact of Sarai on the medieval oratay, then it was apical.
That is, in the XIV-XV centuries. Russia was undergoing a transformation. It was turning from a trading city into an agricultural power, and in this (at least in the economic field) the influence of the Horde is minimal.
Ergo the influence of the Golden Horde on the development trend of the national economy of Russia in the XIV-XV centuries. slightly. Russia, without foreign pressure, chose the course of economic development. Movement towards agrarianization in every sense of the term.
The Tale of Bygone Years says that the Ilmen Slavs, taught by Gostomysl, turned to Rurik with the words: "our land is rich and plentiful, but there is no order." To ensure order in the East Russian Plain was the main thing that was charged to the king and his descendants. Therefore, the issues of court and legal proceedings, fiscal and financial policy, problems of local administration, etc. were especially important for the Rurikovichs. How was the situation in these areas of socio-economic life in 1242-1462?
In the middle of the past century, the famous historian and prominent Eurasianist G.V. Vernadsky tried to assure the reader:
“In the Kyiv period, the main areas of princely administration were judicial, military and financial. The prince was the supreme judge, his representatives collected taxes and court fees. After the Mongol invasion, the supreme control of all administrative functions was taken over by the king, the Mongol khan. The power of the Russian princes was sharply reduced. Now the princes had to obey the orders of the khan, and the administrative powers of the princes in their own states were severely limited; they could exercise power functions only within the narrow sphere of affairs left in their competence by the Mongols.
In the view of the historian, this is an innovation of the second third of the thirteenth century. And this is the fundamental mistake of the Eurasian historical Orientalism. The Rurikovichs of the Kyiv era were not autocratic rulers. Their power is significantly limited by the ancient Russian veche. By modernizing the historical process, one might say they are hired managers. The descendants of Rurik have a lot of powers, but they are not able to decide everything on their own. When the imperious and powerful Vsevolod III took it into his head to bypass the ladder right to transfer the throne of Vladimir in addition to the recalcitrant Konstantin, to Yuri Vsevolodovich, he was forced to convene a "zemstvo council", seek help and support, legitimize the "land" of his decision. The prince of the Suzdal land acts according to the same patterns as the weak-willed and powerless Yaroslav Osmysl thirty years before. And with the same result. Both Vsevolod Yurievich and Yaroslav Vladimirovich were denied support by the land. As a result, the self-willed Konstantin sat down in Vladimir on the Klyazma, and the rebellious Vladimir in Galich.
This is our first claim to the Eurasian perception of the influence and significance of the Golden Horde yoke in Russia. The khans were not the first to cut the power of the princes of the house of Rurik. Before them, and with no less success, this was done by the Zemstvo Veche. But there was also a difference. The restriction of the powers of the Rurikovichs to the ancient Russian veche is functional, that is, historically evolutionary. It came about naturally. The taking away of power by the Genghisides from the Russian princes of the thirteenth and subsequent centuries is the result of a military defeat in 1237-1241.
The first thing Batu did was to deprive the Rurikovichs of the highest legal priority. The unfortunate story of Mikhail of Tverskoy and Yuri of Moscow convincingly proves that from now on all the main court cases were decided at the khan's headquarters. Although Genghisides was the head not only of the Volga-Aral steppes, but nominally of the East Russian plain, he clearly distinguished the Mongol proper from ethnic Russians. This was especially clearly manifested in the case of the Rostov princes and the descendants of Peter Ordynsky. The heir of the great conqueror, once converted to Orthodoxy, became a zealous neophyte, founded a monastery. His grandson began to sue the descendants of Boris of Rostov, who tried to pull off the monastery lands. Although half a century had passed since Peter Ordynsky and his legacy broke with the Horde, in the eyes of the Khan they still remained Mongols. This example can be continued more than once if desired. The general place of judicial practice of the Horde period became: all litigations between Russians and Mongols are subject to consideration in the Mongolian court. Having taken the highest jurisdiction for himself, the Khan did not pay attention to court cases of an ordinary nature. It is extremely difficult to say who conducted legal proceedings in Kievan Rus. The Long and Brief Pravdas that have come down to us allowed N.P. Pavlov-Silvansky to say that they were compiled, in the last resort, by the Truth of the Yaroslavovichi, the first lawsuit of national jurisdiction, as a form of defense of the Rurikovich from land encroachments. There are serious doubts that the prince and his tiun always knitted and decided court cases in Kievan Rus. Most likely, the consortial veche structures of the Old Russian state had great independence in this area. Another thing is specific Russia. From the second half of the XIII century. prince chief judge by the precedents of simple jurisdiction. And this is the merit of Khan. Having become the supreme judge in matters of national importance, he projected a model in space. We again cannot agree with the verdict of G. V. Vernadsky: "judicial practice turned out to be the least affected by the Mongol rule." The changes are significant and massive. Khan expands the judicial powers of the Russian princes.
More debatable is the question: borrowing by Russia of the norms and provisions of the criminal and procedural law of Mongolia. Supporters of the intervention of Tatar customs in the Russian society of the specific period usually pay attention to two phenomena that arose in the second half of the 13th century. Institute of the death penalty and torture as a form of judicial investigation. Even such an opponent of the assimilation character of Russian law as M.F. Vladimirov-Budansky agreed that this was a gift from the Golden Horde. It does not seem to us that the fault of the Genghisides has been proven. The death penalty and torture arise in the XIII-XIV centuries. in northeastern Russia. The Pskov loan letter testifies to the same for North-Western Russia. Meanwhile, none of the scientists believe that the intervention of the Golden Horde in the XIV-XV centuries. went so far west. Pskov and Novgorod are free from Horde influence. Historians of law see in the death penalty of the Pskov Loan Charter the result of the influence not of the East, but of the West:
“Due to their geographical location and busy trade with Western cities, Novgorod and Pskov were much more open to Western influences than Moscow. In fact, the punishment system of England, France and Germany in the late Middle Ages and the beginning of the New Era was as severe, or even more severe, than the Mongol criminal law. Both the death penalty and corporal punishment were imposed for many crimes. In Germany, beheading and hanging were common forms of punishment for a criminal.
The above quote allows you to take a different look at the barbarization of the criminal and procedural code of the late Middle Ages. If the same forms of punishment and interrogation simultaneously appear in such different civilizations of Western Europe and Central Asia, then this means only one thing: the barbarization of the process is the dictate of the spirit of the times. That is, the Sudebnik of 1497, where the deprivation of life was provided for every led dashing person at the first suspicion, was not influenced by the Golden Horde. Dvinskaya letter of grandfather Ivan III, requiring to chop off heads at the third relapse is a response to a historical request of the XIV-XV centuries.
So, the yoke significantly influenced the jurisdiction of Russia. It was the khans who made the princes sovereign judges, with all the ensuing consequences.
In the IX-X centuries. Helg, Ingvar, Helga established and successfully reformed the polyudye system. It is difficult to consider this institution as a classical tax. But, one cannot doubt its all-Russian character. Payments from all regions of the East Russian Plain continued successfully under the grandson and great-grandson of St. Olga. It is unlikely that the Yaroslavovichi could achieve the full amount of fees. It is unbelievable that this was on the shoulder of Svyatopolk II. It is clear that after the death of Mstislav the Great, the national tax sunk into oblivion. In the era of political fragmentation, the veche successfully attacked the prince's fiscal rights not only in Veliky Novgorod. Without much stretch, we can say that from the second third of the XII century. there was a reorientation of the fiscus from the Ruriks to the veche. In the second third of the XIII century. the khans dealt an even stronger blow to the tax rights of the Russian princes. Until 1327, the princes were de facto deprived of the right to collect taxes. They were replaced by the Basques. The situation changed drastically in the second third of the 14th century. The cunning Kalita persuaded the simple-hearted Uzbek to abolish the Baskaks. The rebellion of Tver and Alexander Mikhailovich contributed to this decision of the khan. From the beginning of the 30s of the XIV century. all tax revenues are in the hands of the great and appanage princes. The Uzbek abolished the Baskaks, but not the tribute collection system. Kalita and his successors soon became convinced that the organization created by Berke's efforts could be very beneficial for the Vsevolodovichs. After paying a share of the tribute due for each darkness, all that remained was sent by the Rurikovichs to their own treasury. The main winning side was the Grand Duke of Vladimir. In all other principalities, there are far fewer topics. And since from 1327 to 1462, with a three-year exception of 1359-1362, he was also the Prince of Moscow, a stream of preferences went to this principality. Dmitry Donskoy and Tamerlane finally made the dominion of the Golden Horde ephemeral. The fact that the two Basils did not throw off the yoke is explained not by the strength of the state of Batu Khan, but by the peculiarities of Moscow history in the first eighty years of the 15th century.
Having become almost autocratic in their principalities, the Danilovichi, Yaroslavovichi, and princes of Ryazan left intact the foundations of the Mongolian administrative system and the system of taxation. As before, tribute is the main source of state income, the plow is the main unit of direct taxation. Tamga finally took the form of a customs duty on imported goods. In addition to it, there were also local customs duties, the so-called myt. Fiscal history of the XIV-XV centuries. shows us the increase and expansion of collections of various kinds. Undoubtedly, this is the legacy of the Golden Horde. Russian princes in the fourteenth century could collect for the khans, and from the next century on, basically put in their pocket: tethered (fee for tying cattle); horn, or tax on horns, a spot levied for branding horses, etc. .
So, the fiscal, and hence the financial capabilities of the Rurikids of specific Russia increased a hundredfold. The merit of the Golden Horde in this is undeniable. But, can this be considered an influence, an influence of the Horde on the social and economic life of medieval Russia? We believe that influenza suggests borrowing. Mostly voluntary, sometimes semi-voluntary. Was there a voluntary, or at least semi-voluntary borrowing by Northern Russia of the second half of the 13th century. Golden Horde system of taxation? The facts prove otherwise. Cities rebelled and fronted. The Rurikovichs were in opposition to the yoke regime for a long time. De facto fisk adopted in Russia in the second half of the XIII - the first half of the XV centuries. was not borrowed, but imposed on the country by the winner. This is not an influence, but a specific change of the subject by the object in their own selfish interests. Subsequently, the strong subjects were convinced of the effectiveness of the new system, and after the change in the political situation, they left it intact. But no more. Initially, the taxation of specific Russia was not borrowed by the latter, but was introduced by force by the Golden Horde.
The khans, perhaps unwillingly, strengthened the princely power. The Rurikovichs of the Horde pores received in the sphere of legal proceedings and fiscus powers unthinkable to the Monomakhoviches and Olgovichs of the Kyiv era. To the credit of the heirs of Rurik, they quickly got their bearings in the new situation. It was a fundamental innovation requiring numerous and very serious advances. Having become supreme judges for non-state crimes, of which there are 9 out of 10 in any society, the Vsevolodovichs soon created a system of justice. Most crimes and cases were resolved by special officials of the prince, the so-called governors and volosts. Each county town had its own governor. In every rural area there is a volost. They could not knit and solve without an apparatus. Therefore, there are princely tiuns and speakers. Thus, in the second half of the 13th-14th centuries, something arose that had never been seen before in Russia - the bureaucracy. The new layer needs to be fed. Since it is traditionally difficult in Russia with specie, the princes came up with the institution of feeding. The first mentions of feeders date back to Kievan Rus. But then it's an episode. Mass phenomenon becomes from the fourteenth century. Volostites and governors are not only a judge. The princes also grant them administrative powers.
Consequently, the khans of the Golden Horde, having introduced a new system of taxation in Russia and granted the princes significant judicial powers, became the midwives of the domestic bureaucracy. Just as in the case of the system of fiscal and legal proceedings, this innovation cannot be called the Golden Horde influenza. The governors and volostors are a derivative of the fiscal and judicial functions, which were not borrowed, but imposed on Russia by the Golden Horde.
Big changes in the XIV-XV centuries. occurred in the military field. First of all, we are interested in innovations of a qualitative order. Therefore, we ignore such significant innovations of the XIV-XV centuries as a new order of staffing the armed forces. In the Kievan era, the army of Ancient Russia consisted of two components: the princely squad, the city militia. 14th century changed the system. Largely under the influence of the Mongol experience, Russia moved to universal military service. Smerdy not participating in the wars of the 9th-12th centuries, now a significant part of the recruit contingent. The city militia, without which the battles of previous years are inconceivable, are gradually losing their former combat effectiveness. The abolition of the position of the thousandth by Dmitry Donskoy is clear and harsh evidence of this. Undoubtedly, this is an important innovation, but it could hardly have somehow influenced the trend of Russia's historical development.
What really changed Russian history was hidden in another "militarist innovation" of the fourteenth century. The nature of the princely squad has changed. In the Kyiv period, the squad was built: on the principle of free partnership. The power of the prince was supported by his popularity among the squad, his organizational skills. Youths, children, boyars followed him as long as they wanted to. The new appears at the end of the 12th - the first third of the 13th centuries. In the Old Russian state, a princely court arises. During the Mongol period, it became the cornerstone of the organization of the Russian armed forces. The creation of the "yard" had a conceptual meaning. On the one hand, the combatants ceased to be comrades of the prince; henceforth they are his servants. On the other hand, apparently, it was from the “court” that the defining element of the state-political structure of Northern Russia of the XIV-XV centuries budded. - the so-called patrimonial monarchy. In this regard, it is extremely important to find out what role the Mongols played in the establishment of the court? Let us turn again to the heritage of GV Vernadsky. The largest Eurasianist, whom opponents reproached for exaggerating the role and significance of the Mongols in Russian history, wrote:
"at the same time, although not as a result of direct Mongol pressure, the nature of the princely squad changed."
That is, even the founder of historical Eurasianism denied the role of the heirs of Genghis Khan in the creation of the "court".
In the XIV-XV centuries. Significant changes took place in the sphere of state-administrative management of Northern Russia. First, there was the so-called patrimonial monarchy. Secondly, the XIV century. - the start of the domestic bureaucracy. Thirdly, the role of the prince as a judge and publican increased qualitatively. Has the yoke affected these innovations? Is it possible to say that the khans are the ancestors of governors and volostors, worthy boyars, feeding? With great care. The patrimonial nature of the state, so clearly observed in the XIV-XV centuries. was formed without Horde intervention. Even G.V. Vernadsky denied the influence of the Horde on the initiator of patrimonial power - the “princely court”. Without having an impact on the "princely court", the Chingizids fully recouped in the field of jurisprudence and fiscal taxation. The prince, forced to share with the city veche the functions of a judge and tax collector in the Kyiv period of national history, in the second quarter of the 14th century. otter from these processes the ancient Russian city. In the future, the Golden Horde khans underwent the same fate. By the beginning of the XV century. the great princes of appanage Russia are sovereign judges and tax collectors. Of course, they command these functions to abbots and boyars, but they do it of their own free will, with every right to restore immunity. Such development is the merit of the great khans. They initiated the process. Therefore, it is impossible to talk about the influence of the Golden Horde on the judicial and fiscal system of specific Russia. Influence is voluntary borrowing. In our case, the winner destroyed one form of judiciary and tax administration. And, by the right of the strong, in a voluntaristic way he created another. A little later, princely power was incorporated into it. After some time, she mastered the phenomenon. In any case, this is not a borrowing of Horde samples by specific Russia. The essence of the governor, the volost is initially secondary. It occurs as a derivative of two functions. On the one hand, the transformation of the state: instead of the consortium forms of public power of Kievan Rus, a dominant type is established, where everything is based on the imperative intention of the prince. The role of Genghisides in strengthening the imperative component of the power of the Rurikovichs is decisive. That is, the Golden Horde in the second half of the XIII century. created this form of administrative control of the northeast of the East Russian Plain. In the XIV century Vsevolodovichi successfully privatized the latter. On the other hand, the bureaucracy of the XIV century. - a direct consequence of the new understanding of the state structure. Instead of the associative statuary type, since the time of Kalita and Mikhail Alexandrovich, a patrimonial monarchy has arisen. The princely domain is expanding to the maximum, which requires its own ministerials. In this trend, the role of the Golden Horde is minimal. Even the Eurasianists admit that the “courtyard”, the foundation of the foundations of the patrimonial form of the state, arose outside the Mongolian patterns.
Ergo khans transformed the administrative model of the Old Russian state. The Golden Horde, apparently, did not have any influence on the evolution of the state forms of Northern Russia from the associative type of the Kyiv period to the patrimonial monarchy of the XIV century.
That is, it is impossible to detect traces of borrowing the Golden Horde administrative methods and state forms. It is necessary to talk not about the influence of the khans on the administrative management of Northern Russia in the second half of the 13th - the first half of the 15th centuries, but about the voluntaristic introduction of a fundamentally new administrative model by Batu-Tokhta.
How did the Horde influence the social history and political life of Northern Russia in the second half of the 13th - first half of the 15th centuries? In the first century of Horde domination in Russia, perhaps the greatest social shift in all the centuries of existence took place. The khans quickly showed their true colors. After twelve years of patriarchal rule, Burke came to power in Saray. The new khan brought a new course. The younger brother Batu began to tighten the regime, first of all, to increase the output of the Horde. Most likely, the growth was multiple. Russia in the middle of the XIII century. responded to Berke's innovation with an increase in resistance, anti-Horde sentiments. The city became the leader of the opposition. His displeasure is not accidental. Almost free from taxes in the XII - the first third of the XIII centuries. urban entities are forced to bear the main burden of exit. The apogee of resistance came in 1262. In that year, most of the cities of Northern Russia rebelled against Berke. De facto, the uprising ended in nothing. The country managed to throw off the yoke 218 years after 1262. Alexander Nevsky was able to convince the khan not to send a punitive expedition to the north of the East Russian Plain. But, this is only one side of the coin. Another for the ancient Russian city fell tails. In the last third of the XIII century. Genghisides and Rurikovichs came to grips with the cities of Northern Russia. By joint efforts, the Mongols and the princes prevented the further spread of urban unrest. By the middle of the fourteenth century, the Rurikovichs were finally able to take control of the urban community. The power and importance of the veche is sharply reduced, from that moment it can no longer be considered as an element of control. Veche did not disappear in the truest sense of the word. But, from now on, it is collected in ultra-supra-major circumstances. Tokhtamysh or a fire in 1547 is needed for a veche to be convened on Red Square. The fall of the city assembly at the beginning of the XIV century. the end of the social, and hence the political history of Ancient Russia. Its trend: democratic social and political life, striving for internal consensus and solidarity, understanding of the common historical destiny, the consortial nature of corporate entities, etc., has come to an end.
History, like nature, does not tolerate emptiness. The city and the veche were replaced by the prince and the manor. XIV-XV centuries time of rapid development of private ownership of land. Perhaps the result of the urban crisis of the XIII century. May be a derivative of the Golden Horde yoke. After 1242, the khans deprived the Vsevolodoviches of the favorite toy of the Rurikovichs of Kievan Rus - politics. Unlike their ancestors, the Zalesky princes of the second half of the 13th - 14th centuries. forced to deal more with the economy than with politics. In the end, this gave the result:
“In Muscovy, the Grand Duke's possessions have become the main basis of both economic power and the administration of the Grand Duke. Landed estates were not only one of the main sources of his income, but also became the core of his possessions in the administrative sense.
The example of the Danilovichs, Yaroslavovichs, Andreevichs was followed by the boyars of Northern Russia.
XIV-XV centuries the era of a steady increase in boyar land ownership. G. V. Vernadsky assures that:
"during the Mongol period, the boyars had more influence on state affairs than before."
True, as evidence, he cites the history of the Galician boyars. Having quarreled with the last descendant of Izyaslav Mstislavovich - Yuri II, the Galician boyars destroyed Chervonnaya Rus. But, the Galician boyars are always a special article, and the boyars of the Suzdal land, neither under Dolgoruky, nor under Bogolyubsky, nor under Kalita, did not have such ambitions.
The same scholar perceptively remarks:
"despite all their influence on the course of state affairs and the growth of their own land holdings, the Moscow boyars failed to accurately determine their political rights during the Mongol period."
Trying to answer the question why this happened, the academician's son gives the following reasons: firstly, Mongol rule; secondly, the rejection of the aristocratic government of the northeastern city; thirdly, the possibility of commanding the boyars of specific Russia.
It is not entirely clear how the khans curbed the self-will of the medieval Russian boyars? It is absolutely not clear why they should do this? Since the time of the mother, Guyuk's widow, the Mongols have taken the course: "divide and rule." A living example of this is the case of the thousand Velyaminov. There is no answer to the question why the recommendation of the Galician boyars did not weaken the elite of Chervonnaya Rus, and the right of the Moscow boyars to leave prevented them from talking on an equal footing with Proud and Red? What are the specifics of the Suzdal land, why Novgorod accepted oligarchic control, Galich bowed to the local aristocracy, and Suzdal and Rostov treated the local boyars with such prejudice.
In our opinion, of the three reasons cited by GV Vernadsky, only one is effective. The prejudice of the northeastern city against the boyars. To understand the roots of the phenomenon, it is necessary to remember how this layer was recruited. The boyars of Ancient Russia are the leaders of the urban community, the patriciate. In the middle of the XIII century. they betrayed their former alliance with the city. In the second half of the same century, they finally went over to the side of the Rurikovichs, did not support, energetically helped Alexander Nevsky, to put out the uprising in 1262. The Zalesky boyars of the XIV-XV centuries. they are the heirs and successors of the traitors of 1262. Medieval artisans have a good memory. They perfectly understood to whom Rostov the Great, Suzdal and Pereyaslavl Zalessky owed their humiliation. On the other hand, the boyars, having lagged behind the city and retiring to the Vsevolodoviches, realized: in the event of a collapse, they would be executed twice - once as enemies; the other as renegades. This prospect forced them to remain loyal to the Rurikovichs. In the second half of the XIII - the first half of the XIV centuries. different branches of the genus Vsevolod the Big Nest. Let us recall the story of Andrei Gorodetsky and Semyon Tonilovich. When Kalita made the predominance of the city on the Moskva River irresistible, they forcefully went over to the side of the Moscow princes. Another story confirms this: Vasily I and the Nizhny Novgorod boyar Rumyants.
V. O. Klyuchevsky called Moscow Russia a draft state, where all segments of the population must serve the state in one way or another. Russia made its first steps in this direction in the second half of the 13th century. During the Kyiv period, residents of large cities did not pay taxes; formed their own militia, in which they served as free citizens, and not as drafted soldiers. After 1242 everything changed. Universal, direct taxation and conscription transformed the status of the urban class. The strong ones were the first to flee from the sinking ship of the ancient Russian city. In the second half of the XIII century. the city patriciate (boyars) left the community. At the end of the XIII - XIV centuries, another privileged group followed their example - the top merchants. Mengu-Timur breathed new life into the foreign trade of medieval Russia. Merchants again began to fully use the advantages of the transit position of the East Russian Plain. In contrast to Novgorod, where merchants were under discounter boyars; the boyars of northeastern Russia did not practice the discount. As a result, in the second half of the fourteenth century, a powerful merchant layer arose in Moscow, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod. In the capital city, it was divided into three groups: guests, the richest wholesalers; living room hundred, a corporation of less wealthy guests; and the Cloth Hundred, a corporation of clothiers. Donskoy and the heirs were able to quickly tie the living room and cloth hundreds, the guests themselves, to the central government. For the latter, good relations with the prince - governor, and then the successor of the Horde king, are much more important than consensus with artisans and black people. Having finally divided the city community, Vsevolodovichi, using the principle: divide et impero, put it under control. Ivan IV introduced material compensation for crimes against the urban population. The fine for dishonoring a guest was 50 rubles; city dweller 5 rubles; and for the dishonor of the "townsman" a ruble was enough. It is impossible to talk about a consortium, about the common historical fate of a guest and a black man who costs fifty times less.
The social evolution of the rural population followed the same patterns. The Mongolian system of taxation and conscription was its starting point. The logical conclusions were soon drawn by the Vsevolodovichs. Recall that during the Kyiv period, the rural population was usually not subject to conscription into the army. Small landowners (people and natives) were not subject to direct taxes either. Now everyone is dead. People and peasants, orphans all pay yasak and can be called up. Of course, there are differences in various categories. Monastic peasants do not bear the state tax. But, it is not essential. The whitewashing of the monastery volosts is the result of the subjective will of the khan, and not the iron norm of the law. The immune rights of some secular estates, by the way, are not so much, from the XIV-XV centuries. only 19 letters came - the result of the desire of the prince, and nothing more. That is, in potency, the entire rural population of northeastern Russia is draft.
So, in the social sphere and political life of northeastern Russia in the second half of the XIII - the first half of the XV centuries. there have been a number of significant upheavals. First, the veche disappeared as an independent body of political power. Secondly, the urban patriciate (boyars) and the top merchants went over to the side of the princely power. Thirdly, the social structure of the urban community was deformed. Instead of the consortium form of Ancient Russia, the Suzdal land receives a division into white and black townspeople. Fourthly, the city as a political force ceased to exist by the beginning of the fourteenth century. Fifthly, the northeastern boyars did not follow the path of their ancient Russian counterparts or the boyar class of southwestern and northwestern Russia. They did not become prince's frondeurs, but loyal allies and junior partners. Sixthly, the common people, that is, the majority of townspeople and rural dwellers, are henceforth taxpayers.
The question is, what role did the Golden Horde play in all these changes? Is it possible to explain the defeat of the veche in the second half of the 13th century. - Influence of the Horde experience? Definitely not. The cities of the thirteenth century did not borrow the practice of the Horde cities. Moreover, they fiercely resisted such a fate. Can it be argued that the khans had a hand in the fate of the city council? Undoubtedly. It is problematic that without the help of the Genghisides, the Vsevolodovichi would have been able to defeat the cities of the Zalesky land. That is, again we are dealing not with influence, but with the influence of the Horde on Russian history. Is the declaration correct: the Horde influenced the reorientation of the political sympathies of the urban boyars? With big reservations. Influence is voluntary or semi-voluntary borrowing. Before the urban patriciate of Northern Russia in the second half of the XIII century. a dilemma arose: to lead the resistance, and that, probably, again experience the horrors of Kozelsk in 1238 and Kyiv in 1240; or go to the side of the strong. The boyars chose the latter. Voluntariness or semi-voluntariness of this step is approved with huge tolerances. The division of the urban estate in the 14th century was mainly the merit of the Vsevolodoviches, and not the Genghisides. This is a direct consequence of the defeat of the ancient Russian city in the second half of the previous century. It is unlikely that the Khan was directly interested in such know-how. The Old Russian city in the north-east of the East Russian Plain fell as a socio-political phenomenon by the beginning of the 14th century. the natural result of the actions of the khans of the Golden Horde and the princes of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. The fact that the boyars of the Zalesky land became a faithful "vassal" of the house of Rurik also has little to do with the activities of the Golden Family. And, finally, the hardship of the common population is the result of the Golden Horde carried out by the khans in 1255-1257. tax reform.
That is, of the six socio-political shifts of 1242-1462. Barn had direct or indirect involvement by four. The fall of the veche, the reorientation of the political preferences of the northeastern boyars, the liquidation of the ancient Russian city and the burden of the common population of specific Russia. In all these cases, it is impossible to speak of influenza, that is, the borrowing of specific Rus' experience of the Horde.
Ergo, the influence of the Golden Horde on the social and political life of Russia in 1242-1462 is not traced. There is an obvious impact, that is, direct intervention and change in national history by the triumphant winners in the second half of the 13th - first half of the 15th centuries.
Which of the historians came closest to solving the historical puzzle? S. M. Solovyov with his idea of the inviolability of the trend of national history, that neither the Normans nor the Mongols could really influence the historical course of Russia? B. D. Grekov with the statement about the exceptional negativity of the Horde experience for Russia, that our ancestors heroically overcame and rejected the Horde experience, that the only thing that the Golden Horde could achieve was to slow down the development of Russia? Or G. V. Vernadsky, who put forward the concept of a single historical trend of the Tatars and Northern Russia from the second half of the 13th century?
In order to fully answer this question, it is necessary to find out how S. M. Solovyov, B. D. Grekov and G. V. Vernadsky perceived the idea of historical continuity. For S. M. Solovyov, Kievan Rus and Muscovite Rus are two heterogeneous phenomena. But, despite the heterogeneity, they have one essence. Already at the end of the existence of the Old Russian state, the vectors of the Muscovite kingdom were visible. That is, the author of the fundamental history of Russia denies historical gaps. For him, history is always an evolutionary reshaping. Kievan Rus was evolutionarily reformatted into Moscow, the latter in Russian empire. B. D. Grekov, although he was the founder of historical materialism in Russian medieval studies, was skeptical about the possibility of a historical break. The main Eurasian historian, on the contrary, made this idea the alpha and omega of his concept. Between Muscovite and Kievan Rus lies an unbridgeable abyss. Since the Muscovite kingdom came out of the Golden Horde, and not from the Old Russian state, Kievan Rus is rather an aunt than a mother of Muscovite Rus. Northern part of the East Russian Plain in 1242-1462 a component of the Golden Horde, which decisively broke with its former history.
Whose point of view is more preferable: Grekov and Solovyov, who believe that Kievan and Moscow (specific) Rus had two hypostases, but one essence; or Vernadsky, who fully explored the Kyiv and Moscow period of national history? What place in these schemes can be put specific Russia?
First, undoubtedly, the trend of the Kyiv and Moscow segments is different. S. M. Solovyov is sure that it consists in the transition from the beginning of the tribal to the state. Although there is a serious reason for this concept, its contemporaries have already subjected it to the most severe criticism. Kievan Rus is a country of consortia, consensus, pluralistic form of government. Despite all the tricks, the Rurikoviches, even a branch of Yuri Dolgoruky, could not offer a life alternative. It is unlikely that some futurologist of the late XII century. could assume that in two and a half centuries one of them (Rurikovich) would be called the king, and all the rest serfs, that is, slaves. There were no prerequisites for this in Ancient Russia.
Without a doubt, between the message IX-XII centuries. and the message of the end of the 15th century - a huge distance. The question is, what role did the second half of the 13th - the first half of the 15th centuries play in this, and to what extent is the heterogeneity of the aspirations of the twelfth and fifteenth centuries natural and logical?
Let us recall once again what innovations came to Russia after 1242. In the economic sphere, the most obvious and important progress was the agrarianization of handicrafts. In the field of administration, the dominion of the Golden Horde brought universal military service and direct taxation. The khans became the godfathers of a significant increase in the judicial powers of the northern Russian princes. They, volens nolens, also stood at the origins of the birth of the domestic bureaucracy. The Horde also played a significant role in changing the social and political relations in Russia in the second half of the 13th - the first half of the 15th centuries. The fall of the veche, the Ruricophilia of the northeastern boyars, the draft attachment of the common people of specific Russia, the disappearance of the ancient Russian city as a phenomenon of social and political life, representatives of the Golden Family are involved in all this.
The history of specific Russia is moving in a strictly defined direction. Her sign is a departure from the horizontal system of succession to the throne. Instead of the legitimate-legal principle of the Old Russian state, the Rurikovichs of the fourteenth century put forward a different maxim: the strong are lawful. Unlike Monomakh, Yuri of Moscow and the second prince of Tver with the name Mikhail no longer need the equivalents of the abbot of the Vydubitsky monastery. Having become patrimonial princes, they adopted the thinking of the princes-owners, breaking with the mentality of the princes-politicians of Kievan Rus. In this capacity, they want to be autocratic, in every possible way pursuing and limiting the power of the younger representatives of the dynasties Daniil Alexandrovich, Yaroslav Yaroslavovich, Andrei Alexandrovich. Simeon the Proud, Mikhail II of Tverskoy, Dmitry Suzdalsky, Oleg Ryazansky demand disrespect and submission from their younger relatives. It (desires of submission) transforms the nature of public power. The dominant type comes to the place of the consortium of Ancient Russia. From now on, everything is decided not by establishing a consensus, but by pluralism of opinions. Everything determines the material possibilities of a descendant of Rurik, his order.
Undoubtedly, S. M. Soloviev, and B. D. Grekov are wrong - this is a break with the trend of Kievan Rus. Northern Russia 1242-1462 demonstrates a different intention than the East Russian Plain of 882-1242. Is this gap natural? Did it follow, at least, from the history of northeastern Russia of the Kievan period?
The future Moscow kingdom is a fragment of the Old Russian state. When Nevruy “destroyed” Andrew I, it became clear that the descendants of Vsevolod the Big Nest would have to be satisfied with the three territories of Kievan Rus. The fatherland of Yuri Dolgoruky and his sons, the legacy of Yaroslav Svyatoslavovich and the Novgorod land. These are different regions and their development in 882-1242. went differently. Suzdal Rus from the second half of the 12th century. the most powerful principality of the East Russian Plain. Ryazan, Murom, who went to Yaroslav Svyatoslavovich, are among the weakest. Novgorod is a special article of ancient Russian history, even the boyars of Chervonnaya Rus could not boast of the successes that fell to the lot of the Novgorod gentlemen.
If we assume that the trend of the socio-political development of Northern Russia in the second half of the XIII - the first half of the XV centuries. Naturally, there should be no discord in the evolution of the Zalesky land, the Ryazan principality and the Lord of Veliky Novgorod. And there, and there, and there you can see: the manorization of handicraft production; belittling the role and importance of the veche; ruricophilia boyars; an increase in the powers of the prince in the field of legal proceedings, administrative management, and taxation; the collapse of the phenomenon of the ancient Russian city.
Does the history of Veliky Novgorod demonstrate this? Only the first point is the crisis of urban crafts in the second half of the 13th century. Everything else is not inherent in Novgorod. The city was able to prevent even the new sacred cow of the Vsevolodovichs from entering its pasture. He put a barrier to the Grand Duke in the affairs of the city court, administrative management and the collection of fiscus. That is, Novgorod during the Horde period develops differently. He was able to remain faithful to ancient Russian traditions, to himself of the twelfth century.
Ryazan has a different story. It goes in the same direction as the Moscow and Tver principalities. But, Oleg Ivanovich's parish is godlessly late in its development. If Tver and Suzdal are a generation behind Moscow, then Ryazan is two.
That is, these innovations: belittling the role and importance of veche; ruricophilia boyars; an increase in the powers of the prince in the field of legal proceedings, administrative management, and taxation; the collapse of the phenomenon of the ancient Russian city is not natural for the entire north of the East Russian Plain.
How can one explain the different course of Novgorod and the lag of Ryazan? In our opinion, the main reason for the different discourses in Moscow, Ryazan and Novgorod is geography. From the city on Ilmen to the Horde border, more than one hundred kilometers. To attack Moscow suddenly, as Tokhtamysh showed, the Tatars could only in one case, if the Ryazan and Suzdal princes betray the cause of Russian unity, try on the guise of Svyatopolk the Accursed. Ryazan is another matter for her, the Horde outside the outskirts. The remoteness of Novgorod weakened it from the devastating raids of the Tatar cavalry. The geography of Moscow plus Ivan Kalita allowed the principality in the forty years of the fourteenth century: to give birth and raise two generations, to whose nerves the impressions of childhood did not instill the unaccountable horror of fathers and grandfathers before the Tatar: they went to Kulikovo field. Ryazan could not boast of either the first - ignorance of the horrors of the Tatar siege and assault, or the second - forty years of a quiet life, when those who are no longer afraid of the Horde grow up.
That is, the weakness of the Tatar press helped Novgorod to remain faithful to the precepts of Ancient Russia. Its huge cargo did not give the Ryazan principality a chance to compete on equal terms with the land of Yuri Dolgoruky. If, we add to this, traced back to the XII century. the desire of the princes of Suzdal Russia for autocracy, then the socio-political alignment of the XIV-XV centuries. will become completely clear.
So now we can answer the main question. The Moscow kingdom and the Old Russian state are two phenomena with different essences and hypostases. Russia specific is only half. Northern Russia in the second half of the XIII - the first half of the XV centuries. consists of two irreducible parts. On the one hand, the Zaleska land is the incubator of the future state of Ivan IV. On the other hand, the northwest of the East Russian Plain has remained faithful to the traditions of the past all these 220 years. We do not consider the gap between Moscow and Novgorod the result of the natural course of things. At the same time, we deny the absolute artificiality of the new situation that developed in the Moscow principality in the second third of the 14th century.
Movement from democracy IX-XII centuries. to the autocracy of the XVI-XX centuries, in the XIII-XV centuries. had two engines. One was created by the Golden Horde. Whether by chance, on purpose, but the khans, having transformed in the second third of the XIII century. associative-confederal Ancient Russia into a unitary state, where there is a recognized ruler by all - the Tatar king; failing to preserve the southern principalities in the second twenty-five years of the next century; but, having strengthened the north of the East Russian Plain; weakened towards the end of the 14th century. they passed on the art, and, more importantly, the material opportunities they created to the descendants of Vsevolod Vladimirsky and Yaroslav Ryazansky. By the will of fate, the princes of the city on the Moscow River turned out to be the most successful and skillful students. The Rurikovichs created another engine on their own. Lost in the second half of the XIII century. most of their political power, they transformed themselves into patrimonial princes. In the XIV-XV centuries Zalesky Vsevolodovichi and Oksky Yaroslavovichi successfully spread this new feeling beyond the boundaries of the domain itself. Consequently, Genghisides are only cousins of the tsars of the Daniil Alexandrovich dynasty and the emperors of the Romanov family.
Neither Solovyov, nor Grekov, nor Vernadsky were able to fully solve the historical puzzle that took shape in 1242-1462. The Horde has played its role, and it is by no means the role of an extra in national history. For those two and a half hundred years that the Mongols ruled in Russia, they did not always and not in everything hinder and hinder the forward movement of the Russian people. Specific Russia is only de jure part of the Golden Horde. De facto Novgorod does not accept and rejects the experience of the Horde. The more accommodating Zalesky land is not a miserable copier of the Horde's experience. The most important intention of its socio-economic and socio-political development - the patrimonial monarchy is in no way connected with the history of the state of Batu Khan. And even where the Horde hand can be traced, it is impossible to talk about the influence of the Jochid country. The princes who succeeded Vsevolod III and Ingvar of Ryazan had no way out. They did not voluntarily borrow (and without this there can be no influence of one on the other) military service, direct, universal taxation, etc. The kings of Russia, Berke and Uzbek, indicated: "so be it."
Ergo Horde did not influence Russia. All qualitative innovations, one way or another, are connected with it: derogation of the role and importance of the veche; ruricophilia boyars; an increase in the powers of the prince in the field of legal proceedings, administrative management, and taxation; the collapse of the phenomenon of the ancient Russian city were, in general, forcibly introduced by the khans. The descendants of Jochi stopped halfway. When at the end of the XIV - the first half of the XV centuries. a banner fell from their weakened hands, it was successfully picked up by Vasily Dmitrievich, Vasily Vasilyevich, and Ivan Vasilyevich. They were able to do what the Golden Horde Khan failed to do - to conquer the northwestern part of Northern Russia. (Under conquest should be understood the violent demolition of one trend of social development inherent in Novgorod and Pskov in the 14th-15th centuries, and the equally violent introduction of another). So, the Horde did not influence, but in an imperative and forceful way influenced the social development of specific Russia.
Bibliographic list
- Alekseev Yu.G. Pskov court charter. Pskov, 1997
- Weber M. Economy and society M., 2010.
- Vernadsky G.V. Mongols and Russia. Tver, 1997
- Vladimirsky-Budanov M.F. Review of the history of Russian law
- Grekov B.D., Yakubovsky A.A. Golden Horde and its fall. - M.-L.: 1950
- Ilovaisky D. I. History of the Ryazan Principality. M., 1884,
- Karamzin N.M. History of Russian Goverment. - M., 1988. Book 1. Volume. eleven
- Kuza A.V. Small cities of Ancient Russia. M., 1989.
- Kuchkin V. A. Formation of the state territory of North-Eastern Russia in the X-XIV centuries. / V. A. Kuchkin. M., 1984
- Mongait A.L. Ryazan land M., 1961.
- Pavlov-Silvansky N. P. Feudalism in Ancient Russia Petrograd, 1924
- Smirnov P.P. Posad people and their class struggle until the middle of the 17th century, vol. 1-2, M.-L., 1947-1948.
- Sudebnik XV-XVI centuries. / Under the total. ed. Academician B. D. Grekov. M.; L., 1952.
- Yanin V.L. Novgorod posadniks. M., 2003.
PLAN
PLAN………………………………………………………………………………2
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...3
- Golden Horde……………………………………………………………... .4
The influence of the Horde on the economy of Russia………………………………………….5
- Agriculture ………………………………………………….5
Trade ……………………………………………………………..7
Handicraft production …………………………………………………………7
Culture of Russia……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Church during the Mongol-Tatar yoke……………………………11
Literature:…………………………………………………………………………15
- Introduction
Many saw the reasons for our current situation in the mistakes of our distant ancestors, which led to the conquest of Russia by the Mongols, which reversed or stopped the development of our state, one of the most progressive and free by the standards of that time, and changed our geopolitical orientation towards the east. Therefore, it is not surprising that now many historians are actively studying and revising this particular period, because it is more likely that it was he who became a turning point in the development of Russia.
This topic is very relevant in our time. The purpose of the work is to consider the relationship between Russia and the Golden Horde in economic, political and cultural terms in the XII-XIV centuries.
Main tasks: The economy of Russia during the attack of the Mongols; the policy of the Russian princes under the influence of the Golden Horde; what changes have taken place in Russian culture; Church and its role in Russia.
- Golden Horde.
The Golden Horde covered a vast territory from the Danube to the Irtysh (Crimea, the North Caucasus, part of the lands of Russia located in the steppes, the former lands of Volga Bulgaria and nomadic peoples, Western Siberia and part of Central Asia). The capital of the Golden Horde was the city of Saray, located in the lower reaches of the Volga ("saray" in Russian means "palace"). It was a state consisting of semi-independent uluses, united under the rule of the khan. They were ruled by the Batu brothers and the local aristocracy.
Military and financial issues were resolved at a kind of aristocratic council, called the "sofa". Being surrounded by the Turkic-speaking population, the Mongols adopted the Turkic language. The local Turkic-speaking ethnic group assimilated the newcomers-Mongols. A new people was formed - the Tatars. In the first decades of the existence of the Golden Horde, its religion was paganism.
The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of its time. In the fourteenth century, she could put up a 300,000th army. The heyday of the Golden Horde falls on the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342). In 1312 the state religion. Then, like other medieval states, the Horde experienced a period of fragmentation. Already in the fourteenth century. The Central Asian possessions of the Golden Horde separated, and in the 15th century. The Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443), Astrakhan (mid-fifteenth century) and Siberian (end of the fifteenth century) khanates emerged.
- Influence of the Horde on the economy of Russia.
- Agriculture
First of all, it should be noted that the destroyed agriculture was not beneficial to the Mongols, since the rural population, which did not differ in particular professional qualities, made up the majority and, as a result, paid the bulk of the taxes collected from Russia. It should also be noted that Russian agriculture also supplied the Mongol army with the administration in the territories directly controlled by them. The same can be said about hunting and fishing, iron smelting and salt mining also did not decrease, since most of the developed deposits were located in untouched and hard-to-reach territories for the Mongols, in the northern part of the Vladimir principality and in Novgorod territory.
Naturally, the relatively small damage to agriculture and its further growth against the backdrop of devastation in handicraft production led to an increase in its importance and cessation in the main branch of the economy, which later became one of its distinguishing features.
Not only the direct influence of the Mongols is important. Already from the XII century, there was an intensified movement of the population from the south to the northeast from the Kyiv, Pereslavl and Chernigov principalities to the Oka and the upper Volga, to the Rostov-Suzdal land. New cities are beginning to emerge at a rapid pace, and it is precisely of resettlement origin. In Russia, unlike Western Europe, there was much more free land, for a peasant, acquiring a farm was still fraught with hard work, so an extreme case could force him to go to resettlement.
Historically, Southern Russia was inhabited and for centuries subjected to raids by nomads who devastated it, undermined the growth of the productive forces of the population and, in the end, pushed it away from the shores of the Black Sea. No less ruined the land and the princes themselves, who went after the full and hired the Polovtsy for their own purposes. In addition, the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204 and the reduction of fief industries meant great economic problems for Southern Russia. All this, in the presence of the aforementioned free spaces, even before the Mongol invasion, led to an outflow of the population from the south. The Mongol invasion acted here as the last blow, and it seems quite natural that it was in the north, which had already become a traditional point of migration and seemed to be the safest, that the population sought salvation from raids. Naturally, the Mongol invasion in its scale far exceeded the raids of nomads and princely strife, which could not but affect the intensity and mass character of the resettlement.
After that, "the ancient regions of Kievan Rus turn into a desert with a meager remnant of the former population." Of course, most of the population was destroyed or taken prisoner, but the fact of flight to the north cannot be denied. It is this fact, which led to the rapid growth of the population in previously sparsely populated areas, according to G.V. Vernadsky, and was the reason for the clearing of more and more areas of forests for arable land and the increase in production and the role of agriculture in the central and eastern parts of the country.
- Trade
- Craft production.
The reduction in the number of professional artisans led to the cessation of development and the regression of the production tradition. The greatest damage was inflicted on the advanced crafts of those times, since it was they that were of the greatest value to the Mongols. The art of cloisonné enamel and drawing techniques disappeared, and were only restored in a rough form by the 16th century; fabric production was discontinued for a century. But the stone construction and jewelry business suffered the most.
A noticeable restoration of the industrial potential throughout Russia became possible only by the middle of the 16th century and was associated with the weakening of the Golden Horde and, as a result, with a decrease in Mongol control over Russia.
But one cannot fail to note other aspects of the influence of the Mongolian policy towards crafts. Its consequences, as it turned out later, were reflected not only in a direct reduction in production and the number of crafts, but also in the economic structure itself. On the one hand, the disappearance of urban crafts led to a sharp reduction in the supply of goods, which led to an increase in the dependence of rural residents on their own production and, accordingly, to an increase in the role of subsistence farming. On the other hand, the elite of society and the monasteries also had no alternative to the development of crafts in their own domains. This forced the princes and boyars to negotiate with the khan to allow him to keep several artisans. This is how the situation developed when the few remaining artisans lived and worked for the prince or in church possessions, freed from duties.
- Influence of the Horde on the politics of Russia.
The most severe Mongol yoke was established. The relations of vassalage were not secured by any agreement, but were simply dictated by the conqueror. Russian princes had to be approved for reign in the Horde, receiving a label from the khan. The princes of Vladimir received a special label from the khan. The special commissioners of the Golden Horde Khan put on the throne of the Grand Duke. Receiving khan's labels in the Horde, as well as when summoning princes to the Horde, was necessarily accompanied by the presentation of rich gifts. One of the main vassal duties of the Russian principalities was the payment of tribute to the khan - a tenth of all income from the population of the principality. Only the Russian Orthodox Church was exempted from this exaction. In addition, the population had to provide horses and carts, pay special trade and craft duties, provide food (food), satisfy the requirements of the Horde and its officials.
The Golden Horde ordered tributes and requisitions from the Russian principalities to be carried out by specially authorized darugs and Baskaks, who came to the principalities with a large retinue of counters, weighers and guard cavalry detachments. In Vladimir there was the main Baskak, to whom the Baskaks of other principalities - Ryazan, Murom, Smolensk, Tver, Kursk, etc. were subordinate. The need to pay tribute to the Horde and other taxes (14 types in total) had a hard effect on the economy of Russia. The size of the tribute was very large, only the "tsar's tribute", i.e. tribute in favor of the khan, which was first collected in kind, and then in money, amounted to 1300 kg of silver per year. The constant tribute was supplemented by "requests" - one-time extortions in favor of the khan. In addition, deductions from trade duties, taxes for "feeding" the khan's officials and others went to the khan's treasury. Until the end of the XIII century. tribute collectors were besermen (Muslim merchants) and Baskaks. A series of uprisings that swept through the cities of Russia in connection with their abuses, especially in the early 60s, forced the khans of the Horde to gradually transfer the function of collecting tribute into the hands of the Russian princes. The payment of tribute to Russia was stopped in 1478.
To intimidate the Russian population, as well as to further enrich the Horde, the Mongol-Tatars systematically raided the principalities. At the same time, many people were taken into captivity, cities and villages were ruined and burned.
The Russian people never put up with the Mongol-Tatar yoke and, together with other peoples, offered stubborn resistance to the invaders. With the rise of the Moscow Principality, the Russian people, under the leadership of Grand Duke Dmitry, dealt the first crushing blow to the hordes of the Golden Horde in 1380 in the great battle on the Kulikovo field. The Russian people achieved the final liberation from the invaders in
etc.................
The Golden Horde was retroactively called in the 16th century the state of the descendants of Genghis Khan - Ulus Jochi, which from 1240 to 1480 exercised supreme suzerainty over a significant part of Russian lands. This order of administration of vassal territories was called by historians the “Mongol-Tatar yoke” only in the 19th century.
Yoke - distorted Latin iugum (yoke). The ancient Romans and their neighbors had a custom to lead the defeated tribe under a symbolic yoke of two spears stuck into the ground with a crossbar from the third. This rite meant surrender to the will of the winner, who mercifully gave life to the vanquished. In relation to relations between Russia and the Horde, the word iugum was first used, also retroactively, by the Poles at the end of the 16th century - during the war with Russia. The Russians did not know this concept.
Establishment of the "yoke"
After the campaigns of Batu (Batu Khan) against Russia in 1237-1240, the Russian princes were brought to the obedience of the multilingual empire of the descendants of Genghis Khan. In 1243, Batu ordered the Vladimir-Suzdal prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich to go to him in Saray on the Lower Volga to recognize the dominance of the khan, threatening disobedience with a new cruel ruin of the Russian land. Yaroslav did not dare to resist, and the khan granted him a label for a great reign - supremacy over all Russian lands. However, this decision then required approval in the capital of the entire Chinggisid empire - Karakorum in Mongolia. In 1245, Prince Yaroslav set off on a long journey, from which he never returned - he died on the way home.
The label for the great reign after a long struggle with his brother Andrei was received in 1252 by Alexander Yaroslavovich (nicknamed Nevsky). According to Russian testimonies, Batu Khan graciously accepted the humble Alexander and, treating him to koumiss, said: “You are already completely ours, Tatar, drink our drink.”
Khan Ulus Jochi issued labels to Russian princes even when he remained formally dependent on the Supreme Khan in Karakorum. However, this time was short-lived. It was impossible to control a huge empire from one remote center, from which it took more than one year to travel to the outskirts. Already in 1269, Khan Mengu-Timur finally made the Golden Horde independent, and the Russian princes stopped going to bow further down the Volga.
The Khan of the Golden Horde in Russia was called the tsar, and subsequently this title was transferred to the Moscow tsars. The epithet iugum to the dependence of Russian princes on the Horde khans arose, perhaps in connection with the rite of worship to which all the royal vassals were subjected before being allowed before the royal eyes. Vassal princes were obliged at the entrance to the royal tent to pass between two "cleansing" fires and bow to the spirits of the royal ancestors. According to legend, for refusing to perform such a rite in 1246, Prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich of Chernigov was subjected to a painful execution in the Horde. Judging by the fact that such a rite was applied to all the princes who came to the Horde, none of them had problems with faith anymore - they all considered it normal to respect the customs of the overlord.
The khan's label was considered the most important source of princely rights in Russia. In their disputes over seniority, the princes themselves resorted to the arbitration of the king of the Horde. Most often, they complained to him about the opponent, that he was defaming the king and was going to rebel against him, they brought the Horde army with them and devastated the opponent's land. So did, for example, Alexander Nevsky in 1252, Ivan Kalita in 1327 and many others. Sometimes the case was decided by a peaceful court.
So, in 1431, a feud broke out between the Moscow prince Vasily II Vasilyevich and his uncle Yuri Dmitrievich for the great reign. Both went to the Horde, and Khan Ulu-Mohammed awarded the label to Vasily. At the same time, according to the chronicle, a certain Moscow boyar realized in time to tell the khan: “Yuri is looking for a great reign according to ancient Russian rights, and our sovereign - by your mercy, knowing that it is your ulus: you will give it to whomever you want. Khan liked the servile speech, and he approved the Grand Duke's table for the Moscow pretender.
For the solemn enthronement, which took place in Vladimir, the Grand Duke came with the Khan's nobleman. The latter gave him there, in the Assumption Cathedral, in the presence of the metropolitan, a label - an analogue of Western European investiture, having previously read it in Russian and Tatar. All the Russian grand dukes of the Horde period went through this procedure, including the last one, Ivan III, who founded independent Russia after the collapse of the Horde.
The Russian princes were obliged to provide the khans with their squads for military campaigns. So, in 1277, on the orders of Khan Mengu-Timur, the squads of the Grand Duke Dmitry Alexandrovich and his vassal princes participated in the Horde's campaign against the Ossetian Yasses in the Caucasus. In the future, there are no references to such distant campaigns of Russian troops as part of the Horde armies: apparently, the khans did not highly appreciate their fighting qualities.
Initially, the Horde khans, not fully trusting their henchmen in the person of the great princes, ruled in Russia through their governors - the Baskaks. Baskaks were appointed to each princely center and were a kind of overseers of the princes, and the great Baskak of Vladimir was inseparable from the Grand Duke. Without his advice and approval, the Grand Duke did not have the right to start a war and make peace with neighboring Russian princes and Western states. So, in 1269, the great Baskak Amragan, who came to Novgorod with the Grand Duke Yaroslav Yaroslavovich, approved his intention to go to war against the Teutonic Order.
The Baskaks and the staff of scribes subordinate to them kept records of the population of the subject lands and once every fifteen years made an allocation of poll tribute. In 1257, Alexander Nevsky brought the Baskaks with him to the previously free Novgorod, where an uprising broke out against them, brutally suppressed by the prince's squad without the participation of the Tatars. The main dissatisfaction of the townspeople was caused by the fact that everyone was obliged to pay tribute equally, regardless of income. The Baskaks left the collection of tribute at the mercy of rich merchants from Khorezm, against whom revolts also broke out from time to time. Somewhere from the end of the 13th century, references to the Baskaks and eastern tax-farmers fade away - the khans entrust the collection and delivery of tribute to the princes.
The interest of the top in the "yoke"
Not only princes benefited from the inclusion of Russia in a multinational empire. The centuries of the Horde yoke are the time of a new rise in the economy of Russia. This is evidenced by the resumption of monetary circulation in the 14th century, which disappeared in Russia as early as the 12th century, during the period of fragmentation. There were Horde dengs with the names of khans and a double-headed eagle (a symbol of the Turkic Khaganate back in the 6th century), on which, from the end of the 14th century, Moscow princes began to set their coinage.
The church enjoyed great privileges in the Horde even after the adoption of Islam by the ruling elite of the Horde at the beginning of the 14th century. The legend about the murder of the Ryazan prince Roman Olgovich in the Horde in 1270 for refusing to convert to Islam is obviously unreliable, since no other attempts by the Horde to convert Russians to their faith are known.
Sergeeva Olga Evgenievna
3rd year student, Department of Museum Studies, FSBEI HPE “UlGPU named after A.I. I.N. Ulyanova, Ulyanovsk
Shinkarova Natalya Vladimirovna
scientific supervisor, Ph.D. philol. Sci., Associate Professor of the Department of Museum Studies, FSBEI HPE “UlSPU named after A.I. I.N. Ulyanova, Ulyanovsk
Introduction
This work is devoted to the study of the influence of the culture of the Golden Horde on the culture of Ancient Russia.
The history of the Golden Horde was studied by many scientists of the 19th-20th centuries, such as N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Solovyov, V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov, P.N. Savitsky, A.N. Nasonov and others. At the same time, the topic of the cultural heritage of the Tatar-Mongolian state practically remained without attention.
The relevance of the work : due to the multinationality of our country and culture, the ever-decreasing severity of the national question, the problems of tolerance, as well as the revival of religions - Islam and Christianity in Russia, after the atheism of the Soviet period, there is a need to study two cultures. In modern social thought, the understanding that, having lived side by side for hundreds of years, our cultures (the culture of the ancestors of the Tatar-Mongol and the culture of the Slavs), although they remained very different, still had mutual influences on each other, is becoming more and more acute. In particular, this work examines the influence of the Tatar-Mongols on the culture of Ancient Russia.
§ 1. On the issue of studying the history of the Golden Horde. (Ulus Jochi)
The lands of the Golden Horde included: the lands of southeastern Europe from the Dnieper to the east, counting the Crimea and the Bulgars, the Middle and Lower Volga regions, the Southern Urals, the North Caucasus to Derbend, Northern Khorezm, Western Siberia. City Barn("Palace"), located in the lower reaches of the Volga, was the capital of the Golden Horde.
Ancient Russia was not part of the Golden Horde, but fell into vassalage - the population of the state paid tribute and obeyed the orders of the khans.
In the middle of the XIV century. The Golden Horde was one of the largest states in Europe and Asia. Historically, this colossal semi-state, semi-nomadic did not last long - about 200 years. The simplest was the state structure of the Golden Horde. The unity of the Horde rested on a system of cruel terror.
The fall of the Golden Horde was predetermined by the following signs: a vast territory inhabited by peoples with dissimilar cultures, religions and customs, separatist tendencies and endless unrest (for example, in 1361 six khans changed on the throne of the Golden Horde, and after 1362 the Golden Horde actually broke up into two parts, the border of which was the Volga), the ferocious campaign of Tamerlane in 1395, Battle of Kulikovo and etc.
§ 2. Manifestations of the influence of the Golden Horde in various areas of modern Russian culture.
The negative consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion are known to everyone, so in this work we will not dwell on this issue. Let us immediately move on to the positive consequences of the influence of the culture of the Golden Horde.
2.1. Elements of Russian everyday culture, formed under the influence of the Golden Horde.
For more than 200 years, the Mongol yoke has brought about transformations in all spheres of life in Russian society. Bringing their own changes to everyday life, clothing, jewelry, construction and trade relations. throughout culture as a whole.
Clothing has changed: long white Slavic shirts and long pants have been replaced golden caftans, colored bloomers and morocco boots. Such women's jewelry as beads, beads, shells, etc. came into use.
They brought to Russian culture abacus, which even now the West does not know, felt boots, dumplings, coffee, the identity of Russian and Asian carpentry and joinery tools, the similarity of the walls of the Kremlin of Beijing (Khan-Balyk) and Moscow and other cities - all this is the influence of the East.
Thanks to Mongol rule over a vast territory, Muslim sciences and crafts were transferred to Far East, the invention of the Chinese and their administrative art became the property of the West.
The influence of the East on Russian culture is clearly reflected in dancing. While in the West there should be a couple in the dance - a lady and a gentleman, in the dances of Russian and Eastern peoples this is not important. The movements of a man are given room for improvisation. Similar to oriental dances, Russian dance is more like a competition in dexterity, flexibility and rhythm of the body.
Having noted all of the above, it can be established as a historical fact that the Mongol rule in Asia and Europe contributed not to the fall, but to some extent to the rise of the culture of Russia.
2.2. Words that came from the Golden Horde
Living in the neighborhood and the constant interaction of Russians with the Tatar-Mongols could not but affect the language. He, as well as other spheres of life, was affected by significant changes. Under the influence of the Golden Horde, many Turkic words came into the Russian language.
Somewhere in the fifth or sixth part of the vocabulary of Turkic origin. They have long become an integral part of the Russian language, and are not regarded by us as borrowed.
Many Mongolian words have been preserved relating to the state (Cossack, guard, label) and economic (treasury, tamga (where customs), goods) device. Other borrowings relate to such areas as construction (tin, brick, shack), jewelry (turquoise, pearls, earring), garden (watermelon, rhubarb), fabrics (coarse calico, felt, calico, braid), clothing and footwear (shoe, caftan , sash, veil, stocking, pants). Some other borrowings of this period: badger, damask steel, pencil, dagger, target, elephant, cockroach, prison.
Watermelon(borrowed through Kypch. χarbuz, Tur., Crimean-Tat. Karpuz, from Persian χarbūza, χarbuza - melon) - a large, round, juicy, sweet fruit of a garden plant from the gourd family.
Brick(borrowed from Turkic: cf. Turkish kirpiǯ, Tatar kirpič "brick", Azerbaijani Kärpχič) is an artificial stone made in the form of baked clay bars and used for buildings.
Cockroach(Turk. taraqan) - Orthopterous omnivorous insect that is harmful in the household.
Many of these words are so familiar and familiar that one cannot even think
that they are not of Slavic origin. Nevertheless, they have long come into use and are not considered foreign.
2.3. Proverbs and sayings about the time of the Mongol-Tatar yoke
The long period of interaction between Russia and the Golden Horde could not but leave its mark on the folklore of the Russian people. Of the foreigners, the most significant block of proverbs is dedicated to the Tatars, which the Russian people associate with the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the subsequent yoke. In proverbs and sayings, the people complain about the hardships of the Mongol yoke.
The following work was used as the main source: Proverbs of the Russian people. Collection of V. Dahl in two volumes. - M. Fiction. 1984 .
“Beat the alarm, the Tatar is coming” (Raise the alarm, disturb, excite).
“This is real Tatarism” (Memories of Tatar power; violence, arbitrariness).
"It's too early for the Tatars to go to Russia"
"Unwittingly, only the Tatars take"
“I won’t wish the evil Tatar either” (So bad).
“The Tatar honor is worse than evil” (In the sense that the price of the enemy’s mercy is too high, exorbitant for a noble, decent person)
“An uninvited guest is worse than a Tatar” (It is usually said with annoyance about a person who came to visit without an invitation or at the wrong time; usually behind the eyes)
"Angier than an evil Tatar" (Very angry)
“They did a lot of trouble to us - the Crimean Khan, and the Pope of Rome”
“The elders are also revered in the Horde”
“Do not teach the white swan to swim and the boyar son to fight with the Tatars”
“Empty, as if Mamai passed” (Option: Here, as if Mamai fought)
"A real mother's massacre"
“Sharp the sword, but there is no one to whip: the Tatars are in the Crimea, and the Pope is in Lithuania”
“The time has passed for the Tatars (enemies) to go to Russia”
“And the Tatars take the seated one” (Dishonest)
2.4. Surnames that came from the Golden Horde
A fair amount of Russian noble families (near 15%.) considered natives of the Golden Horde to be its founders. Most of them fled under the patronage of the Moscow sovereign during the Great Troubles (Great Zamyatnia) in the Golden Horde, which lasted from 1359 to 1380.
The influence of the serving Turkic nobility on the history of Russia can hardly be overestimated. Natives of this environment even became sovereigns of all Russia. For example, the king Ivan the Terrible was a Tatar by mother, a baptized Tatar Elena Glinskaya, and this circumstance was used by him during the conquest of Kazan, in the struggle for the Kazan throne.
Many researchers addressed the problem of the emergence of Tatar surnames, among which two scientists are most complete and detailed: the historian S.B. Veselovsky in his book Onomastics. Old Russian names, nicknames and surnames ”and N.A. Baskakov in the book "Russian surnames of Turkic origin". Their works and archival documents were used in the Research Center of Lomonosov Moscow State University, I did not use the complete list of the Research Center in my work.
The most famous names of Russian history that emerged from the Golden Horde:
1. BUNINS(approx. Russian writer, poet - Bunin Ivan Alekseevich) From Bunin Prokuda Mikhailovich (died in 1595), whose grandfather, who left the Horde to the Ryazan princes, received land in the Ryazhsky district
2. KARAMZINA(approx. writer, poet, historian Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin) The official genealogy notes the origin of the surname from a Tatar murza named Kara Murza. The etymology of the nickname of the surname Karamza - Karamurza is quite transparent: kara "black", murza ~ mirza "lord, prince".
3. RACHMANINOV (approx. Russian composer Sergei Vasilievich Rakhmaninov) From Rahman (from the Arab-Muslim rahman "merciful") from the Horde.
4. SCRIABINS(approx. Russian composer and pianist - Alexander Nikolaevich Skryabin) From Sokur Bey from the Horde. The etymology of Sokur Bey is transparent Turkic - "blind bey".
5. TURGENEVS(approx. Russian writer Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev) From Murza Turgen Leo (Arslan), who left the Horde around 1440 to Vel. book. Vasily Ivanovich. The surname Turgenev has a completely obvious Turkic-Mongolian basis - the qualitative adjective turgen Mongolian. "quick", "quick", "hasty", "quick-tempered".
6. LANGUAGE(approx. famous poet, Pushkin's friend Nikolai Mikhailovich Yazykov) From Yengulai Yazykov from the Golden Horde. The release time, obviously, should be attributed to the turn of the XIV-XV centuries, since in the XV century the Yazykovs, as Russian nobles, were already well known
And many other scientists, military men, and writers were from clans whose founders had once left the Golden Horde.
Conclusion
In the course of the research, the following conclusions were reached:
For more than 200 years, the Mongol yoke has made changes in all spheres of Russian society - socio-economic, political, cultural. The transformations affected Russian national clothes, jewelry, construction and trade relations.
In general, the process of traditions of the Kyiv state was interrupted. But for all the tragedy, the era of the Mongol conquests was not simple and unambiguous. Scientists have not come to one opinion, since each phenomenon has both pluses and minuses. Therefore, an absolutely negative attitude towards the Mongol conquest and everything connected with it, I think, is not entirely legitimate. To some extent, the Mongol rule in Asia and Europe contributed not to the fall, but to the rise of the culture of Russia.
The invasion of the Golden Horde brought many troubles. Cities were destroyed, the population died from hunger, fires and arrows. Many crafts disappeared, the technique of some of them was lost forever. Many cultural monuments of antiquity perished. But the country, by historical standards, quickly recovered. And in place of the old culture, a new one arose, updated and supplemented by influxes of oriental cultures.
The language was updated, as history will show, with actual words. Many of which do not seem to be borrowed now.
The Russian nobility was greatly supplemented during the reign of the Tatar-Mongol. About 15% of Russian noble families considered natives of the Golden Horde to be their founders. Their influence on the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. Famous scientists, musicians, writers, statesmen and military figures, etc. came from that environment. It is impossible to imagine Russia without them.
Summing up this work, it should be emphasized once again that the study of this topic cannot be one-sided, and the assessment of the influence of the Golden Horde on Russian culture is unequivocal.
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