In his practice, every electrician encounters different conditions for the passage of charge carriers in metals, semiconductors, gases and liquids. The magnitude of the current is affected by the electrical resistance, which varies in various ways under the influence of environment.
One of these factors is the effect of temperature. Since it significantly changes the conditions for the flow of current, it is taken into account by designers in the production of electrical equipment. Electrical personnel involved in the maintenance and operation of electrical installations must competently use these features in practical work.
The effect of temperature on the electrical resistance of metals
IN school course physicists are invited to conduct such an experiment: take an ammeter, a battery, a piece of wire, connecting wires and a burner. Instead of an ammeter with a battery, you can connect an ohmmeter or use its mode in a multimeter.
Now we bring the flame of the burner to the wire and begin to heat it. If you look at the ammeter, you will see that the arrow will move to the left and reach the position marked in red.
The result of the experiment demonstrates that when metals are heated, their conductivity decreases, and the resistance increases.
The mathematical justification for this phenomenon is given by the formulas right in the picture. In the lower expression, it is clearly seen that the electrical resistance "R" of a metal conductor is directly proportional to its temperature "T" and depends on several more parameters.
How heating metals limits electric current in practice
Incandescent lamps
Every day, when the lighting is turned on, we meet with the manifestation of this property in incandescent lamps. We will carry out simple measurements on a light bulb with a power of 60 watts.
With the simplest ohmmeter, powered by a low-voltage 4.5 V battery, we measure the resistance between the base contacts and see the value of 59 ohms. This value is possessed by a filament in a cold state.
We screw the light bulb into the cartridge and through the ammeter we connect the voltage of the home network of 220 volts to it. The ammeter needle will show 0.273 amperes. Let us determine the resistance of the filament in the heated state. It will be 896 ohms and will exceed the previous ohmmeter reading by 15.2 times.
Such an excess protects the metal of the body of heat from burnout and destruction, ensuring its long-term performance under voltage.
Turn-on transients
When the filament is in operation, a thermal balance is created on it between heating from the passing electric current and the removal of part of the heat to the environment. But, at the initial stage of switching on, when voltage is applied, transients occur that create an inrush current, which can lead to the filament burnout.
Transient processes occur in a short time and are caused by the fact that the rate of increase in electrical resistance from heating the metal does not keep pace with the increase in current. After their completion, the operating mode is set.
During a long glow of the lamp, the thickness of its filament gradually reaches a critical state, which leads to burnout. Most often, this moment occurs at the next new inclusion.
To extend the life of the lamp, this inrush current is reduced in various ways, using:
1. devices that provide smooth supply and removal of voltage;
2. circuits for connecting resistors, semiconductors or thermistors (thermistors) in series to the filament.
An example of one of the ways to limit the inrush current for car lights is shown in the picture below.
Here, the current is supplied to the bulb after switching on the SA toggle switch through the FU fuse and is limited by the resistor R, whose value is selected so that the current surge during transients does not exceed the nominal value.
When the filament is heated, its resistance increases, which leads to an increase in the potential difference between its contacts and the parallel connected winding of the KL1 relay. When the voltage reaches the relay setting, the normally open contact KL1 closes and shunts the resistor. The operating current of the already established mode will begin to flow through the light bulb.
The effect of metal temperature on its electrical resistance is used in the operation of measuring instruments. They are called .
Their sensitive element is made of a thin metal wire, the resistance of which is carefully measured at certain temperatures. This thread is mounted in a housing with stable thermal properties and covered with a protective cover. The created structure is placed in an environment whose temperature must be constantly monitored.
Wires of the electrical circuit are mounted on the terminals of the sensitive element, with which the resistance measurement circuit is connected. Its value is converted into temperature values based on the previously performed instrument calibration.
Baretter - current stabilizer
This is the name of a device consisting of a glass sealed cylinder with gaseous hydrogen and a metal wire spiral made of iron, tungsten or platinum. This design resembles an incandescent bulb in appearance, but it has a specific volt-ampere non-linear characteristic.
On the CVC, in a certain range, a working zone is formed, which does not depend on the fluctuations of the voltage applied to the heating body. In this section, the barter compensates well for power ripples and works as a current stabilizer on a load connected in series to it.
The operation of the barter is based on the property of thermal inertia of the filament, which is provided by the small cross section of the filament and the high thermal conductivity of the hydrogen surrounding it. Due to this, when the voltage on the device decreases, heat removal from its thread is accelerated.
This is the main difference between the barter and incandescent lighting lamps, in which, in order to maintain the brightness of the glow, they seek to reduce convective heat loss from the filament.
Superconductivity
Under normal environmental conditions, when a metal conductor is cooled, its electrical resistance decreases.
When the critical temperature is reached, close to zero degrees according to the Kelvin measurement system, there is a sharp drop in resistance to zero. The right picture shows such a dependence for mercury.
This phenomenon, called superconductivity, is considered a promising area for research in order to create materials that can significantly reduce the loss of electricity during its transmission over long distances.
However, ongoing studies of superconductivity have revealed a number of regularities when other factors influence the electrical resistance of a metal located in the region of critical temperatures. In particular, during the passage of an alternating current with an increase in the frequency of its oscillations, resistance arises, the value of which reaches the range of ordinary values for harmonics with a period of light waves.
The effect of temperature on the electrical resistance/conductivity of gases
Gases and ordinary air are dielectrics and do not conduct electricity. For its formation, charge carriers are needed, which are ions formed as a result of external factors.
Heating can cause ionization and movement of ions from one pole of the medium to another. This can be verified by a simple experiment. Let's take the same equipment that was used to determine the effect of heating on the resistance of a metal conductor, but instead of a wire, we connect two metal plates separated by air space to the wires.
An ammeter connected to the circuit will indicate the absence of current. If a burner flame is placed between the plates, the arrow of the device will deviate from zero and show the value of the current passing through the gaseous medium.
Thus, it was established that ionization occurs in gases during heating, leading to the movement of electrically charged particles and a decrease in the resistance of the medium.
The current value is affected by the power of the external applied voltage source and the potential difference between its contacts. It is capable of breaking through at high values insulating layer gases. A characteristic manifestation of such a case in nature is the natural discharge of lightning during a thunderstorm.
An approximate view of the current-voltage characteristic of current flow in gases is shown in the graph.
At the initial stage, under the action of temperature and potential difference, an increase in ionization and the passage of current approximately according to a linear law are observed. The curve then becomes horizontal when the increase in voltage does not cause an increase in current.
The third stage of breakdown occurs when the high energy of the applied field accelerates the ions so that they begin to collide with neutral molecules, massively forming new charge carriers from them. As a result, the current increases sharply, forming a breakdown of the dielectric layer.
Practical use of the conductivity of gases
The phenomenon of current flow through gases is used in electronic lamps and fluorescent lamps.
To do this, two electrodes are placed inside a sealed glass cylinder with an inert gas:
1. anode;
2. cathode.
In a fluorescent lamp, they are made in the form of filaments, which are heated when turned on to create thermionic emission. The inner surface of the flask is covered with a layer of phosphor. It emits the spectrum of light that we see, which is formed by infrared radiation coming from mercury vapor bombarded by a stream of electrons.
The gas discharge current occurs when a voltage of a certain value is applied between the electrodes located at different ends of the bulb.
When one of the filaments burns out, then the electron emission will be disturbed on this electrode and the lamp will not burn. However, if the potential difference between the cathode and the anode is increased, then a gas discharge will again occur inside the bulb and the glow of the phosphor will resume.
This allows you to use LED bulbs with broken filaments and extend their service life. It should only be borne in mind that in this case it is necessary to increase the voltage on it several times, and this significantly increases the power consumption and the risks of safe use.
The effect of temperature on the electrical resistance of liquids
The passage of current in liquids is created mainly due to the movement of cations and anions under the action of an externally applied electric field. Only a small part of the conductivity is provided by electrons.
The effect of temperature on the value of the electrical resistance of the liquid electrolyte is described by the formula shown in the picture. Since the value of the temperature coefficient α in it is always negative, then with increasing heating, the conductivity increases, and the resistance drops as shown in the graph.
This phenomenon must be taken into account when charging liquid automotive (and not only) batteries.
The influence of temperature on the electrical resistance of semiconductors
Changing the properties of semiconductor materials under the influence of temperature made it possible to use them as:
thermal resistance;
thermoelements;
refrigerators;
heaters.
Thermistors
This name refers to semiconductor devices that change their electrical resistance under the influence of heat. They are much higher than those of metals.
The TCR value for semiconductors can be positive or negative. According to this parameter, they are divided into positive "RTS" and negative "NTC" thermistors. They have different characteristics.
For the operation of the thermistor, one of the points on its current-voltage characteristic is selected:
the linear section is used to control temperature or compensate for changing currents or voltages;
descending branch of the CVC for elements with TCS
The use of a relay thermistor is convenient for monitoring or measuring electromagnetic radiation processes occurring at microwave frequencies. This ensured their use in systems:
1. heat control;
2. fire alarm;
3. flow control of bulk media and liquids.
Silicon thermistors with a small TCR>0 are used in cooling systems and temperature stabilization of transistors.
thermoelements
These semiconductors work on the basis of the Seebeck phenomenon: when the soldered place of two disparate metals is heated, an emf arises at the junction of a closed circuit. In this way, they convert heat energy into electricity.
The design of two such elements is called a thermocouple. Its efficiency is in the range of 7÷10%.
Thermoelements are used in digital temperature meters computing devices requiring miniature dimensions and high accuracy of readings, as well as low-power current sources.
Semiconductor heaters and refrigerators
They work by reusing thermocouples through which electrical current is passed. In this case, in one place of the junction it is heated, and in the opposite place it is cooled.
Semiconductor junctions based on selenium, bismuth, antimony, tellurium make it possible to provide a temperature difference in the thermoelement up to 60 degrees. This made it possible to create a design of a refrigerator made of semiconductors with a temperature in the cooling chamber of up to -16 degrees.
In semiconductors, electrical conductivity depends significantly on temperature. At temperatures close to absolute zero, they turn into insulators, and at high temperatures their conductivity becomes significant. Unlike metals, the number of conduction electrons in semiconductors is not equal to the number of valence electrons, but only a small part of it. The sharp dependence of the conductivity of semiconductors on temperature indicates that conduction electrons arise in them under the influence of thermal motion.
7. Formulate and write down Brewster's law. Explain your answer with a drawing.
If the tangent of the angle of incidence of the beam on the interface of two dielectrics is equal to the relative refractive index, then the reflected beam is completely polarized in a plane perpendicular to the plane of incidence, that is, parallel to the interface between the media
tg a B \u003d n 21.
Here a B is the angle of incidence of light, called the Brewster angle, n 21 is the relative refractive index of the second medium relative to the first
8. What is the essence of the Heisenberg uncertainty relations?
x*p x >=h
y*p y >=h
z* p z >=h
E* t>=h
Δx, y, z - inaccuracy in determining the coordinate
Δp - inaccuracy in determining the momentum
Phys. meaning: it is impossible to accurately measure the position and momentum at the same time.
9. How will the frequency of free oscillations in the oscillatory circuit change if the inductance of the coil is increased by 4 times, and the capacitance of the capacitor is reduced by 2 times?
Answer: decrease by a factor
10. Indicate the product of the nuclear reaction Li + H He +?
11. What is the inductive resistance of a coil with an inductance of 2 mH at a current oscillation frequency n = 50 Hz?
R L \u003d wL \u003d 2πνL \u003d 0.628 (Ohm). Answer: R L \u003d 0.628 (Ohm)
If the absolute refractive index of a medium is 1.5, then what is the speed of light in this medium?
n= c/v 2*10 8
13. Wavelength of gamma radiation nm. What potential difference U must be applied to the X-ray tube in order to obtain X-rays with this wavelength?
14. The de Broglie wavelength for a particle is 2.2 nm. Find the mass of the particle if it moves with a speed .
m== 6, 62*10 -34 /2, 2*10 -9 *10 5 =3, 01*10 -30 ;
As a result of the scattering of a photon by a free electron, the Compton shift turned out to be 1.2 pm. Find the scattering angle.
16. The oscillatory circuit contains a 50nF capacitor and a 5/(4) μH inductance. Determine the wavelength of the radiation
17. The work function of an electron from platinum is . What is the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons ejected from platinum by light with a wavelength of 0.5 microns?
18. The distance between the grooves of the diffraction grating d = 4 μm. Normally, light with a wavelength is incident on the grating = 0.6 µm. What is the maximum order of this lattice?
d=4µm, , dsinj = nl, sinj=1,n= =
Poppy. order - 6
19. What is the layer of half absorption of light d 1/2, if the light intensity decreases by 8 times when the light passes through a layer of substance of 30 mm? , , , , , , 
,
20. In Young's experiment, holes were illuminated with monochromatic light of wavelength \u003d 6 10 -5 cm, the distance between the holes is 1 mm and the distance from the holes to the screen is 3 m. Find the position of the first light strip .
Option 18
1. A magnetic field is called homogeneous if ... the magnetic induction vector is the same at all points. example (permanent magnet)
2. What oscillations are called forced?
Forced oscillations - oscillations that occur in any system under the influence of a variable external influence. The nature of forced oscillations is determined both by the properties of the external influence and by the properties of the system itself.
3. What is called the external photoelectric effect?
The external photoelectric effect is the ejection of electrons from a substance under the action of electromagnetic radiation. The external photoelectric effect is observed mainly in conductors
4. What is called a completely black body?
A body capable of completely absorbing at any temperature all radiation of any frequency incident on it is called black. Consequently, the spectral absorbance of a black body for all frequencies and temperatures is identically equal to one ()
5. Formulate and write down Lambert's law
The law of Bouguer - Lambert - Beer - physical law, which determines the attenuation of a parallel monochromatic beam of light as it propagates in an absorbing medium.
where is the intensity of the incoming beam, l is the thickness of the layer of the substance through which the light passes, is the absorption index
Topics of the USE codifier: semiconductors, intrinsic and extrinsic conductivity of semiconductors.
Until now, speaking about the ability of substances to conduct electric current, we divided them into conductors and dielectrics. The specific resistance of ordinary conductors is in the range of Ohm m; the resistivity of dielectrics exceeds these values on average by orders of magnitude: Ohm m.
But there are also substances that, in their electrical conductivity, occupy an intermediate position between conductors and dielectrics. This semiconductors: their resistivity at room temperature can take on values in a very wide range of ohm m. Semiconductors include silicon, germanium, selenium, and some others. chemical elements and compounds (Semiconductors are extremely common in nature. For example, about 80% of the mass earth's crust are substances that are semiconductors). Silicon and germanium are the most widely used.
main feature semiconductors is that their electrical conductivity increases sharply with increasing temperature. The resistivity of a semiconductor decreases with increasing temperature approximately as shown in Fig. 1 .
Rice. 1. Dependence for a semiconductor
In other words, at low temperatures, semiconductors behave like dielectrics, and at high temperatures, they behave like fairly good conductors. This is the difference between semiconductors and metals: the resistivity of the metal, as you remember, increases linearly with increasing temperature.
There are other differences between semiconductors and metals. Thus, illumination of a semiconductor causes a decrease in its resistance (and light has almost no effect on the resistance of a metal). In addition, the electrical conductivity of semiconductors can change very strongly with the introduction of even a negligible amount of impurities.
Experience shows that, as in the case of metals, when current flows through a semiconductor, there is no transfer of matter. Therefore, the electric current in semiconductors is due to the movement of electrons.
A decrease in the resistance of a semiconductor when it is heated indicates that an increase in temperature leads to an increase in the number of free charges in the semiconductor. Nothing like this happens in metals; therefore, semiconductors have a different mechanism of electrical conductivity than metals. And the reason for this is the different nature chemical bond between metal and semiconductor atoms.
covalent bond
The metallic bond, remember, is provided by a gas of free electrons, which, like glue, holds the positive ions at the lattice sites. Semiconductors are arranged differently - their atoms are held together covalent bond. Let's remember what it is.
Electrons located in the outer electronic level and called valence, are weaker bound to the atom than the rest of the electrons, which are located closer to the nucleus. In the process of forming a covalent bond, two atoms contribute "to the common cause" one of their valence electrons. These two electrons are socialized, that is, they now belong to both atoms, and therefore are called common electron pair(Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. Covalent bond
The socialized pair of electrons just holds the atoms near each other (with the help of electrical attraction forces). A covalent bond is a bond that exists between atoms due to common electron pairs.. For this reason, a covalent bond is also called pair-electron.
Crystal structure of silicon
We are now ready to take a closer look at the internals of semiconductors. As an example, consider the most common semiconductor in nature - silicon. The second most important semiconductor, germanium, has a similar structure.
The spatial structure of silicon is shown in fig. 3 (image by Ben Mills). Silicon atoms are depicted as balls, and the tubes connecting them are channels of covalent bonding between atoms.
Rice. 3. Crystal structure of silicon
Note that each silicon atom is bonded to four neighboring atoms. Why is it so?
The fact is that silicon is tetravalent - there are four valence electrons on the outer electron shell of the silicon atom. Each of these four electrons is ready to form a common electron pair with the valence electron of another atom. And so it happens! As a result, the silicon atom is surrounded by four docked atoms, each of which contributes one valence electron. Accordingly, there are eight electrons around each atom (four own and four alien).
We see this in more detail on a flat diagram of the silicon crystal lattice (Fig. 4).
Rice. 4. Crystal lattice of silicon
Covalent bonds are shown as pairs of lines connecting atoms; these lines share electron pairs. Each valence electron located on such a line spends most of its time in the space between two neighboring atoms.
However, valence electrons are by no means "tightly tied" to the corresponding pairs of atoms. Electron shells overlap all neighboring atoms, so that any valence electron is the common property of all neighboring atoms. From some atom 1, such an electron can go to its neighboring atom 2, then to its neighboring atom 3, and so on. Valence electrons can move throughout the space of the crystal - they are said to belong to the whole crystal(rather than any single atomic pair).
However, silicon's valence electrons are not free (as is the case in metal). In a semiconductor, the bond between valence electrons and atoms is much stronger than in a metal; silicon covalent bonds do not break at low temperatures. The energy of the electrons is not enough to start an orderly movement from a lower potential to a higher one under the action of an external electric field. Therefore, at sufficiently low temperatures, semiconductors are close to dielectrics - they do not conduct electric current.
Own conductivity
If you include a semiconductor element in an electrical circuit and start heating it, then the current strength in the circuit increases. Therefore, the semiconductor resistance decreases with an increase in temperature. Why is this happening?
When the temperature rises thermal fluctuations silicon atoms become more intense, and the energy of valence electrons increases. For some electrons, the energy reaches values sufficient to break covalent bonds. Such electrons leave their atoms and become free(or conduction electrons) is exactly the same as in metal. In an external electric field, free electrons begin an ordered movement, forming an electric current.
The higher the temperature of silicon, the greater the energy of the electrons, and the greater the number of covalent bonds does not withstand and breaks. The number of free electrons in a silicon crystal increases, which leads to a decrease in its resistance.
The breaking of covalent bonds and the appearance of free electrons is shown in fig. 5 . At the site of a broken covalent bond, a hole is a vacancy for an electron. The hole has positive charge, since with the departure of a negatively charged electron, an uncompensated positive charge of the nucleus of the silicon atom remains.
Rice. 5. Formation of free electrons and holes
Holes do not stay in place - they can wander around the crystal. The fact is that one of the neighboring valence electrons, "traveling" between atoms, can jump to the formed vacancy, filling the hole; then the hole in this place will disappear, but will appear in the place where the electron came from.
In the absence of an external electric field, the movement of holes is random, because valence electrons wander between atoms randomly. However, in an electric field directed hole movement. Why? It's easy to understand.
On fig. 6 shows a semiconductor placed in an electric field. On the left side of the figure is the initial position of the hole.
Rice. 6. Motion of a hole in an electric field
Where will the hole go? It is clear that the most probable are hops "electron > hole" in the direction against field lines (that is, to the "pluses" that create the field). One of these jumps is shown in the middle part of the figure: the electron jumped to the left, filling the vacancy, and the hole, accordingly, shifted to the right. The next possible jump of an electron caused by an electric field is shown on the right side of the figure; as a result of this jump, the hole took a new place, located even more to the right.
We see that the hole as a whole moves towards field lines - that is, where positive charges are supposed to move. We emphasize once again that the directed motion of a hole along the field is caused by hops of valence electrons from atom to atom, occurring predominantly in the direction against the field.
Thus, there are two types of charge carriers in a silicon crystal: free electrons and holes. When an external electric field is applied, an electric current appears, caused by their ordered counter motion: free electrons move opposite to the field strength vector, and holes move in the direction of the vector.
The occurrence of current due to the movement of free electrons is called electronic conductivity, or n-type conductivity. The process of orderly movement of holes is called hole conductivity,or p-type conductivity(from the first letters of the Latin words negativus (negative) and positivus (positive)). Both conductivities - electron and hole - together are called own conductivity semiconductor.
Each departure of an electron from a broken covalent bond generates a “free electron-hole” pair. Therefore, the concentration of free electrons in a pure silicon crystal is equal to the concentration of holes. Accordingly, when the crystal is heated, the concentration of not only free electrons, but also holes increases, which leads to an increase in the intrinsic conductivity of the semiconductor due to an increase in both electronic and hole conductivity.
Along with the formation of “free electron-hole” pairs, the reverse process also takes place: recombination free electrons and holes. Namely, a free electron, meeting with a hole, fills this vacancy, restoring the broken covalent bond and turning into a valence electron. Thus, in a semiconductor, dynamic balance: the average number of breaks of covalent bonds and the resulting electron-hole pairs per unit time is equal to the average number of recombining electrons and holes. This state of dynamic equilibrium determines the equilibrium concentration of free electrons and holes in a semiconductor under given conditions.
A change in external conditions shifts the state of dynamic equilibrium in one direction or another. The equilibrium value of the concentration of charge carriers naturally changes in this case. For example, the number of free electrons and holes increases when a semiconductor is heated or illuminated.
At room temperature, the concentration of free electrons and holes in silicon is approximately equal to cm. The concentration of silicon atoms is about cm. In other words, there is only one free electron per silicon atom! This is very little. In metals, for example, the concentration of free electrons is approximately equal to the concentration of atoms. Respectively, intrinsic conductivity of silicon and other semiconductors under normal conditions is small compared to the conductivity of metals.
Impurity conductivity
The most important feature of semiconductors is that their resistivity can be reduced by several orders of magnitude by introducing even a very small amount of impurities. In addition to its own conductivity, a semiconductor has a dominant impurity conductivity. It is due to this fact that semiconductor devices have found such wide application in science and technology.
Suppose, for example, that a little pentavalent arsenic is added to the silicon melt. After crystallization of the melt, it turns out that arsenic atoms occupy places in some sites of the formed silicon crystal lattice.
The outer electronic level of an arsenic atom has five electrons. Four of them form covalent bonds with the nearest neighbors - silicon atoms (Fig. 7). What is the fate of the fifth electron not occupied in these bonds?
Rice. 7. N-type semiconductor
And the fifth electron becomes free! The fact is that the binding energy of this "extra" electron with an arsenic atom located in a silicon crystal is much less than the binding energy of valence electrons with silicon atoms. Therefore, already at room temperature, almost all arsenic atoms, as a result of thermal motion, remain without a fifth electron, turning into positive ions. And the silicon crystal, respectively, is filled with free electrons, which are unhooked from the arsenic atoms.
The filling of a crystal with free electrons is not new to us: we have seen it above when it was heated clean silicon (without any impurities). But now the situation is fundamentally different: the appearance of a free electron leaving the arsenic atom is not accompanied by the appearance of a mobile hole. Why? The reason is the same - the bond of valence electrons with silicon atoms is much stronger than with the arsenic atom on the fifth vacancy, so the electrons of neighboring silicon atoms do not tend to fill this vacancy. Thus, the vacancy remains in place; it is, as it were, "frozen" to the arsenic atom and does not participate in the creation of the current.
Thus, the introduction of pentavalent arsenic atoms into the silicon crystal lattice creates electronic conductivity, but does not lead to the symmetrical appearance of hole conductivity. The main role in creating the current now belongs to free electrons, which in this case are called main carriers charge.
The intrinsic conduction mechanism, of course, continues to operate even in the presence of an impurity: covalent bonds are still broken due to thermal motion, generating free electrons and holes. But now there are much fewer holes than free electrons, which in in large numbers provided by arsenic atoms. Therefore, the holes in this case will be minority carriers charge.
Impurities whose atoms donate free electrons without the appearance of an equal number of mobile holes are called donor. For example, pentavalent arsenic is a donor impurity. In the presence of a donor impurity in the semiconductor, free electrons are the main charge carriers, and holes are the minor ones; in other words, the concentration of free electrons is much higher than the concentration of holes. Therefore, semiconductors with donor impurities are called electronic semiconductors, or n-type semiconductors(or simply n-semiconductors).
And how much, interestingly, can the concentration of free electrons exceed the concentration of holes in an n-semiconductor? Let's do a simple calculation.
Suppose that the impurity is , that is, there is one arsenic atom per thousand silicon atoms. The concentration of silicon atoms, as we remember, is on the order of cm.
The concentration of arsenic atoms, respectively, will be a thousand times less: cm. The concentration of free electrons donated by the impurity will also turn out to be the same - after all, each arsenic atom gives off an electron. And now let's remember that the concentration of electron-hole pairs that appear when silicon covalent bonds are broken at room temperature is approximately equal to cm. Do you feel the difference? The concentration of free electrons in this case is greater than the concentration of holes by orders of magnitude, that is, a billion times! Accordingly, the resistivity of a silicon semiconductor decreases by a factor of a billion when such a small amount of impurity is introduced.
The above calculation shows that in n-type semiconductors, the main role is indeed played by electronic conductivity. Against the background of such a colossal superiority in the number of free electrons, the contribution of the motion of holes to the total conductivity is negligibly small.
It is possible, on the contrary, to create a semiconductor with a predominance of hole conductivity. This will happen if a trivalent impurity is introduced into a silicon crystal - for example, indium. The result of such implementation is shown in Fig. 8 .
Rice. 8. p-type semiconductor
What happens in this case? The outer electronic level of the indium atom has three electrons that form covalent bonds with the three surrounding silicon atoms. For the fourth neighboring silicon atom, the indium atom no longer has enough electron, and a hole appears in this place.
And this hole is not simple, but special - with a very high binding energy. When an electron from a neighboring silicon atom enters it, it will “stuck forever” in it, because the attraction of an electron to an indium atom is very large - more than to silicon atoms. The indium atom will turn into a negative ion, and in the place where the electron came from, a hole will appear - but now an ordinary mobile hole in the form of a broken covalent bond in the silicon crystal lattice. This hole in the usual way will begin to wander around the crystal due to the "relay" transfer of valence electrons from one silicon atom to another.
And so, each impurity atom of indium generates a hole, but does not lead to the symmetrical appearance of a free electron. Such impurities, the atoms of which "tightly" capture electrons and thereby create a mobile hole in the crystal, are called acceptor.
Trivalent indium is an example of an acceptor impurity.
If an acceptor impurity is introduced into a crystal of pure silicon, then the number of holes generated by the impurity will be much greater than the number of free electrons that have arisen due to the breaking of covalent bonds between silicon atoms. A semiconductor with an acceptor dopant is hole semiconductor, or p-type semiconductor(or simply p-semiconductor).
Holes play a major role in generating current in a p-semiconductor; holes - major charge carriers. Free electrons - minor carriers charge in a p-semiconductor. The motion of free electrons in this case does not make a significant contribution: the electric current is provided primarily by hole conduction.
p–n junction
The contact point of two semiconductors with various types conductivity (electronic and hole) is called electron-hole transition, or p–n junction. In the region of the p–n junction, an interesting and very important phenomenon arises - one-way conduction.
On fig. 9 shows the contact of p- and n-type regions; colored circles are holes and free electrons, which are the majority (or minor) charge carriers in the respective regions.
Rice. 9. Blocking layer p–n junction
By performing thermal motion, charge carriers penetrate through the interface between the regions.
Free electrons pass from the n-region to the p-region and recombine there with holes; holes diffuse from the p-region to the n-region and recombine there with electrons.
As a result of these processes, an uncompensated charge of positive ions of the donor impurity remains in the electronic semiconductor near the contact boundary, and an uncompensated negative charge of the acceptor impurity ions arises in the hole semiconductor (also near the boundary). These uncompensated space charges form the so-called barrier layer, whose internal electric field prevents further diffusion of free electrons and holes through the contact boundary.
Let us now connect a current source to our semiconductor element by applying the “plus” of the source to the n-semiconductor, and the “minus” to the p-semiconductor (Fig. 10).
Rice. 10. Turn on in reverse: no current
We see that the external electric field takes the majority charge carriers farther from the contact boundary. The width of the barrier layer increases, and its electric field increases. The resistance of the barrier layer is high, and the main carriers are not able to overcome the p–n junction. The electric field allows only minority carriers to cross the boundary, however, due to the very low concentration of minority carriers, the current they create is negligible.
The considered scheme is called turning on the p–n junction in the opposite direction. There is no electric current of the main carriers; there is only a negligible minority carrier current. In this case, the p–n junction is closed.
Now let's change the polarity of the connection and apply "plus" to the p-semiconductor, and "minus" to the n-semiconductor (Fig. 11). This scheme is called switching in forward direction.
Rice. 11. Forward switching: current flows
In this case, the external electric field is directed against the blocking field and opens the way for the main carriers through the p–n junction. The barrier layer becomes thinner, its resistance decreases.
There is a mass movement of free electrons from the n-region to the p-region, and holes, in turn, rush together from the p-region to the n-region.
A current arises in the circuit, caused by the movement of the main charge carriers (Now, however, the electric field prevents the current of minority carriers, but this negligible factor does not have a noticeable effect on the overall conductivity).
One-sided conduction of the p–n junction is used in semiconductor diodes. A diode is a device that conducts current in only one direction; in the opposite direction, no current passes through the diode (the diode is said to be closed). A schematic representation of the diode is shown in fig. 12 .
Rice. 12. Diode
In this case, the diode is open in the direction from left to right: the charges seem to flow along the arrow (see it in the figure?). In the direction from right to left, the charges seem to rest against the wall - the diode is closed.
What are its features? What is the physics of semiconductors? How are they built? What is semiconductor conductivity? What physical properties do they have?
What is a semiconductor?
This refers to crystalline materials that do not conduct electricity as well as metals do. But still, this indicator is better than insulators. Such characteristics are due to the number of mobile carriers. Generally speaking, there is a strong attachment to the cores. But when several atoms are introduced into the conductor, for example, antimony, which has an excess of electrons, this situation will be corrected. When using indium, elements with a positive charge are obtained. All these properties are widely used in transistors - special devices that can amplify, block or pass current in only one direction. If we consider an NPN-type element, then we can note a significant amplifying role, which is especially important when transmitting weak signals.
Design features possessed by electrical semiconductors
Conductors have many free electrons. Insulators practically do not possess them at all. Semiconductors, on the other hand, contain both a certain amount of free electrons and gaps with a positive charge, which are ready to receive the released particles. And most importantly, they all conduct. The type of NPN transistor discussed earlier is not the only possible semiconductor element. So, there are also PNP transistors, as well as diodes.
If we talk about the latter briefly, then this is such an element that can transmit signals in only one direction. A diode can also turn alternating current into direct current. What is the mechanism of such a transformation? And why does it only move in one direction? Depending on where the current comes from, electrons and gaps can either diverge or go towards each other. In the first case, due to an increase in the distance, the supply is interrupted, and therefore the transfer of negative voltage carriers is carried out only in one direction, that is, the conductivity of semiconductors is one-sided. After all, the current can be transmitted only if the constituent particles are nearby. And this is possible only when current is applied from one side. These types of semiconductors exist and are currently used.
Band structure
The electrical and optical properties of conductors are related to the fact that, when energy levels are filled with electrons, they are separated from possible states by a band gap. What are her features? The fact is that there are no energy levels in the band gap. With the help of impurities and structural defects, this can be changed. The highest completely filled band is called the valence band. Then follows the allowed, but empty. It is called the conduction band. Semiconductor Physics - Pretty interesting topic, and within the framework of the article it will be well covered.
Electron state
For this, concepts such as the number of the allowed zone and the quasi-momentum are used. The structure of the first is determined by the dispersion law. He says that it is affected by the dependence of the energy on the quasi-momentum. So, if the valence band is completely filled with electrons (which carry charge in semiconductors), then they say that there are no elementary excitations in it. If for some reason there is no particle, then this means that a positively charged quasiparticle has appeared here - a gap or a hole. They are charge carriers in semiconductors in the valence band.
Degenerate zones
The valence band in a typical conductor is sixfold degenerate. This is without taking into account the spin-orbit interaction and only when the quasi-momentum is zero. It can split under the same condition into doubly and quadruple degenerate bands. The energy distance between them is called the spin-orbit splitting energy.
Impurities and defects in semiconductors
They may be electrically inactive or active. The use of the former makes it possible to obtain a positive or negative charge in semiconductors, which can be compensated by the appearance of a hole in the valence band or an electron in the conductive band. Inactive impurities are neutral and they have relatively little effect on the electronic properties. Moreover, it can often matter what valency the atoms that take part in the charge transfer process have, and the structure
Depending on the type and amount of impurities, the ratio between the number of holes and electrons can also change. Therefore, semiconductor materials must always be carefully selected to obtain the desired result. This is preceded by a significant number of calculations, and subsequently experiments. The particles that most refer to as majority charge carriers are non-primary.
The dosed introduction of impurities into semiconductors makes it possible to obtain devices with the required properties. Defects in semiconductors can also be in an inactive or active electrical state. Dislocation, interstitial atom, and vacancy are important here. Liquid and non-crystalline conductors react differently to impurities than crystalline ones. The absence of a rigid structure ultimately results in the fact that the displaced atom receives a different valence. It will be different from the one with which he initially saturates his ties. It becomes unprofitable for an atom to give or add an electron. In this case, it becomes inactive, and therefore doped semiconductors have a high chance of failure. This leads to the fact that it is impossible to change the type of conductivity with the help of doping and create, for example, a p-n junction.
Some amorphous semiconductors can change their electronic properties under the influence of doping. But this applies to them to a much lesser extent than to crystalline ones. The sensitivity of amorphous elements to doping can be improved by processing. In the end, I would like to note that, thanks to long and hard work, doped semiconductors are still represented by a number of results with good characteristics.
Electron statistics in a semiconductor
When it exists, the number of holes and electrons is determined solely by the temperature, the parameters of the band structure, and the concentration of electrically active impurities. When the ratio is calculated, it is assumed that some of the particles will be in the conduction band (at the acceptor or donor level). It also takes into account the fact that a part can leave the valence territory, and gaps are formed there.
Electrical conductivity
In semiconductors, in addition to electrons, ions can also act as charge carriers. But their electrical conductivity in most cases is negligible. As an exception, only ionic superconductors can be cited. There are three main mechanisms of electron transfer in semiconductors:
- Main zone. In this case, the electron comes into motion due to a change in its energy within the same allowed territory.
- Hopping transfer over localized states.
- Polaron.
exciton
A hole and an electron can form a bound state. It is called the Wannier-Mott exciton. In this case, which corresponds to the absorption edge, decreases by the size of the bond. With sufficient energy, a significant amount of excitons can form in semiconductors. As their concentration increases, condensation occurs, and an electron-hole liquid is formed.
Semiconductor surface
These words denote several atomic layers that are located near the edge of the device. Surface properties are different from bulk properties. The presence of these layers breaks the translational symmetry of the crystal. This leads to so-called surface states and polaritons. Developing the theme of the latter, one should also inform about spin and vibrational waves. Because of his chemical activity the surface is covered with a microscopic layer of foreign molecules or atoms that have been adsorbed from the environment. They determine the properties of those several atomic layers. Fortunately, the creation of ultra-high vacuum technology, in which semiconductor elements are created, makes it possible to obtain and maintain a clean surface for several hours, which has a positive effect on the quality of the resulting products.
Semiconductor. Temperature affects resistance
When the temperature of metals increases, their resistance also increases. With semiconductors, the opposite is true - under the same conditions, this parameter will decrease for them. The point here is that the electrical conductivity of any material (and this characteristic is inversely proportional to the resistance) depends on what current charge the carriers have, on the speed of their movement in an electric field and on their number in one unit volume of the material.
In semiconductor elements, with increasing temperature, the concentration of particles increases, due to this, thermal conductivity increases, and resistance decreases. You can check this if you have a simple set of a young physicist and the necessary material - silicon or germanium, you can also take a semiconductor made from them. An increase in temperature will reduce their resistance. To make sure of this, you need to stock up on measuring instruments that will allow you to see all the changes. This is in the general case. Let's look at a couple of private options.
Resistance and electrostatic ionization
This is due to the tunneling of electrons passing through a very narrow barrier that supplies about one hundredth of a micrometer. It is located between the edges of the energy zones. Its appearance is possible only when the energy bands are tilted, which occurs only under the influence of a strong electric field. When tunneling occurs (which is a quantum mechanical effect), then the electrons pass through a narrow potential barrier, and their energy does not change. This entails an increase in the concentration of charge carriers, and in both bands: both conduction and valence. If the process of electrostatic ionization is developed, then a tunneling breakdown of the semiconductor may occur. During this process, the resistance of the semiconductors will change. It is reversible, and as soon as the electric field is turned off, all processes will be restored.
Resistance and impact ionization
In this case, holes and electrons are accelerated while they pass the mean free path under the influence of a strong electric field to values that contribute to the ionization of atoms and the breaking of one of the covalent bonds (the main atom or impurity). Impact ionization occurs like an avalanche, and charge carriers multiply in it like an avalanche. In this case, the newly created holes and electrons are accelerated by an electric current. The current value in the final result is multiplied by the impact ionization coefficient, which is equal to the number electron-hole pairs that are formed by a charge carrier on one segment of the path. The development of this process ultimately leads to an avalanche breakdown of the semiconductor. The resistance of semiconductors also changes, but, as in the case of tunnel breakdown, it is reversible.
The use of semiconductors in practice
The special importance of these elements should be noted in computer technologies. We have almost no doubt that you would not be interested in the question of what semiconductors are, if it were not for the desire to independently assemble an object using them. It is impossible to imagine the work of modern refrigerators, televisions, computer monitors without semiconductors. Do not do without them and advanced automotive development. They are also used in aviation and space technology. Do you understand what semiconductors are, how important they are? Of course, it cannot be said that these are the only irreplaceable elements for our civilization, but they should not be underestimated either.
The use of semiconductors in practice is also due to a number of factors, including the widespread use of the materials from which they are made, and the ease of processing and obtaining the desired result, and other technical features, due to which the choice of scientists who developed electronic equipment stopped on them.
Conclusion
We examined in detail what semiconductors are, how they work. Their resistance is based on complex physical and chemical processes. And we can notify you that the facts described in the article will not fully understand what semiconductors are, for the simple reason that even science has not studied the features of their work to the end. But we know their main properties and characteristics, which allow us to apply them in practice. Therefore, you can look for semiconductor materials and experiment with them yourself, being careful. Who knows, perhaps a great explorer is dozing in you?!
IN In the case of an ideal crystal lattice, the conduction electrons would not experience any resistance during their movement, and the electrical conductivity of metals would be infinitely large. However, the crystal lattice is never perfect. Violation of the strict periodicity of the lattice may be due to the presence of impurities or vacancies, as well as thermal vibrations of the lattice. Scattering of electrons by impurity atoms and by vibrating ions leads to the appearance of electrical resistance in metals.
Experience shows that, as a first approximation, the resistance of metal conductors increases linearly with temperature according to the law:
R = Ro (1+α t), or R = Ro α T;
Ρ = ρ o (1+α t), or ρ = ρ o α T
Here t is the temperature on the Celsius scale, T is the absolute temperature, R 0 (ρ o) is the resistance (resistivity) at zero temperature in Celsius, α is the temperature coefficient of resistance.
For pure metals, the temperature coefficient of resistance
α=0.004 K -1 . Figure 1a shows an approximate graph of the dependence of the resistance of metals on absolute temperature.
T 
Fig.1a Fig.1b
In contrast to metals, in which the temperature dependence of the electrical conductivity is determined by the mobility of electrons, as a result of which the resistance increases with increasing temperature, the main role in the conductivity of semiconductors is played by the thermal generation of free electrons and holes. Moreover, the concentrations of electrons Ne and holes Ng are the same for intrinsic (pure) semiconductors and rapidly increase with increasing temperature (see the Boltzmann distribution):
where E is the band gap, k is the Boltzmann constant. Therefore, with increasing temperature, the electrical conductivity 
semiconductors increases rapidly, and the resistance accordingly rapidly decreases in accordance with the formulas:
and r = r o
(3)
If on graph 1b we represent the dependence ln 
from 
, then a straight line is obtained for intrinsic semiconductors. In the case of doped semiconductors, the current carrier concentration quickly reaches saturation. With increasing temperature, the intrinsic conductivity of semiconductors begins to affect to a large extent; at high temperatures, the conductivity will be the sum of intrinsic and impurity. At low temperatures, impurity conduction predominates, while at high temperatures, intrinsic conduction predominates.
Impurity conductivity of semiconductors
Ideal crystals containing no impurities are very rare. Impurities in semiconductor crystals can increase the number of electrons or holes. It was found that the introduction of one antimony atom into a cubic centimeter of germanium or silicon leads to the appearance of one electron, and one atom of boron to the appearance of one hole.
The appearance of electronic or hole conductivity when various impurities are introduced into an ideal crystal occurs as follows. Let us assume that in a silicon crystal one of the atoms is replaced by an antimony atom. Antimony on the outer electron shell has five electrons (group V of the periodic system). Four electrons form paired electronic bonds with the four nearest neighboring silicon atoms. The remaining fifth electron will move around the antimony atom in an orbit similar to the orbit of an electron in a hydrogen atom, but the force of its electrical attraction to the nucleus will decrease in accordance with the permittivity of silicon. Therefore, to release the fifth electron, a small energy is needed, equal to about 0.05 eV. A weakly bound electron can easily be detached from an antimony atom under the action of thermal vibrations of the lattice at low temperatures. Such a low ionization energy of an impurity atom means that at temperatures around -100°C, all impurity atoms in germanium and silicon are already ionized, and the released electrons participate in the electrical conduction process. In this case, electrons will be the main charge carriers; here there is electronic conductivity or n-type conductivity (n is the first letter of the word negative). After the “extra”, fifth, electron is removed, the antimony atom becomes a positively charged ion having four valence electrons, like all silicon atoms, t .e. the antimony ion becomes a silicon substituent in the crystal lattice.
Impurities that cause the appearance of electronic conductivity in crystals are called donors. For silicon and germanium, they are elements of group V of the periodic table - antimony, phosphorus, arsenic and bismuth.
The trivalent boron impurity atom in the silicon lattice behaves differently. The outer shell of the boron atom has only three valence electrons. This means that one electron is missing to fill four valence bonds with four nearest neighbors. A free bond can be filled with an electron transferred from some other bond, this bond will be filled with electrons of the next bond, and so on. A positive hole (unfilled bond) can move through the crystal from one atom to another (when an electron moves in the opposite direction). When an electron fills the missing valence bond, the impurity boron atom becomes a negatively charged ion that replaces the silicon atom in the crystal lattice. The hole will be weakly bound to the boron atom by the forces of electrostatic attraction and will move around it in an orbit similar to the orbit of an electron in a hydrogen atom. Ionization energy, i.e. the energy required to detach a hole from a negative boron ion will be approximately equal to 0.05 eV. Therefore, at room temperature, all trivalent impurity atoms are ionized, and holes take part in the electrical conduction process. If there is an admixture of trivalent atoms in a silicon crystal (group III of the periodic system), then conductivity is carried out mainly by holes. Such conductivity is called hole or p-type conductivity (p is the first letter of the word positive). Impurities that cause hole conduction are called acceptors. Acceptors in germanium and silicon include elements of the third group of the periodic system: gallium, thallium, boron, aluminum. The number of current carriers that arise when an impurity of each type is introduced separately depends on the impurity concentration and its ionization energy in a given semiconductor. However, most practically used impurities are completely ionized at room temperature, so the carrier concentration created under these conditions by impurities is determined only by the impurity concentration, and in many cases is equal to the number of impurity atoms introduced into the semiconductor.
Each atom of a donor impurity contributes one conduction electron, therefore, the more donor atoms in each cubic centimeter of a semiconductor, the more their concentration exceeds the concentration of holes, and the conductivity is electronic in nature. The reverse situation occurs when acceptor impurities are introduced.
With an equal concentration of donor and acceptor impurities in the crystal, conductivity will be provided, as in its own semiconductor, by electrons and holes due to the breaking of valence bonds. Such a semiconductor is called compensated.
The amount of electricity carried by holes or electrons is determined not only by the concentration of carriers, but also by the mobility of electrons and holes.
SEMICONDUCTOR COMPOUNDS
Along with elementary semiconductors in semiconductor technology, semiconductor compounds obtained by fusion or chemical treatment of pure elements are widely used. These are copper oxide, from which semiconductor rectifiers of various types are made, antimony zinc (SbZn), used for the manufacture of semiconductor thermopiles, lead telluride (PbTe), which has found application in the manufacture of photovoltaic devices and for the negative branch of thermoelements, and many others.
Of particular interest are compounds of type IIIBV. They are obtained by synthesizing elements of groups III and V of Mendeleev's periodic system of elements. Of the compounds of this type, AIP, AlAs, AlSb, GaP, GaAs, GaSb, InP, InAs, and InSb have the most interesting semiconductor properties. In a number of properties, these compounds are close to group IV semiconductor elements germanium and silicon. The mobility of current carriers in them reaches high values; the band gap of some of these compounds is also large; impurities introduced into them change the mechanism of electrical conductivity; Thus, some atoms of group II behave as acceptors, and a number of atoms of group VI act as donors.