The Roman Empire has richest history, moreover, long and full of many events. If we consider the chronology, then before the empire there was a republic. Signs of the Roman Empire were the autocratic system in government, that is, the unlimited power of the emperor. The empire owned vast territories in Europe, as well as the entire Mediterranean coast.

The history of this large-scale state is divided into the following time periods:

• Ancient Rome(since 753 BC)
• Roman Empire, Western and Eastern Roman Empires
• Eastern Roman Empire (lasted about a whole millennium).

However, some historians do not single out the last period. That is, it is believed that the Roman Empire did not exist in 476 AD.

The structure of the state could not quickly switch from a republic to an empire. Therefore, in the history of the Roman Empire there was a period called the principate. It implies a combination of features of both forms of government. This stage lasted from the first century BC to the third century AD. But already in the "dominate" (from the end of the third to the middle of the fifth), the monarchy "absorbed" the republic.

The collapse of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern.

This event took place on January 17, 395 AD. Theodosius I the Great died, but managed to divide the empire between Arcadius (eldest son) and Honorius (younger). The first received the Eastern part (Byzantium), and the second - the Western.

Prerequisites for the collapse:

• Decline of the country
• Degradation of the ruling and military strata
• Civil strife, barbarian raids
• The end of the external expansion of the borders (that is, the flow of gold, labor and other benefits ceased)
• Defeat from the Scythian and Sarmatian tribes
• Degradation of the population, the motto "to live for pleasure"
• Demographic crisis
• The collapse of religion (the predominance of paganism over Christianity) and culture

Western Roman Empire.

It existed from the end of the fourth to the end of the fifth century AD. Since Honorius came to power at the age of eleven, he could not cope alone. Therefore, the commander-in-chief, Stilicho, essentially became the ruler. At the beginning of the fifth century, he defended Italy admirably against the barbarians. But in 410, Stilicho was executed, and no one could save the Apennines from the Western Goths. Even earlier, in 406-409, Spain and Gaul were defeated. After a series of events, the lands partially returned to Honorius.

From 425 to 455 the Western Roman Empire passed to Valentinian III. During these years there were fierce attacks from the vandals and the Huns. Despite the resistance of the Roman state, it lost part of the territory.

Fall of the Western Roman Empire.

This is a significant event in world history. The cause of her “death” was the invasion of barbarian tribes (mostly Germanic) as part of the global migration of peoples.

It all started with the Western Goths in Italy in 401, in 404 the situation was aggravated by the Eastern Goths and Vandals, the Burgundians. Then came the Huns. Each of the tribes created their own kingdoms on the territory of the Western Roman Empire. And in the 460s, when only Italy remained from the state, Odoacer (he led a detachment of hired barbarian soldiers in the Roman army) also captured it. Thus, on September 4, 476, the Western Roman Empire came to an end.

Eastern Roman Empire.

Its other name is Byzantine. This part of the Roman Empire was more fortunate than the western part. The system was also autocratic, the emperor ruled. It is believed that the years of her "life" are 395 to 1453. Constantinople was the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire.

In the fourth century Byzantium passes to feudal relations. Under Justinian I (in the middle of the sixth century), the empire managed to regain vast territories. Then the vastness of the state began to slowly but surely decrease. The merit of this is in the raids of the tribes (Slavs, Goths, Lombards).

In the thirteenth century, the "crusaders" did not give peace to Constantinople, who "liberated" Jerusalem from the followers of Islam.

Gradually, Byzantium was losing power in the economic sphere. The sharp lag behind other states also contributed to its weakening.

In the fourteenth century, the Turks advance into the Balkans. After the capture of Serbia and Bulgaria, in 1453 they also conquered Constantinople.

Holy Roman Empire.

This is a special association of some European countries from the end of the first millennium almost to the end of the second (962-1806). The acceptance of the papacy made her "sacred". In general, its full name is the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation.

The Germans considered themselves a strong nation. They embraced the idea of ​​founding an empire. Otto I was its creator in 962. The dominant position in this union of states was occupied by Germany. In addition to it, there were Italy and Bohemia, Burgundy, Switzerland and the Netherlands. In 1134, only Burgundy and Italy remained, of course, Germany remained dominant. A year later, the Czech Kingdom also joined the association.

Otto's idea was to revive and reanimate the Roman Empire. Only the new empire was fundamentally different from the ancient one. First, there were signs of decentralized power, rather than a strict monarchical one. But the emperor still ruled. He was, however, chosen by the college, not by the hereditary line. The title could only be awarded after the coronation by the Pope. Secondly, the actions of the emperor were always limited to a layer of the German aristocracy. The emperors of the Holy Roman Empire were very numerous. Each of them left an imprint of their activities in history.

As a result of Napoleon's wars, the Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist. Its head, Franz II, simply refused the power given to him.

History of the Roman Empire. Documentary

This is a kind of phase in the development of the Roman statehood of that time. It existed from 27 BC. e. to 476, and the main language was Latin.

The great Roman Empire kept many other states of that time in awe and admiration for centuries. And this is no accident. This power did not appear immediately. The empire developed gradually. Consider in the article how it all began, all the main events, emperors, culture, as well as the emblem and colors of the flag of the Roman Empire.

Periodization of the Roman Empire

As you know, all states, countries, civilizations in the world had a chronology of events, which can be conditionally divided into several periods. The Roman Empire has several main stages:

• the period of the principate (27 BC - 193 AD);
• crisis of the Roman Empire in the III century. AD (193 - 284 AD);
• the period of dominance (284 - 476 AD);
• collapse and division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern.

Before the formation of the Roman Empire

Let us turn to history and consider briefly what preceded the formation of the state. In general, the first people on the territory of present-day Rome appeared around the second millennium BC. e. on the Tiber River. In the VIII century BC. e. two large tribes united, built a fortress. Thus, we can assume that April 13, 753 BC. e. Rome was formed.

First there was the royal and then the republican periods of government with their own events, kings and history. This period of time from 753 BC. e. called Ancient Rome. But in 27 B.C. e. Thanks to Octavian Augustus, an empire was formed. A new era has come.

Principate

The formation of the Roman Empire was facilitated by civil wars, from which Octavian emerged victorious. The Senate gave him the name Augustus, and the ruler himself founded the principate system, which included a mixture of monarchical and republican forms of government. He also became the founder of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, but it did not last long. Rome remained the capital of the Roman Empire.

The reign of Augustus was considered very favorable for the people. Being the nephew of the great commander - Gaius Julius Caesar - it was Octavian who became He carried out reforms: one of the main ones is the reform of the army, the essence of which was to form the Roman military force. Each soldier had to serve up to 25 years, could not start a family and lived on welfare. But it helped to form at last a standing army after almost a century of formation, when it was unreliable due to inconstancy. Also, the merits of Octavian Augustus are considered to be the conduct of budgetary policy and, of course, the change in the system of power. Under him, Christianity began to emerge in the empire.

The first emperor was deified, especially outside of Rome, but the ruler himself did not want the capital to have a cult of ascension to God. But in the provinces many temples were erected in his honor and sacred significance was attached to his reign.

August spent a good part of his life on the road. He wanted to revive the spirituality of the people, thanks to him dilapidated temples and other structures were restored. During his reign, many slaves were freed, and the ruler himself was a sort of model of ancient Roman prowess and lived in a modest possession.

Julio-Claudian dynasty

The next emperor, as well as the great pontiff and representative of the dynasty, was Tiberius. He was the adopted son of Octavian, who also had a grandson. In fact, the issue of the succession to the throne remained unresolved after the death of the first emperor, but Tiberius stood out for his merits and intelligence, which is why he was to become a sovereign ruler. He himself did not want to be a despot. He ruled very honorably and not cruelly. But after problems in the emperor's family, as well as a clash of his interests with a senate full of republican attitudes, everything resulted in an "unholy war in the senate." He ruled from only 14 to 37 years.

The third emperor and representative of the dynasty was the son of Tiberius' nephew - Caligula, who ruled for only 4 years - from the 37th to the 41st. At first, everyone sympathized with him as a worthy emperor, but the authorities changed him greatly: he became cruel, caused strong discontent among the people and was killed.

The next emperor was Claudius (41-54), with the help of which, in fact, his two wives, Messalina and Agrippina, ruled. Through various manipulations, the second woman managed to make her son Nero the ruler (54-68). Under him there was a "great fire" in 64 AD. e., which greatly destroyed Rome. Nero committed suicide and broke out Civil War, in which the last three representatives of the dynasty died in just one year. 68-69 was called "the year of the four emperors".

Flavian dynasty (69 to 96 AD)

Vespasian was the main in the fight against the rebellious Jews. He became emperor and founded a new dynasty. He managed to suppress the uprisings in Judea, restore the economy, rebuild Rome after the "great fire" and put the empire in order after numerous internal unrest and rebellions, and improve relations with the Senate. He ruled until 79 AD. e. His decent reign was continued by his son Titus, who ruled for only two years. The next emperor was the youngest son of Vespasian - Domitian (81-96). Unlike the first two representatives of the dynasty, he was distinguished by hostility and opposition to the senate. He was killed in a conspiracy.

During the reign of the Flavian dynasty, they created the great amphitheater Colosseum in Rome. It took 8 years to build it. Numerous gladiator fights were held here.

Antonine dynasty

The time fell precisely on the time of the reign of this dynasty. The rulers of this period were called "five good emperors". The Antonines (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius) ruled successively from 96 to 180 AD. e. After the conspiracy and murder of Domitian, because of his hostility to the Senate, Nerva, who was just from the senatorial environment, became emperor. He ruled for two years, and the next ruler was his adopted son, Ulpius Trajan, who became one of the best people who ever ruled during the Roman Empire.

Trajan greatly expanded the territory. Four well-known provinces were formed: Armenia, Mesopotamia, Assyria and Arabia. The colonization of other places was required by Trajan, rather than for conquering purposes, but to protect against attacks by nomads and barbarians. The most remote places were surrounded by numerous stone towers.

The third emperor of the Roman Empire during the Antonine dynasty and the successor of Trajan - Hadrian. He made many reforms in law and education, as well as in finance. He was nicknamed "the enricher of the world". The next ruler was Antoninus, who was called the "father of the human race" for his concern not only for Rome, but also for the provinces that he improved. Then he ruled who was a very good philosopher, but he had to spend a lot of time in the war on the Danube, where he died in 180. On this, the era of the "five good emperors", when the empire flourished and democracy reached its peak, ended.

Commodus was the last emperor to end the dynasty. He was fond of gladiator fights, and he placed the management of the empire on the shoulders of other people. He died at the hands of the conspirators in 193.

Sever dynasty

People proclaimed the ruler of a native of Africa - the commander who ruled until his death in 211. He was very warlike, which was passed on to his son Caracalla, who became emperor by killing his brother. But it was thanks to him that people from the provinces finally got the right to become Both rulers did a lot. For example, they returned independence to Alexandria and gave the Alexandrians the right to occupy the state. positions. Then Heliogabalus and Alexander ruled until 235.

Crisis of the third century

This turning point was great importance for the people of that time that historians distinguish it as a separate period in the history of the Roman Empire. This crisis lasted for almost half a century: from 235 after the death of Alexander Severus and up to 284.

The reason was the wars with the tribes on the Danube, which began in the time of Marcus Aurelius, clashes with the Zarein people, the inconstancy of power. People had to fight a lot, and the authorities spent money, time and effort on these conflicts, which significantly worsened the economy and economy of the empire. And also in times of crisis there were constant conflicts between the armies that put forward their candidates for the throne. In addition, the Senate also fought for the right of its significant influence on the empire, but lost it altogether. Antique culture also fell into decay after the crisis.

Dominant period

The end of the crisis was the erection of Diocletian as emperor in 285. It was he who initiated the period of dominance, which meant a change from a republican form of government to an absolute monarchy. The era of the Tetrarchy also belongs to this time.

The emperor began to be called "dominate", which means "master and god". Domitian was the first to call himself that. But in the 1st century, such a position of the ruler would have been perceived with hostility, and after 285 - calmly. The Senate as such did not cease to exist, but now did not have as much influence over the monarch, who ultimately made his own decisions.

Under the dominance, when Diocletian ruled, Christianity had already penetrated into the life of the Romans, but all Christians began to be even more persecuted and punitive measures were taken for their faith.

In 305, the emperor relinquished power, a small struggle for the throne began, until Constantine, who ruled from 306 to 337, came to the throne. He was the sole ruler, but there was a division of the empire into provinces and prefectures. Unlike Diocletian, he was not so hard on Christians and even stopped subjecting them to persecution and persecution. Moreover, Constantine introduced common faith, and made Christianity the state religion. He also moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium, which was later called Constantinople. The sons of Constantine ruled from 337 to 363. In 363, Julian the Apostate died, which was the end of the dynasty.

The Roman Empire still continued to exist, although the transfer of the capital was a very abrupt event for the Romans. After 363, two more clans ruled: the dynasties of Valentinian (364-392) and Theodosius (379-457). It is known that a significant event in 378 was the Battle of Adrianople between the Goths and the Romans.

Fall of the Western Roman Empire

Rome actually continued to exist. But the end of the history of the empire is considered to be 476.

Its fall was influenced by the transfer of the capital to Constantinople under Constantine in 395, where the Senate was even recreated. It was this year that happened on the Western and Eastern. The beginning of the history of Byzantium (Eastern Roman Empire) is also considered this event in 395. But it is worth understanding that Byzantium is no longer the Roman Empire.

But why then does the story end only in 476? Because after 395, the Western Roman Empire with its capital in Rome also remained in existence. But the rulers could not cope with such a large territory, suffered constant attacks from enemies, and Rome was ruined.

This disintegration was facilitated by the expansion of the lands that had to be monitored, the strengthening of the army of enemies. After the battle with the Goths and the defeat of the Roman army of Flavius ​​​​Valens in 378, the former became very powerful for the latter, while the inhabitants of the Roman Empire were increasingly inclined towards a peaceful life. Few wanted to devote themselves to many years of the army, most loved just farming.

Already under the weakened Western Empire in 410, the Visigoths took Rome, in 455 the Vandals captured the capital, and on September 4, 476, the leader of the Germanic tribes Odoacer forced Romulus Augustus to abdicate. He became the last emperor of the Roman Empire, Rome no longer belonged to the Romans. The history of the great empire was over. The capital was ruled for a long time different people that have nothing to do with the Romans.

So, in what year did the Roman Empire collapse? Definitely in 476, but this disintegration can be said to have begun long before the events when the empire began to decline and weaken, and barbarian Germanic tribes began to inhabit the territory.

History after 476

Nevertheless, even though the overthrow of the Roman emperor happened at the top of power, and the empire passed into the possession of the German barbarians, the Romans still continued to exist. It continued to exist even for several more centuries after 376 until 630. But in terms of territory, Rome now belonged to only parts of present-day Italy. At this time, the Middle Ages had just begun.

Byzantium became the successor of the culture and traditions of the civilization of Ancient Rome. It had existed for almost a century after its formation, while the Western Roman Empire had fallen. Only by 1453 did the Ottomans capture Byzantium, and that was the end of its history. Constantinople was renamed Istanbul.

And in 962, thanks to Otto 1 the Great, the Holy Roman Empire was formed - a state. Its core was Germany, of which he was king.

Otto 1 the Great already owned very large territories. The empire of the 10th century included almost all of Europe, including Italy (the lands of the fallen Western Roman Empire, whose culture they wanted to recreate). Over time, the boundaries of the territory changed. Nevertheless, this empire lasted for almost a millennium until 1806, when Napoleon was able to dissolve it.

Rome was formally the capital. The Holy Roman Emperors ruled and had many vassals in other parts of their large domains. All the rulers claimed the supreme power in Christianity, which at that time gained a large-scale influence on the whole of Europe. The crown of the Holy Roman Emperors was only given by the pope after a coronation in Rome.

The coat of arms of the Roman Empire depicts a double-headed eagle. This symbol was met (and still is) in the symbols of many states. Oddly enough, the coat of arms of Byzantium also depicts such a symbol, as well as on the coat of arms of the Roman Empire.

The flag of the 13th-14th centuries depicted a white cross on a red background. However, it changed in 1400 and lasted until 1806 until the fall of the Holy Roman Empire.

The flag has a double-headed eagle since 1400. It symbolizes the emperor, while the one-headed bird symbolizes the king. The colors of the flag of the Roman Empire are also interesting: a black eagle on a yellow background.

Nevertheless, this is a very big misconception - to attribute the Roman Empire until medieval times to the Holy German Roman Empire, which, although Italy included, was in fact already a completely different state.

The reconstruction shows what part of the great Ancient Rome looked like.

On the layout of Ancient Rome - Tiber Island, Massimo Circus and Theater of Marcellus.

Baths (i.e. baths) of Caracalla, which once consisted of huge halls, including gymnastic and massage rooms, porticos, fountains, gardens, libraries. There were pools with cool, warm and hot water.

A section of an ancient city road that has survived to this day. The road leads to the Arch of Titus.

Modern European civilization was born and grew up around the Mediterranean Sea. It is enough to look at a map or a globe to understand that this place is unique. By mediterranean sea quite easy to swim: its shores are very winding, it has many islands, especially in the eastern part, and they are located not far from each other. And the ships plowed the Mediterranean Sea back in those days when the speed of travel depended on the amount of bread and beer eaten and drunk by the rowers, and the sail was considered a fashionable novelty.

The inhabitants of the Mediterranean coast recognized each other early. Enterprising merchants and pirates (usually they were the same people) introduced the surrounding barbarians to the cunning inventions of the Egyptians and Babylonians. These are complex rituals of worshiping mysterious gods, and the technique of making metal weapons and beautiful pottery, and the amazing art of recording human speech.

Two and a half thousand years ago, the Greeks were the most developed people in the Mediterranean. They knew how to make very beautiful things, their merchants traded all over the coast, and their warriors were considered almost invincible. From Spain to Arabia, many people spoke the Greek dialect Koine ("common"). Poems, plays and scholarly treatises, letters to friends and reports to kings were written on it. Among the most diverse peoples, the townspeople went to gymnasium, watched theatrical performances Greek, according to Greek models, they organized competitions in running and wrestling, and the palaces and temples of even minor kings and gods were decorated with Greek statues.

But the Greeks did not create an empire. They did not seek to create it, just as, for example, ants do not seek to combine their cozy dwellings into one super anthill. The Greeks are accustomed to living in small communities - policies. They felt like one people, but first of all they remained Athenians, Spartans, Ephesians, Phocians, etc. The newcomers could live in a foreign policy for several generations, but never became its citizens.

Rome is another matter. The Romans were excellent organizers. They fought courageously, did not get lost in case of failures, and besides, they knew how to negotiate.

Initially, people from different tribes settled on the Roman hills, however, they quickly found mutual language and become respected patricians. With later settlers - plebeians- the patricians did not want to share power for a long time, but in the end they agreed with them. By the time Rome embarked on large-scale conquests, patricians and plebeians had already merged into a single Roman people.

Gradually, its neighbors were drawn into the composition of this people - italics. However, foreign slaves served as the largest source of replenishment of the Roman nation.

In Greece, slaves were released only in exceptional cases; in Rome it was rather the rule. Having received freedom, the former slave became scapegoat- a free person, although not independent, dependent on the former owner. Power over free people, from the point of view of the Roman, was much more honorable than power over slaves. Later, this view was inherited by the peoples who settled on the ruins of the Roman Empire. “In my country, the authorities take pride in being public servants; to be its owner would be considered a shame, ”said the well-known in the 20th century English politician Winston Churchill.

It was also profitable to release slaves: for the release, the master could set such a ransom that he bought several slaves with the money received. In addition, the Roman senators, who were not allowed by custom to earn money by "low" occupations, bought merchant ships and shares in companies.

As for the former slaves, their grandchildren no longer bore the stamp of slave origin and were equalized with the freeborn.

What's the lesson here?

Only large people can show themselves. Due to the fact that the Romans did not shush at the aliens and did not shout "all sorts of people came in here," the Roman people remained numerous enough for several centuries to not only subjugate vast densely populated territories, but also keep them in obedience. If the Romans were prone to division, like the Greeks, there would be no Roman Empire at all. This means that there would be no such Europe as we see today, and in general the whole history would have gone differently.

Nevertheless, every medal has two sides.

New citizens adopted Roman customs. But they themselves influenced the native Romans, who gradually dissolved among the numerous strangers. The descendants of the freed slaves were no longer willing to risk their lives defending the Roman Empire. This eventually led to her death.

True, this happened several centuries later. By that time, the Romans had left such a bright mark on history that it was already impossible to erase it. (The year 476 is considered to be the end date for the existence of the Western Roman Empire. The Eastern, called Byzantium, lasted another thousand years.)

Figures and facts

- The population of ancient Rome at the peak of its power was one million people. Europe reached the same level only after 2000 years: at the beginning of the twentieth century, only a few European cities numbered a million inhabitants.

The Roman Empire, according to various estimates, built from 1500 to 1800 cities. For comparison: at the beginning of the twentieth century, throughout the entire Russian Empire there were about 700 of them. Almost all big cities Europe was founded by the Romans: Paris, London, Budapest, Vienna, Belgrade, Sofia, Milan, Turin, Bern...

14 aqueducts from 15 to 80 kilometers long supplied water to the population of Ancient Rome. From them, water went to fountains, pools, public baths and toilets, and even to individual houses of wealthy citizens. It was a real plumbing. In Europe, similar structures appeared more than 1000 years later.

The total length of the roads of the Roman Empire was, according to various estimates, from 250 to 300 thousand kilometers - this is seven and a half of the Earth's equators! Of these, only 14 thousand kilometers ran through Italy itself, and the rest - in the provinces. Except for dirt roads, 90 thousand kilometers were real highways - paved, tunnels and bridges.

The famous Roman sewer - Cloaca Maxima - was built in the 7th-6th centuries BC and lasted 1000 years. Its dimensions were so large that workers could move by boat through underground sewer channels.

Details for the curious

Roads of the Roman Empire

The powerful Roman Empire, huge in area (on its territory today there are 36 states) could not exist without roads. The ancient Romans were famous for their ability to build first-class roads, and they made them for centuries. It's hard to believe, but road network, built by them 2000 years ago in Europe, was used for its intended purpose until the beginning of the twentieth century!

The Roman road is a complex engineering structure. First, they dug a trench 1 m deep and drove oak piles into the bottom (especially if the soil was damp). The edges of the trench were strengthened with stone slabs and a “layer cake” was created inside it from large stone, smaller stone, sand, again stone, lime, tile powder. On top of such a road cushion, the actual road surface was laid - stone slabs. Don't forget: everything was done by hand!

Along the edges of the Roman roads stood stone mile (verst) pillars. There were even road signs- high stone columns indicating the distance to the nearest locality and to Rome. And in Rome itself, a zero kilometer with a commemorative sign was laid. There was a postal system on all highways. The speed of delivery of urgent messages was 150 km per day! Chernobyl was planted along the roads so that travelers could put its leaves in their sandals if they rubbed their feet.

Nothing was impossible for the Romans. They built roads in mountain passes and in the desert. In northern Germany, the ancient builders managed to lay three-meter-wide cobbled roads even through swamps. Until now, tens of kilometers of Roman roads have been preserved there, along which a truck can safely drive. And in the days of the empire, these were military roads that withstood heavy military equipment- siege weapons.

In 454, Emperor Valentinian III executed his brilliant but wayward general Aetius, and a year later he himself was killed. The next twenty years were a period of political chaos, with no less than eight emperors enthroned and deposed, either at the instigation of the Roman senatorial aristocracy or at the instigation of an Eastern emperor. On August 23, 476, the German troops in Italy (which now constituted the main part of the Roman army) elected their commander Odoacer as king and deposed the last Western emperor Romulus Augustulus (the government of Augustulus refused to allocate a third of the land to the soldiers - this is how much the Roman "allies" in Gaul received) .

This event marked the end of the Roman Empire in the West. Formally, the entire territory of the empire was now ruled by the eastern emperor Zenon. In fact, Odoacer, hated by the Roman aristocracy and not recognized by Constantinople, became the independent ruler of Italy.

Ostrogoths in Italy

Zeno did not have the opportunity to reconquer Italy, but he still took revenge on Odoacer. The Ostrogoths, defeated and enslaved by the Huns, eventually, like the Visigoths, moved into the Balkan provinces of the empire. In 488, Zeno persuaded their leader, Theodoric, to move from Moesia (modern Serbia) to Italy. On the part of the emperor, this was a clever move: whoever won in Italy, Eastern empire at least she was getting rid of the last tribe of barbarians still in her provinces.

By 493, the Ostrogoths occupied Italy, Odoacer was dead (he was killed, according to stories, by Theodoric himself). Formally, Theodoric received the title of patrician as viceroy of the emperor, but in reality he remained as independent as other barbarian leaders.

Roman Empire in the East: Justinian

The departure of the Ostrogoths to Italy freed the eastern part of the Roman Empire from the last tribe of barbarians who invaded its territory in the 5th century. In the next, VI century. Greco-Roman civilization once again demonstrated its viability, and the military and administrative organization of the empire proved remarkably flexible and able to respond effectively to the demands of the situation. The great cities of the empire - Alexandria, Antioch, Caesarea and Jerusalem - did not lose their power. The merchants of these cities continued to outfit ships all over the Mediterranean and down the Red Sea to East Africa, to Ceylon, and beyond.

The Byzantine (that is, Roman) gold coin - the solid (on which the image of the emperor was minted) - went around the civilized world, from Ireland to China. Caravans crossed the huge Asian continent along a route equipped with numerous inns. One of these caravans smuggled silkworms out of China, and soon their own silk production flourished in Cyprus and other parts of the empire. For wealthy citizens, life remained much the same as it had been for many centuries. Young people received both classical and religious education in academies and universities. Christianity, which has been under the protection and patronage of the state for three centuries, showed its wealth in hundreds of churches, decorated with luxurious lamps, sculptures and mosaics.

However, Constantinople, the capital of the empire, became the largest and richest city. Mindful of the fate that befell Rome in 410, the emperors surrounded Constantinople with a system of defensive walls with towers that protected it both from land and from the sea. These walls successfully resisted all attacks until 1204, when the crusaders treacherously broke into the city and captured it. As before in Rome, so now in Constantinople, the emperors had to carry out a certain policy in relation to the inhabitants of the huge capital. As before, "bread and circuses" meant a public demonstration of the authorities' interest in supporting the poorest masses. Fans at the hippodrome (a huge stadium for horse racing, chariot races and baiting wild animals) were divided into "green" and "blue". However, these were not just supporters of different teams, but also peculiar parties that differed in political and religious views and were usually at enmity. In 532, they united during anti-government riots and terrorized the city for several days. Justinian's advisers urged him to go into hiding. However, Justinian's wife, Theodora, persuaded him to restore order, and the professional soldiers of the commander Belisarius mercilessly dealt with the rebels.

These riots were the last internal crisis during Justinian's reign. Further, he ruled the empire as effectively as his predecessors, and even more autocratically, largely thanks to the advice of Empress Theodora. Justinian was in complete control of the imperial bureaucracy and imposed taxes at his discretion. As the supreme legislator and judge, he initiated the compilation of the code of imperial laws, the famous Corpus juris civilis(Code of civil law). In the first of its three parts, Codex Justinianus(Codex of Justinian), all the decrees of emperors from the time of Hadrian (117-138) to 533 were collected. Later edicts were introduced under the title novel lae(New laws). It was this last part of the "corpus" that contained the rationale for the absolute power of the emperor. The second part, the Digests, or Pandects, in 50 books, included excerpts from the writings and judgments of Roman jurists relating to civil and criminal law. The third part, Institutions, was an abbreviated version of the first two parts, that is, a kind of law textbook. Probably no text of a secular nature had such a wide and lasting influence in Europe as Corpus juris civilis. In the subsequent period of the history of the Eastern Empire, it served as a comprehensive and rationally constructed system of legislation and the study of law. But the Code played a much more important role in the West, becoming the basis of the canon and ecclesiastical law of the Roman Catholic Church. From the 12th century Justinian legislation gradually begins to dominate the secular courts and law schools, and eventually almost supersedes customary law in most of Europe. Through Roman law, Justinian's autocracy provided the intellectual basis for the absolutism of Western monarchies in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. Even in countries such as England, where customary local law has been preserved, the development of a systematic and rationally constructed jurisprudence, the science of law and the philosophy of law, would probably be impossible without an historical model - Corpus juris civilis .

A visible expression of the greatness of the emperor and the Christian church (which was actually headed by the emperor) was the restructuring of the church of St. Sophia (God's Wisdom), which burned down during the riots of 532. Justinian invited the best architects, mathematicians and craftsmen from all over the empire to the capital, who erected the most grandiose and a magnificent temple of Christendom. Even now, its huge flat dome dominates the panorama of Istanbul (the current name of Constantinople). The court historian of Justinian, Procopius of Caesarea, left us a description of the stunning interiors of the temple, made in the characteristic rhetorical style of that time; it also allows us to understand the specifics of Byzantine religiosity in the 6th century.

An unusually large amount of sunlight penetrates into it, which is also reflected from the marble walls. Indeed, one could say that it is not so much illuminated by the sun from the outside as it shines from the inside - its altar is bathed in such an abundance of light ... Its entire ceiling is entirely trimmed with pure gold - which makes its beauty majestic. However, most of all, the light is still reflected from the stone surfaces, competing with the brilliance of gold ... Who has enough words to adequately describe the galleries of the female side and the colonnades of the side aisles that surround the temple? Who can describe the beauty of the columns and colored stones that adorn it? You can imagine that you are in the middle of a meadow abounding with the most beautiful flowers: some of them are distinguished by an amazing purple color, others are green, others glow crimson, others are dazzling white, and others, like an artist’s palette, sparkle with the most beautiful colors. different colors. And when a person enters this temple to offer prayer, he immediately realizes that it was not by human strength and not by human skill, but by God's care that this creation was born so beautiful. And then his spirit aspires to God and rises, feeling that He cannot be far away, but must willingly dwell in that dwelling which He Himself has chosen 24 .

Majestic splendor, softened by beauty, light and divine love - such was the legacy of the emperor, who considered himself the vicar of God on earth. This largely explains the long existence of the Roman Empire in the East.

106 A.D.

We are now entering the Christian era and may henceforth not mention "before" and "after" the birth of Christ, as we have done hitherto, to avoid confusion.

In 106 the emperor Trajan conquered Dacia. This country roughly corresponds to modern Romania. It was located north of the Danube - the border of the empire - and included mountain range Carpathians.

The bas-reliefs of the "Trajan's Column" in Rome depict the main episodes of this victorious campaign.

New province of Dacia will be partially colonized by settlers from all parts of the empire, Latin language they will take as a language of communication, and it will give rise to Romanian- the only Latin-based language of the eastern half of the empire. And this despite the fact that Greek culture prevailed here.

critical date

Why did we choose this date?

In the first century AD, the emperors continued the aggressive policy of the Republic, though not on such a scale as before.

Augustus conquered Egypt, completed the conquest of Spain, and subjugated the rebellious population of the Alps, making the Danube the frontier of the empire.

To protect Gaul from barbarian invasions, he was going to conquer Germania, the territory between the Rhine and the Elbe. At first, he succeeds thanks to the defeat of his sons-in-law Drusus and Tiberius.

However, in 9 A.D. the Germans rebelled under the leadership of Arminius (Hermann) and destroyed the legions of the Varus legate in the Teutoburg Forest. This catastrophe, which greatly disturbed Augustus (it is said that he wept, repeating: "Var, give me back my legions"), forced him, like his heirs, to refuse to transfer the border along the Rhine. For more than two centuries, the Rhine and Danube (connected in the upper reaches between Mainz and Rotisbon by a fortified wall) formed the frontier of the empire in continental Europe. In 43, Emperor Claudius annexed Britain (modern England), which became a Roman province.

The conquest of Dacia in 106 was the last major territorial acquisition Roman emperors. After this date, the borders remained unchanged for more than a century.

Roman peace

The first two centuries of the empire, corresponding approximately to the first two centuries of our era, were the period inner world and prosperity.

Limesy- the system of border fortifications along which the legions stood - provided security, which made it possible to develop trade relations and the economy.

New cities are built and developed according to the model of Rome: they have an autonomous administration with a senate and elected magistrates. But in reality, as in Rome, power belongs to the rich, not without certain duties on their part. So, they must build water conduits, public buildings: temples, baths, circuses or theaters at their own expense, as well as pay for circus performances.

This roman world cannot be idealized, the savagely exploited provinces often revolt. We saw this in Judea. But these uprisings are constantly suppressed by the Roman army.

As long as wealth and slaves flock to Rome through conquest or frontier raids, a certain economic and social balance is maintained.

When the conquests stopped and the attacks of "barbarians" (those who lived outside the borders of the empire) on Roman lands became more frequent an economic and social crisis is rolling in.

The “middle class” is supplying fewer and fewer citizen soldiers, so the Roman army is increasingly replenished with mercenaries, often they are immigrant barbarians who, at the end of their service life, receive Roman citizenship or a plot of land.

After the reign of Augustus, imperial power becomes a stake in the struggle between located on various frontiers (on the Rhine, Danube and in the East) and rival armies, too often called to march on Rome in order to elevate their commander to the throne. As a result of these internal disturbances frontiers are often left defenseless and attacked by barbarians.

Crisis of the 3rd century

Difficulties begin in the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180), the emperor-philosopher, who expounds humanistic philosophy in his Thoughts. The peace-loving emperor is forced to spend most of his time repelling attacks on the borders of the state.

After his death, attacks from outside and internal unrest increase.

In the III century. begins a period called late empire.

The edict of the emperor Caracalla (212), according to which all free inhabitants of the empire receive Roman citizenship, becomes the starting point in the evolution of the gradual merger of the "provincials" and the Romans.

Between 224 and 228 The Parthian Empire fell under the blows of the Sassanids, the founders of a new dynasty of the Persian Empire. This state will become a dangerous adversary for the Romans - the emperor Valerian in 260 will be captured by the Persians and die in captivity.

At the same time, due to internal rebellions and political instability (from 235 to 284, i.e. in 49 years, 22 emperors have changed) barbarians for the first time penetrate the empire.

In 238 goths, Germanic tribe, first crossed the Danube and invaded the Roman provinces of Moesia and Thrace. From 254 to 259 another Germanic tribe, alemanni, penetrates into Gaul, then into Italy and reaches the gates of Milan. Previously open, Roman cities are building defensive walls, including Rome, where the emperor Aurelian begins in 271 the construction of a fortress wall, the first after the one that was once in the Rome of the kings.

The economic crisis manifests itself in a crisis monetary circulation: due to lack of silver emperors minted low-grade coins, in which the content of the noble metal is sharply reduced. As the value of such money falls, there is price inflation.

Diocletian(284-305) tries to save the empire by reorganizing it. Considering that one person cannot ensure the defense of all borders, he divides the empire into four parts: two emperors and two of their assistants - “Caesars” appear in Milan and Nicomedia, they are the deputies and heirs of the emperors.

End of the Roman Empire

In 326 the emperor Konstantin moves to Byzantium - a Greek city that controls the Bosphorus Strait, which connects the Black Sea with the Mediterranean. He gives this city his name, christening Constantinople(the city of Constantine), and makes it a "second Rome".

In 395 the Roman Empire was finally divided into Western Roman Empire which will disappear in 476 under the blows of the barbarians, and Eastern Roman Empire, which will last another thousand years (until the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453). However, the latter will very soon become a country of Greek culture, and it will be called the Byzantine Empire.