The formation of the Ambassadorial Prikaz - a special institution in charge of foreign affairs - took place simultaneously with the formation of the entire state apparatus of the Russian state. ”, “yard”).
The process of formation of chancelleries dragged on for several decades (from the end of the XV
until the middle of the 16th century). Each "hut" or "yard", together with the official who headed it, was a prototype of the future independent state institution - the "order".
The prikaznaya system of public administration originates from an order (in the literal sense of the word) as a one-time order. The first central state institutions had military purpose. These include the Bit, Local orders and the Armory. By the second half of the 16th century, other orders were formed: Streltsy, Pushkar, Stone Affairs, Bronny, Aptekarsky, etc. With the expansion of foreign policy tasks, there is a need to create a single body to manage the “embassy business”. In addition, the specifics of international relations required the involvement of persons who specialized only in the diplomatic service.
IN. Klyuchevsky noted: “Despite the multilateral development of diplomatic relations of the Moscow court since the time of Ivan III, for a long time there was no noticeable special institution in charge of them: they were conducted directly by the sovereign himself with the Duma”8. In fact, there was a close connection between foreign policy affairs and the office work of the Boyar Duma and the house treasury of the Grand Duke. At the same time, according to the inventory of the Tsar's archive, by the beginning of the 16th century, so many diplomatic documents had accumulated that there was a need to systematize them9. To do this, the deli on relations with certain states began to be distributed according to years and special numbered boxes: “Voloshi”, “German”, “Crimean”, etc.
In Russian historiography, the generally accepted date for the formation of the Posolsky Prikaz after S.A. Belokurov began to consider the year 1549. This date was established on the basis of an extract from the embassy affairs, compiled in the Ambassadorial order in 1565-1566, which mentions that in 1549 "the embassy business was ordered to Ivan Viskovaty, and he was still a clerk."
There are, however, reasons to assume that the Posolsky Prikaz existed earlier as a state institution. This is primarily evidenced by the data of the already mentioned reference book by V.I. Savva about the development of the bureaucratic hierarchy in charge of foreign affairs. S.A. Belokurov, on the other hand, points out that Viskovaty, even before his appointment as head of the Ambassadorial Department, participated in diplomatic affairs. While still a clerk, in March 1542 he wrote a truce with Poland. This is also evidenced by the abundance of such a specific type of clerical work as embassy books10.
In view of the importance of the post they held, Viskovaty's successors already bore the title of duma clerks. Among the persons who headed the Ambassadorial Prikaz, such well-known figures as the brothers Andrey Yakovlevich and Vasily Yakovlevich Shchelkalov, Almaz Ivanov, Afanasy Lavrentievich Ordin-Nashchokin, Artamon Sergeevich Matveev, Vasily Vasilyevich Golitsyn, Emelyan Ignatievich Ukraintsev stand out.
This is about them, the clerk of the Ambassadorial order G.K. Kotoshikhin wrote in the 17th century: “Although there are fewer breeds, but by order and deeds above all”11.
In 1565 a special Embassy Chamber was built12.
Based on the surviving embassy books, it is possible to reproduce the functions of the Duma embassy clerk. In the second half of the 16th century, the duma embassy clerks accepted letters brought by ambassadors; conducted preliminary negotiations; attended the receptions of foreign diplomats; checked the prepared lists of response letters; drafted orders to Russian diplomats sent abroad and bailiffs to meet foreign ambassadors; got acquainted with the reports of Russian ambassadors who returned home after completing a diplomatic mission. Moreover, being present at the "sitting" of the sovereign with the boyars, in case of disagreement with the solution of the issue according to their department, they expressed their opinion13.
The replacement of the head of the Posolsky Prikaz was sometimes associated with changes in the foreign policy course.
In addition to diplomatic relations, the Embassy Department was responsible for: foreign merchants and artisans living in Russia; Tatars settled in Russia; Moscow settlements inhabited by foreigners; courtyards for receiving ambassadors; the ransom of prisoners, as well as individual assignments. Thus, eminent people of the Stroganovs, merchants and industrialists who participated in the development of Siberia were under his control; several large monasteries.
In the 17th century, the apparatus of the Posolsky Prikaz grew significantly, and separate structural units appeared in it - “povytia”, which were headed by “senior” clerks. Three povyts were in charge of relations with Western Europe, two - with Asian states and rulers.
The embassy order began to perform a number of other functions, which were often a source of additional income for it. The average salary of a Duma clerk in the middle of the 17th century was a significant amount at that time - 200-250 rubles. It should be noted that the salary in the Ambassadorial order was 3-5 times higher than in most other orders. Since the 60s of the XVII century. The embassy order was in charge of the post office, the affairs of the Don Cossacks, the court and the collection of customs and tavern revenues, the appointment of governors and clerks, etc.
The duties of each order at the same time also included the management of several cities. The Posolsky Prikaz was in charge of the cities of Kasimov, Elatma, and Romanov. In the second half of the 17th century, the so-called quarter territorial orders, or quarters, were transferred to him: Novgorod, Galician, Vladimir, Ustyug, which collected income from the vast territories under their jurisdiction and spent the collected money mainly on salaries of the boyars, okolnichi and other service people of the Ambassadorial order. Temporarily emerging institutions were also attributed to it: Smolensk, Little Russian, Lithuanian, Novgorod, Great Russian, Printed and Polonyanichny orders.
Such an extensive activity of the Ambassadorial Order also determined the diversity of the functions of its employees. From the second half of the XVI
century, next to the duma clerk - the head of the Ambassadorial order - we constantly see his "deputy" (comrade), or second clerk. So, signed by the postnik Dmitriev (1589-1592), comrade of the head of the Ambassadorial order A.Ya. Shchelkalov, memories are sent about the issuance of "food" to foreign ambassadors and about their departure; persons appointed to the “state embassy” came to him for orders; he received foreign ambassadors and made speeches on behalf of the sovereign; he also listened to reports on the implementation of diplomatic missions.
The duties of the Ambassadorial Order even included the collection of income from various regions and "circle yards" ("tavern money"). It is no coincidence that the head of the order A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin said that the second clerks "interfere with embassy affairs with taverns." Some second clerks eventually became the heads of the Order, for example, V.Ya. Shchelkalov, A.I. Vlasiev, Almaz Ivanov, E.I. Ukrainians. In total, from 1559 to 1714, 52 “comrades” of the chiefs of the Ambassadorial order are known by name14.
In the distribution of clerical work, an intermediate position between clerks and clerks was occupied by "assigned" clerks, that is, they had the right to sign outgoing documents. In essence, they were clerks of the highest qualification (i.e., "old" clerks). Often they were at the head of tables or povyti.
Assistants to the Duma clerks and their "comrades" were clerks, who, in essence, constituted the main staff of the Ambassadorial order. They were divided into several categories: "old", "medium" and "young". The old clerks were at the head of the povytia, the middle and young ones conducted office work and correspondence of the Order, were engaged in the manufacture of maps. By the 17th century, Prikaz had developed its own, special school of writing - in small and elegant handwriting. The largest number"Pishchikov" were young clerks. The most important documents (“leaf letter”, i.e. letters) were written by clerks of higher ranks.
In addition to the clerks, who corresponded in Russian, there were employees in the Posolsky Prikaz who knew foreign languages. From the beginning of the 16th century, interpreters were engaged in interpretation in Prikaz and as part of embassies, and written office work in foreign languages was entrusted to translators. In the second half of the XVII
century, among the permanent employees, there were about 15 translators and 40-50 interpreters who knew the languages: Latin, Polish, Tatar, German, Swedish, Dutch, Greek, Persian (Farsi), Arabic, Turkish, Volosh, English and Georgian. Foreigners who were in Russian captivity often acted as translators. It happened that in order to study foreign languages and acquire various skills, boyar children were specially sent abroad15.
Among the employees of the Embassy Department there were also gold painters, who painted letters with gold and paints. At the end of the 17th century, five gold painters served, who were charged with writing “borders” and initial words. In the second half of the 17th century, historical and translated works were published in the Posolsky Prikaz, containing information on Russian history, foreign relations, as well as books on election to the kingdom and genealogies of Moscow sovereigns. As a rule, all books were richly illustrated with drawings, portraits and ornaments16.
In the second half of the 16th century, watchmen and bailiffs who accompanied foreign diplomats also served in the Embassy Department. Among them were many people from noble families. Bailiffs were also appointed to deal with court cases that were within the competence of the Ambassadorial Order.
annotation
Keywords
Time scale - century
XVII
Bibliographic description:
Kunenkov B.A. The Structure of the Ambassadorial Order in the Second Quarter of the 17th Century // Studies in Source Studies of the History of Russia (until 1917): Collection of Articles / Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Russian History; resp. ed. A.I. Aksenov. M., 2003. S. 99-120.
Article text
Kunenkov B.A.
STRUCTURE OF THE AMBASSADOR'S ORDER IN THE SECOND QUARTER OF THE 17TH CENTURY
The question of the structure of state institutions of the Moscow state was studied on the materials of the second half of the 17th century, including the Posolsky Prikaz, and was considered in general terms by S.A. Belokurov. He established that the povyas, which he compared in terms of their functions with the departments of the ministry, “existed at the very beginning of the second half of the century (XVII. - B.K.)”, since the first mention of them that he discovered dates back to 1654. There are data in which S.A. Belokurov saw “a hint of the existence of uplifts in 1647”; he even admitted that they were in the first half of the 17th century. The conducted research showed that his assumption was correct, and the order did indeed have some kind of “departments” functioning. True, there is no definite permanent name for these "departments", but their existence is not in doubt. In the documents of the Ambassadorial order in four cases these structural units are called tables.
The first time the name “table” in the meaning of the clerk’s “department” is found in the second half of 1633: “At Rodion Yuryev’s, Ivan Prikaskin sent Pomesny to the order of the scribe Ivan Prikaskin of his own Rodionov’s table for a thousand four hundred rubles.” Around the same time, there is another mention of tables. “Summer 7142, September 15th day. To take for a salary a month's food for soldiers near Smolensk. ... Grigoriev's table of Lvov 798 rubles 22 altyns and give it to the clerk Garasim Stepanov "," Yes, Grigoriev's table of Lvov four hundred nineteen rubles twenty-six altyn three money and four hundred and fifty-two rubles, which remained from the German fodder from the clerk at Tretyak Nikitin ". “At the clerk at Oleksei Korepanov, Pomesnovo was sent off by the order of the clerk Gerasim Stepanov evo Olekseev to the arrival of Money two thousand eight hundred one ruble eleven altyn two dengas. “From Oleksei Korepanov, Echo Kholpya of the order of clerk Yurya Tyutchev took five hundred rubles ... At the clerk's office from Rodion Yuryev, I took away clerk Yurya Tyutchev evo Rodionov, I will receive a thousand seven hundred rubles. Yes, clerk Gerasim Stepanov received Rodionov from Rodion for three hundred and twenty-eight rubles, six altyns, and five money, and four hundred and fifty-two rubles, which remained from the German fodder from the clerk at Tretyak Nikitin. From this excerpt it can be understood that in 1633 there were four organizational components in the order, which were led by clerks G. Lvov, A. Korepanov, R. Yuryev, T. Nikitin. In May 1640, there is another mention of the table: the letter from the Livny voivode about the return of borrowed money from the Crimean arbacheys was “at the podyachevo at Oleksei Korepanov in the Crimean table”. Further, we will conditionally call the structural components of the order “departments”. The above persons were old clerks; all of them at that time constituted a “large” article, which did not include any of the officials except them. Probably, the persons who were in charge of the “department”-desk in the order (in 1633 - R. Yuryev and G. Lvov) really led a separate table in the premises of the department, at which they worked; the rest sat at the common table. The term "howling" never occurs. Thus, the opinion of S.A. Belokurov about the existence of some organizational components in the Ambassadorial Prikaz is confirmed, but we cannot name them with complete certainty. Hereafter, we will conventionally refer to them as “departments”.
Considering that there were 9 clerks of the second and third articles in the order, it can be assumed that each "department" consisted of 3-4 employees. In 1644-1645. the number of "old" clerks remained unchanged - 4, and the number of employees in the "smaller" articles increased to 16-18 people, the staff of the "departments" increased accordingly.
Apparently, the clerks of that "department" that was in charge of relations with the country in which this embassy was equipped took part in the preparation of orders to the embassies. True, their participation was only technical and consisted in rewriting the materials of the mandate. So, a draft of the mandate for the great embassy of A.M. Lvov to the Commonwealth in 1644 was copied by four clerks: I. Khonenev (middle), F. Kashkin (young), S. Mikhailov-Ushakov (young), O. Dmitriev ( average) . Apparently, these persons constituted the "department" of T. Vasiliev-Nikitin, in which the Polish affairs were located. They could carry out courier communication with diplomatic missions, if the case concerned particularly important documents, the embassies were located within the Moscow state. On May 31, 1644, O. Dmitriev caught up with the embassy of A. M. Lvov along the Mozhaisk road and gave him a “letter of faith” and a secret order. The duties of the young clerks included the correspondence of order documentation; employees of the younger group of the "smaller" article were called "peepers". This is how E. Rodionov-Yuriev and I. Martynov were called “peepers” in the first year after entering the service.
All 11 clerks of the first article, who served in the Posolsky Prikaz in 1613-1645, performed memory and discharges on matters related to equipping diplomatic missions abroad, paying salaries to their participants and employees of the order. Sometimes middle clerks did the right, but very rarely. So, the average clerk M. Fokin, who served in the second article for more than 20 years and did not receive a promotion until his death, left three on the right, and all three belong to the last year of his life. Apparently, the clerk A. Lukin also belonged to the second article, but he completed the document only once. Thus, according to the rights of the old clerks, one can determine the specialization of the “departments” they led.
In addition, in the notebooks and income and expense books of the Ambassadorial order there are references to the transfer of certain cases to the jurisdiction of different clerks.
Finally, in the published Inventory of the Archives of the Posolsky Prikaz in 1626 and 1673. there are references to the personal archives of old clerk-boxes with documentation that passed through their hands, described after their death or resignation: a pillar, and in it are the counting lists of the clerk Tretyak Nikitin of the 152nd, and 153rd, and 154th years ”; a box in which “after the death of clerk Alexei Korepanov, some cases were taken from him”; "Pillar of the expensive rose years to 152 by Mikhail Volosheninov". The analysis of the Inventory data is another way to identify the names of the heads of the "departments" and determine the range of issues that were being prepared in these "departments". It makes it possible to check the data of archival sources. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the time of service of one or another official.
As for the clerks of the other two articles, they were entrusted with the mechanical correspondence of texts “on a model” when drafting orders for Russian embassies serving abroad, or when receiving foreign missions. The youngest (in terms of age) and low-paid employees of the “lesser” category were called “peepers”. So E. Rodionov-Yuryev, I. Klavyshev, I. Martynov were called “peepers” in the first year after entering the Ambassadorial order; all of them had a salary of up to 8 rubles. The selection of information could be carried out by old clerks, sometimes even "foreign" "departments": the speeches of the bailiffs at the reception of the Danish ambassador M. Yul were prepared by D. Odintsov and T. Nikitin - both officials of the "big" article; Duma clerks edited the orders.
In the 10s of the 17th century (since 1613), only three clerks were found on the right - A. Shakhov, I. Zinoviev, Ya. Lukin. In 1620, the first two made up a "large" article, the third, who received a salary of 30 rubles, can be classified as an average article. During these years, M. Matyushkin also served in the first article, but his certificates of that time were not found, which can be explained by the scarcity of documentation left from this period. For the same reason - the lack and fragmentary information in the few surviving cases of those years - it is problematic to determine what A. Shakhov was in charge of, and what - I. Zinoviev.
The first clerk of the order, Ivan Zinoviev, in 1617 wrote out an extract on the salary of the Seversk boyar children who traveled to Lithuania with instructions to collect news and exchange prisoners, in 1618 - on the salary of the same Seversk boyar children; in the same year he made a right about the salary of a Ryazan serviceman. No later than December 1619, he dropped out of the order. From these meager data, we can conclude that one of the issues under the jurisdiction of I. Zinoviev was Polish affairs.
Aleksey Shakhov from 1618 to 1627 was the first on the list of old clerks. In 1618, he handled cases on rewarding German (Swedish) polonyanniks for going out, on salaries for messengers from Pskov; about the sovereign's salary to translators in Staraya Russa; about the salaries of the old Russian nobles for various services, about the salaries of the Novgorod nobles of the Obonezh Pyatina. On November 11, 1619, he commemorated the salary of Tulyanin VF Sukhotin for leaving captivity. In March 1623, he did it to the right at the request of the order of the Grand Parish on income from the city of Elatma. January 19, 1620 - on the salary of the widows of Turkish polonyannikov, October 5, 1623 on the addition of a salary to the messenger to Persia I. Brekhov.
Thus, one can get a more complete idea of A. Shakhov's competence than of I. Zinoviev's duties. Apparently, it included the technical preparation of issues related to the management of the northern regions of the country; A. Shakhov's "department" processed materials on relations with Sweden, Turkey, and Persia.
There are other sources that make it possible to judge Shakhov's specialization. A box was kept in the archives of the Posolsky Prikaz, in which “the clerk at Oleksiy Shakhov, after he was sent to Unzha, had things left to do: extracts from who had previously traveled as ambassadors to Poland and their titles and the sovereign’s salary; list of letters of False Dmitry I to Boris from Kyiv; a letter on January 2, 113 from Hermogenes to the governors; extracts about Lithuanian messengers; an extract about the ambassadors from 92 to 107; who was in the answer from 74 to 113; a list with the answer given to Posnik Ogarev in Lithuania.
Yes, Oleksiy has a case in addition to his painting in a box: An extract from 69 to 109 “who was sent in response to Lithuanian, Caesar and English ambassadors. Negotiations with Zholkiewski about the christening of the prince. A bunch of all sorts of strife.
So, comparing the data of archival materials and the data of the Inventory, we can conclude that the range of issues under the jurisdiction of A. Shakhov was very wide: through his “department” the documentation on sending diplomatic missions to Poland passed (this duty passed to him from the “retired” I. Zinoviev). Shakhov also prepared data for negotiations with England and the House of Habsburg, with Sweden, Turkey, and Persia. It may seem doubtful that connections with almost all the main contractors of Russian diplomacy were concentrated in the hands of one official, but in the early 1620s there were only three old clerks in the Posolsky Prikaz with a salary of more than 30 rubles, who had the right to do justice (M. Matyushkin, A. Shakhov, T. Nikitin), and the amount of work entrusted to each of them was somewhat greater than that of the competent clerks of the 1630s - 1640s. In 1627 Shakhov was exiled to Urzhum.
In the documents of the 1620s, only one clerk, M.G. Matyushkin, was found on the right. This official appeared in the Posolsky Prikaz no later than 1616 and in 1624 was granted the clerkship. Back in 127 (1618/1619), he took money from the Ustyug couple - 30 rubles "for hut expenses". In April 1624, he inquired about the salaries of baptismal workers and falconers traveling to the Crimea, in the summer of 1622 - about the salaries of the interpreters when the new interpreter I.M. Ievlev was hired and about the salary of the newly baptized Tatars. Both right shots were taken shortly before Matyushkin was promoted. Thus, it can be assumed that this clerk was responsible for the service of interpreters and translators, serving Tatars, was in charge of the economic affairs of the order (“hut expenses”) and relations with the Crimean Khanate.
On the work of departments of the order in the 30s - the first half of the 40s. 17th century documents allow to judge more definitely.
Lvov Grigory Vasilievich. Enrolled in the Posolsky Prikaz in 124 (1613/1614), he was first mentioned with the salary of an old clerk in 1631, but there is no doubt that he moved into this category much earlier. April 25, 1637 Lvov became a deacon.
In the Inventory of the Archives of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, it is reported that in the box “at the clerk at Grigory Lvov” were “books of the sovereign’s joy” - the marriages of Mikhail Fedorovich with M.V. Khlopova in Nizhny Novgorod. There is also a “vacation” and a “dangerous letter” for the Englishman A. Dee (Diya), sent to England “for the sovereign’s secret business”, a painting of the sovereign’s salary to the newly baptized Tatars, prepared for the baptism of Ya.K. Cherkassky and V.Ya. Suleshev, and the court case of the Romanov townsmen. All these cases refer to 1624-1627.
He inquired about the salary to the Dutch translator B. Bogomoltsev in October 1628; July 19, 1631 about salaries to the newly baptized and Saltan-Murza Sheydyakov; about salary for service in Sweden; about the salary of the translator I. Rekhtyrev, who was sent "to interpret incompetent military people to Belaya"; about the salary of all clerks for Easter 1632 and about the salary of old clerks for matching with them R. Yuryev; memory in the Big parish on the issuance of benefits to burnt clerks on August 16, 142 (1634); about how much was given to whom for Easter on April 1, 1632 (140); about remuneration to the blacksmith F. Nikitin, who made “an iron door to the Ambassador’s room to the window” (in March).
He also inquired in October 1633 and April 30, 1634 about the payment of salaries to the noblemen - participants in the embassy of V.G. an extract on the salary of S. Lvov and K. Kondratiev, former messengers to Denmark in 141
All these facts indicate that G. Lvov was in charge of English, Swedish, Danish, Dutch affairs; the service of translators, interpreters, serving Tatars in the late 1620s; command economy ("hut expenses"). At one time he was also responsible for clerks, but in 1632 this issue was transferred to the jurisdiction of R. Yuryev (see below), and after the death of the latter it was returned to Lvov.
Dear Petrov Odintsov, a former Astrakhan clerk, taken to the Embassy Office as a translator, in 1628 was transferred to the clerk. In the early 1630s, he was the first on the list and the highest paid (45 rubles) employee in the "big" article. Statements made by him on the size of the annual monetary salaries of interpreters and translators for 138 years in January 1631 and in March 1632 for 140 years, on the payment of the salary of the translator I. Koshaev, on the additional payment to the interpreter L. Minin of the unpaid half of the salary; July 21, 1631 - about the salary of Kan-murza Sheydyakov, serving murzas and newly baptized, in January 1632 - about the salary of the newly baptized Tatar princesses indicate that the issues of the service of interpreters and translators were removed from the jurisdiction of G. Lvov and transferred to D .Odintsov by 1630, and the services of fodder and local service Tatars - in July 1631.
The inventory of the archive of the Ambassadorial order of 1626 allows us to get an idea of the competence of D. Odintsov: his box kept correspondence with the Astrakhan governors, affairs on relations with Persia, Crimea, the Lesser Nagai Horde, the Bukhara Khanate, Zaporozhye, “Kasimov’s pillar about all sorts of things”. The data of the Inventory are confirmed and supplemented by the materials of the RGADA funds.
Odintsov celebrated his memory: on August 19, 1631, about the salary of I. Shapilov for the Nagai service, twice about the salary of the Turkish polonyanniks, about the salary for the Turkish service, about adding to the salary of the interpreters - participants in the embassy to Turkey I. Kondyrev and T. Bormosov. He made extracts “for example” when equipping in July 1630 the embassies of A. Sovin and M. Alfimov, in 1632 the embassies of A. Pronchishchev and T. Bormosov, about the salary to the son of the boyar R. Gorbatov “for Cherkasy service”, about a salary to a sable-bearer who participated in the embassy of A. Sovin to Turkey.
D. Odintsov also wrote “in a report” about the salary of the Persian polonyanniks “for leaving Kizylbash” in 140 (1631/1632), on the size of the ransom of the polonyanniks in January 1632, on the addition of a salary to the interpreter F. Yelchin “for the Kizylbash service "May 23, 1632; these facts confirm that in his "department" the documentation on Russian-Persian relations was processed.
Information about the awards to the servants - participants in the embassy to the Great Nagai Horde in September 1630, about the salary of the Astrakhan clerk G. Milogotsky and the Astrakhan boyar children, who in 1632 went with the Nagai and Edisan Murzas on a campaign against Poland testify that Odintsov was in charge of Nagai affairs .
Finally, on the right about the dacha to the tenant I. Poroshin “for the Don package” in March of the same year, it shows that relations with the Don Army also fell within the competence of D. Odintsov.
Having compared the data of published and unpublished archival materials, we come to the conclusion that the clerk D. Odintsov was in charge of the service of interpreters, translators and stanitsa Tatars, the affairs of the Kasimov "kingdom", the Cossacks of the Don and Zaporozhye. He was also responsible for a wide range of issues related to relations with the countries of the East: Turkey, Persia, the Bukhara Khanate, both Nogai and Yedisan hordes. Odintsov's information on Crimean cases was not found.
Rodion Yuryev, enrolled in the Posolsky Prikaz immediately in the “big” article in 1631, died on May 7, 1635. Apparently, he took over part of the cases from D. Odintsov and G. Lvov. The first time documents prepared by Yuryev in 140 (1631/1632) are memories of the salary of the translator Ya. Elagin and interpreters “for Crimean service» ; at the end of 1631, he wrote an extract “for example” about giving an allowance for a courtyard building to the translator B. Baitsyn. In the same 140th year, he three times wrote statements about dachas to immigrants from Turkish and Crimean captivity "for leaving" and for "clothing patience". He also sent out extracts: in October 1631, about the dacha “for fire ruin” to clerks-burners, in the fall of 1633 - “for example” about the salaries of clerks to pay them the other half of their salaries for 142; about making M. Evstafiev in salary with his “brother young clerks”; probably about a salary of 140 g. Thus, R. Yuryev was in charge of Crimean and Turkish affairs and the service of clerks.
He was also engaged in the economic affairs of the order, also seized from G. Lvov: in 1634 he bought writing paper in the Vegetable Row. "The order of the clerk Mikhail Volosheninov was taken to the Posolskaya to the Rodionovo place of Yuryev".
Aleksey Lukich Korepanov worked continuously until the end of the period under study. It was not possible to establish who his predecessor was. A significant part of the cases that passed through Korepanov's "department" concerned Russian-Crimean relations. The first of these documents dates back to 1630 - 1631: in February 1630, the clerk inquired about giving money for a ransom to the Crimean Polonian Livny Cossack F.M. Bely, in February 1631 he sent an extract about the salary of the villagers who returned from the "Crimean parcel ”, about the cottage “for complete patience” to the Crimean polonyanka. Korepanov's two rights, made in 1631, belonged to the competence of D.P. Odintsov, which is mentioned above: firstly, on June 9, he celebrated the memory of the determination of daily food to the newly appointed interpreter I. Esipov, and secondly, made an extract about the salary "for complete patience" to the Turkish polonian M. Fedotov. Probably, Korepanov did not deal with Turkish affairs and the affairs of the interpreters for long, after they were taken from Odintsov, and before they were entrusted to R. Yuryev, who was again taken on order. Crimean affairs were also transferred to Yuryev.
Korepanov, next to the right, is found only in April 1634 on an extract about an increase in the salary of the interpreter B. Tinchyurin for the Crimean service. Then, in August 1637, he prepared two commemorations about compensation "for losses and for losses" in the Crimea to the translator A. Alyshev. Aleksey Lukich compiled statements on the salaries of baptismal workers, falconers and hawkers "for Crimean parcels" on October 11, 147 (1638), on the addition of salaries to employees who traveled to the Crimea - translator I. Koshaev in August 1641, interpreter D. Doyunov and translator K. Ustokasimov in 1643, about the equipment of the villagers R. Tevkelev and K. Koshaev in the Crimea on October 30, 1644; in the autumn of 1643 - to the clerk S. Bushuev, who was in the Crimea with the embassy of B. Priklonsky, and to the stanitsa Araslan-murza Aidarov, who took "light" commemoration to the khan.
Korepanov was also responsible for receiving and maintaining the diplomatic missions of the Crimean Khanate, as evidenced by the following entry: “Oleksey Korepanov’s podiachevo has 4 rubles left over for the feed of the Crimean messengers.” In Korepanov's box in the archives of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, there was an "extract according to the petition of the Ambassadorial Prikaz of clerks about registration in the Crimean parcel, which was not sent against the previous painting with Grigory Neronov."
Korepanov had to solve issues related to the training of specialists for Crimean affairs. So, in February 1643, he commemorated the appointment of a salary to the clerk P. Zverev, who, on his own initiative, studied the Tatar language for the service of a translator, in October 1644 - about the salary of a new Tatar translator.
Relations with the Lesser Nogai Horde were also subordinated to Korepanov: in March 148 (1640), he celebrated the memory of the award to the archers "for the Kazyevsky service". He was also preparing a mission to Moldova: in 1630: he made an extract on the amount of assistance to the interpreter P. Sagalaev, who was traveling there with the envoy B. Dubrovsky.
In 1643, Aleksey Lukich in the Saddle Row bought things for "light commemoration" in the Crimea. March 7, 1645 made right on the costs of repainting the rear chamber of the order. On July 20, 1645, he took boards for the sovereign's business. He wrote about various household purchases on February 5, 23 and 27, 1645. On June 13, 1645, he wrote about household expenses for 153 years. These facts indicate that in the first half of the 1640s, Korepanov's "department" was engaged in the economic affairs of the order. It is noteworthy that in the 1620s, one "department" - M. Matyushkina - was also in charge of the administration and Crimean affairs.
It is also possible that Korepanov was in charge of the affairs of the city of Romanov. On September 27, 1636, an extract on the salary of the Moscow Romanov archers was written by him.
Finally, in 1635-1636. Korepanov was responsible for preparing the affairs of the Don Cossacks. He sent salary statements: November 5, 1635 to the village of P. Fedorov, March 25, 1636 to the village of P. Saveliev, May 19, 1636 to the village of A. Nikiforov, June 10, 1636 to the village of D. Darfenieva, July 21 and 11 September 1636 to the village of N. Fedorov.
Mikhail Dmitrievich Volosheninov was the successor of the deceased R. Yuryev and “inherited” from him the cases of the service of clerks, watchmen and gold painters: in 1636 he commemorated the salary of clerks on the name day of the prince in 144. He made statements about the annual salary of cash salaries to all translators and interpreters for 147 (1638/1639), for 151 (1642/1643), about giving money "for a yard building" to the translator B. Lykov in December 1639, about the allowance for the family of the deceased translator B. Abdulov and about allowances for the widows of translators I. Kuchin, A. Angler, S. Iskelev, P. Grabov, in June 1642 on the employment of interpreter L. Pirogov, and in 1643 - interpreters N. Polikostritsky, L. Pirogov, K. Ivanov, in September of the same year - about the allowance to the widow of the suddenly deceased K. Ivanov. Then in the same month, these duties were assigned to T. Vasiliev-Nikitin.
On September 9, 1635, he inquired about the salary in Moscow for Kazanians in 141-143. In 1637, when determining the salary of the envoys S.I. Isleniev and M.K. Gryazev, who returned from Persia, Volosheninov sent a statement of salaries to all envoys and clerks - heads of embassies to Persia and Turkey from 1621. In 1642, he sent statements of salaries to ordinary participants embassies to Denmark S. M. Proestev and I. Patrikeev. Thus, Danish affairs in the early 1640s were in his "department".
Volosheninov sent memorandums: December 30, 1636 about the salary of the village of I. Katorzhny and other winter villages from 129, January 23, 1637 - about the salary to the same I. Katorzhny in money, damask and cloth, March 9, 1637 - about the salary of the winter village of T. Yakovlev, and on September 3, 1639 - to the messenger to the Don to the son of the boyar F. Kozhukhov and the Don leaders (Voluysky and Korchensky), as well as the Voronezh stanitsa T. Mikhnev. Thus, for some time he was also in charge of Don affairs.
Nikitin Tretiak. Two old clerks with that name served in the Posolsky Prikaz during the period under study. In 1632-1635 one of them had a salary of 45 rubles, signed as "Grenka Nikitin". Inquired about the award to G. Neronov, who traveled as a messenger to the "Golsten Land" in July 1636.
Nikitin Tretyak Vasiliev left more of his rights than other old clerks. Referred to in the documents as Tretyak Nikitin, he himself always signed as "Trenka Vasiliev"; his salary until January 1644 was 41 rubles, then 45.
In the income and expenditure book of 1644 it is said that on September 22, 1643, “Mikhail Volosheninov gave the remaining money two thousand seven hundred and eighty two rubles seven altyns with money to the clerk Trtyak Vasiliev, because Mikhail, by the sovereign decree, was ordered to be in the dyatsekh, and the parish and the expenses were ordered by the Duma deacon Grigory Lvov and he Mikhail to be in charge of the clerk Tretyak Vasilyev. From this report, two conclusions can be drawn: firstly, T. Vasiliev-Nikitin was appointed to replace Volosheninov, and secondly, that one of the duties of the first clerk's order was the maintenance of income and expense books. Although he was the first old clerk on the list, he received a salary lower than his comrades in the article (41 rubles), until he was laid up with them.
The data of the Inventory of the Archives of the Ambassadorial Order of 1673 allow us to assert that documents on relations with Sweden and the Patriarchate of Constantinople were being prepared in the “department” of T. Nikitin. In the box of T. Nikitin, according to the Inventory of the archive of the Ambassadorial order of 1626, two lists of the contract between M.V. Sergius to Patriarch Filaret "about alms". These data are duplicated by an entry in the receipt and expenditure book of the order: “At the podiachevo Tretyak Mikitin, what remained of the Hungarian ambassador from Yakov Rusel and from the German and the Greek hermit, as he was released in 142. 42 rubles 20 altyns. J. Roussel appeared in Russia as a Swedish diplomatic agent. Nikitin was also in charge of Georgian affairs: in the autumn of 1639, he inquired about giving a salary for 148 to the translator I. Boyarchikov and the interpreter L. Minin, who had visited Georgia with the embassy of F.F. Volkonsky and had not yet received a salary; in October 1644 - about the award to the translator I. Polshchikov "for the Georgian service".
In the notebook for 1639-1643. it is reported that "Trenka Vasiliev" took to his "department" replies from the Terek and Astrakhan governors on the affairs of the Nagai and Edisan Tatars, one replie about the oath of the Kalmyk taishas.
On August 28, 1644, T. Nikitin drew up a list for the Turkish polonyanniks brought from Istanbul by the embassy of I.D. He also made inquiries about the salaries of the nobles who saw off the Turkish ambassadors, about giving daily food to the Turkish messenger, about the salaries of the archery centurions who accompanied the Polish messengers from Vyazma to Moscow in October and December 1644 and in April and June 1645, about the ransom of the Russian polonyannik, who fled from the Ambassador's court from the Polish ambassador G. Stempkovsky. In 1644, when the great embassy of A.M. Lvov, G.G. Pushkin and M.D. Volosheninov was being equipped, G.V. Lvov made a painting about the commemoration with “soft junk” and a memory of the salary of all participants in the embassy. This indicates that T. Nikitin was in charge of relations with the Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire, which corresponds to the data of S.A. Belokurov, that in 1646 Polish and Turkish affairs were in the same region.
Many of his rights are connected with the affairs of clerks, watchmen and gold painters. He checked the statements: in December 1643 and in December 1644 about the salary of clerks on Christmas, twice - about the size of the annual salaries of clerks and watchmen for the 152nd and 153rd years, about holiday dachas we will clerk on the name day of the queen in February 1644 and in March 1645, the prince in March 1643, on Easter 1643 and 1644; about the holiday salary of young clerks, again taken to the service; about the salary of the gold painter P. Ivanov for 153. Thus, all cases of clerks, watchmen and gold painters no later than March 1643 were under the exclusive jurisdiction of T. Nikitin. The latest case concerning this category of employees refers to June 1644 - this is an extract on the money dacha on the day of the sovereign's angel 152.
In September 1643, we meet on the right "Grenki Vasiliev" on the salary statement for interpreters and translators and fodder foreigners. In December 1644, he celebrated the memory of the annual salaries of translators and interpreters for 153, in March 1644 he compiled extracts on the cases of the interpreter T. Angler and translator M. Sakharnikov, in July of the same year - on the assignment to the service of the interpreter T .Golovachev, in 1645, an extract on the salary of "Greeks and Voloshenin" for leaving "in the sovereign's name for eternal service" and on the layout of the sovereign's salary newly baptized. These data indicate that in 152 (1643/1644) Nikitin was assigned to be in charge of the affairs of clerks, watchmen, gold painters, as well as interpreters, translators and serving foreigners instead of M. Volosheninov, who had gone on promotion. From September to December 1643, M. Fokin was responsible for the category of interpreters and translators (see below); The conclusion suggests itself that this duty was assigned, as a temporary assignment, to T. Vasiliev, then transferred to Fokine, and then returned to Tretiak. Perhaps, in September 1644, I. Khripkov became in charge of these affairs (see below).
In addition, Tretyak prepared a memory of sending 40 silver plates taken from an English merchant to the order of the Grand Palace on January 26, 1644, a memory of sending 500 rubles to the Grand Parish to pay for yachts to a certain Dutchman on February 17, 1644. Probably, he was engaged in business foreign nationals living in the Muscovite state.
Summing up, we can conclude that T. Vasiliev-Nikitin in 1644 had the widest competence, which included Polish, Swedish, Turkish, Georgian affairs, the affairs of the Eastern patriarchates, the service first of clerks, gold painters and watchmen, then at the same time translators and interpreters (since September 1643), fodder foreigners.
Mina Fokin in September 1643 made a statement about the daily feed given to serving foreigners; December 1, 1643 - about the annual salary of translators and interpreters for 152. In 152 (1643/1644) - about the salary of interpreters and translators. Here we have a case where an average clerk with a cash salary of 30 rubles performed the functions of a referee. Perhaps this appointment took place due to the fact that Fokin, who had served in the second article for 11 years, was soon to be transferred to the first article, but he died less than a year later, on May 28, 1644.
Sukhorukov Yakov made an extract on February 14, 1638 about the salaries of the Voluy leaders and about sending to the Don; January 7, April 6 and June 12, 1638 - on the sovereign's salary to winter villages from 141; July 15 and 26, 1638 - about the salary of Voronezh informers on the Don. He also made inquiries about the salaries of the participants in the embassy of S.I. Islenyev and M.K. Gryazev to Persia - clerk, in August 1638 - translator and interpreter, sable-maker, falconers, hawks and baptismal workers. April 28, 1639 Sukhorukov died.
Sources do not give a complete picture of the competence of M. Volsheninov and Y. Sukhorukov; it can be argued that the former was responsible for Danish affairs, the latter for Persian. The fact that both of them were right about the award to members of the same diplomatic mission can be explained as follows: Volosheninov, the first clerk of the order with a salary of 50 rubles, made an extract about the envoys themselves, Sukhorukov - about the other participants in the embassy. Perhaps the right to pay the heads of embassies was the responsibility of the first clerk.
Don affairs were at first under the jurisdiction of Volosheninov, then they were transferred to Sukhorukov, but after the death of the latter they were returned to Volosheninov.
Ivan Prokofiev Khripkov made statements in August 1641 about the size of the allowance for the transportation of the family of the translator M. Magametev from Astrakhan and the salary for the rise of the translator B. Abdulov, who also moved from Astrakhan at one time; about salaries to translators who traveled to Persia with the embassy of S. Volynsky and S. Matveev. On May 28, 1645, a memory wrote to them, how much money to give to the Persian ambassador for the journey. On November 11, 1639, he sent a statement of salaries to Turkish prisoners - “Greeks”, “Araps” and “Turchens”; December 30, 1639 about the salary of the Greeks for the subordination; On January 3, 1640, he made a report on the polonyanniks - Astrakhan and Moscow archers; on the increase in the salary of the interpreter K. Romanov in September 1644
We have already spoken about the statements of the Moscow diplomats and the "Article lists" that they submitted to the Ambassadorial Prikaz. But in the Embassy Prikaz itself, various kinds of reference books were compiled for its own needs. These literary monuments are the only original works of this period specifically on international law and diplomacy.
The embassy order was the center where all information about the foreign world flocked. Moscow government XVI-XVII centuries. diligently collected this information. The embassy order asked all those who came from foreign countries about everything they saw and heard there, about the internal state of states and about external affairs. The ambassadors and messengers who were abroad, in turn, collected this information on the spot and reported it to the Posolsky Prikaz, adding it to their article lists * (105).
In the first half of the XVI century. Moscow still fed on very dubious information about the international relations of the states of Western Europe. Here is one of the recorded oral stories: “The European countries are kings. Caesar is the Roman king. And under that is the German king, who is also the heir to the Roman kingdom. And under that is the king of France. and under that the King of Neglitri. And under that, the King of Portugal. And under that, the King of Anapolitan. And under that, the King. And under that, the King of the Beasts, also known as the Sveian. And under that, the King of Denmark. And under that, the King of Poland."* (106). England remained outside the horizon of the narrator.
Such information became impossible from the second half of the 16th century, when a significant number of foreigners were in the Moscow service. With the expansion of Moscow's relations with the far West (England, France, Italy, Spain) after the Time of Troubles, especially during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, the Ambassadorial Order already had detailed and quite reliable information about the internal and external affairs of even such a distant country as Spain. The ambassadors of Moscow, the stolnik Peter Potemkin and the clerk Semyon Rumyantsev, in the appendix to the report on their embassy to Spain in 1667, inform their government in detail "about the faith of the Spanish people", about dignitaries, about the overseas possessions of Spain, its history, "about the friendship of the Spanish king , with whom the sovereigns of the ambassadors refer, "which kings and electors the ambassadors and residents have been living in the Spanish state for years" * (107).
The same ambassadors who went from Spain to France give the government similar information about this state: "On the friendship of the French king, with whom sovereigns and kings are ambassadors," on the internal state of the state, on faith * (108). In Venice, the Moscow ambassadors ask the secretary to describe for them "the different states of the title, which sheets are sent from different states to the Vinitsa prince" * (109).
Moscow's clashes with the states of Western Europe, which aroused on their part a desire to justify their actions, also gave the Russian government an opportunity to become familiar with what in the West was considered the norms of international law. An interesting document has been preserved, translated from Polish into Russian: "Discourse on a just and legal war with Moscow. Rationes pro et contra" (Arguments for and against) * (110). This is a note presented to the Polish Sejm regarding the war undertaken by Sigismund III in 1609-1610. under Tsar Vasily Shuisky.
Matveev A.S. (1625-1682). For official purposes, reference books necessary for diplomats were compiled in the Ambassadorial Order. We have only fragmentary information about them. We know that such a reference book was compiled, on behalf of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, in 1672 by the head of the Ambassadorial Department, the famous diplomat Artamon Sergeevich Matveev. In 1792 Timofei Malgin, a member of the Russian Academy, fearing that the manuscript might perish, published an extract from it * (111). It is mentioned by Tereshchenko among the works of Matveev, from which "only titles have come down to us" * (112). His information is incorrect: the work has ascended to us and is stored in the Central Archive of Ancient Acts * (113), where it was transferred from the Moscow Main Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It was printed by N.I. Novikov in the second edition ("Ancient Russian Vivliofika" * (114). The portraits, coats of arms and seals placed in the work were published only in the 20th century * (115)
On the title page of the essay, in an ornamented circle, it is written: "The book, and in it the collection, from where did the root of the great Sovereigns, tsars and grand princes of Russia come from; and as in past years the great sovereigns, tsars and grand princes of Russia: they were written in letters to the great Christian and Muslim sovereign to the present year 180; and with what seals the letters are printed; and as to their sovereign ancestors: the surrounding great sovereigns Christian and Muslim names and titles write their own and what are the sovereigns of their sovereign persons and coats of arms. This book was compiled by command Grand Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Duke Alexei Mikhailovich: this year in the 180th year.
The first part of the book is devoted to the genealogy, titles and seals of Russian sovereigns. "The monarchy of the great Russian kingdom of the great Sovereigns, tsars and grand princes of Russia is rooted from the most exalted tsar's throne and the beautifully blooming and bright Augustus tsar, possessing the whole universe."
Book A.S. Matveeva represents a kind of attempt at a diplomatic history of Russia. It gives a list of diplomatic relations of the Moscow sovereign with the following foreign rulers * (116): Roman emperors, kings of Spain, French, English, Danish and Swedish, kings of Georgia and Imerta, sovereigns of Moldavia and Warsaw, princes of Floritin and Venetian, the Dutch States, electors Saxon and Brandenburg, Holstein dukes, the free cities of Lubsk and Hamburg, as well as with the following non-Christian sovereigns: Persian shahs, Turkish sultans, Indian shahs, Bukhara and Yurga khans, Crimean khans, Cherkasy, Kumyk, Nagai Murzas and Kalmyk taishas; at the end of this list are relations with the ecumenical patriarchs and with the popes. For some unknown reason, the correspondence with the popes contains information about relations with the Czech Republic and Austria.
Usually, the year is indicated from which relations * (117) began, and letters are given that the Moscow sovereigns exchanged with other sovereign persons and heads of the Greek and Roman churches. In the letters of the compiler, he was mainly interested in titles - his own and the addressee - and "theology", i.e. religious preamble; the appearance of the certificates is also described (paper quality, printing); the subject of references is mentioned only as an exception * (118).
Kotoshikhin G.K. (c. 1630-1667). Speaking of the Ambassadorial order, it is necessary to mention the clerk of this order, Grigory Karpovich Kotoshikhin. Being on a campaign with the Russian army, in 1664 he fled abroad and, taking the name of Ivan-Alexander Selitsky, entered the Swedish service. For the drunken murder of the owner of the house in which he lived, he was sentenced to death in 1667 and beheaded.
During his stay in Sweden, Kotoshikhin wrote an extensive essay in which he described the state of Russia at that time, emphasizing the negative aspects in state structure and in everyday life. The manuscript was opened in 1838 in the library of Uppsala University and published in 1840 and again in 1859, 1884 and 1906. under the title: "About Russia in the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich" * (119).
In the work of Kotoshikhin there are 13 chapters, of which two are devoted to the diplomatic relations of the Moscow state and embassy customs, as they developed in the middle of the 17th century, namely: chapter IV - "About the Moscow aftermath, who, with what rank and honor, are sent to the surrounding states in the aftermath, in envoys, in messengers "* (120), and Chapter V - "Other states about ambassadors and envoys, and messengers, and what an honor to whom happens" * (121).
To characterize the embassy life of the Moscow state, the instructions cited by Kotoshikhin, which the Posolsky order gave to ambassadors sent abroad, are interesting: they didn’t repair anything with foreign people, and they didn’t ruin or rob houses, and by their violence they wouldn’t get anything from anyone: "(paragraph 2 of article 21).
Detailed instructions were given to the ambassadors regarding an audience with the sovereigns: “so that there are no ambassadors and envoys and messengers from other states” (paragraph 4 of article 21), and if they find out that other ambassadors will be at the reception that day, they should say "bailiff" that they were "not ordered" to go, and even if they had already arrived at the sovereign's court, to refuse an audience (clause 5, article 21). When the ambassadors are offered to drink, then drink to the king’s health first, and they will call the sovereign to the table, “so that they sit politely and do not get drunk, and speak conversational speeches with caution, with fiction” and order their nobles “so that they do not get drunk, and sit politely and quietly, and no words were spoken between themselves and with anyone "(clause 6, article 21).
Special instructions are given to ambassadors sent to "congresses" (v.22-23), i.e. to international conferences.
In Chapter III, Kotoshikhin speaks of "titles, as to which the potentate of the Moscow Tsar of the writer."
Ambassador book. In the list of things of the disgraced book. V.V. Golitsyn is listed: "The book at noon, written: O after, - where, to whom, in which state worship. Price 2 Alt.4 d." * (122). The book, judging by the price indicated on it, was on sale and was thus the first public literary work in Russia devoted to issues of international law and diplomacy. The search for this book made by the author in due time remained fruitless.
The period we have considered, the period of the Muscovite state, is the time when the science of international law was born in our country. Occasionally found in the literary monuments of Kievan Rus, instructions concerning relations between princes are accidental and are of a moral and religious nature; they do not give grounds to see in them the beginnings of international legal science.
Such a beginning can undoubtedly be ascertained in the literary monuments of the Muscovite state. The utterances of the Moscow diplomats already clearly express certain norms of conduct in binding relations between sovereigns and states. In the writings of Maxim Grek and Yuri Krizhanich, especially the latter, another step forward is taken: some issues of international law are discussed; they are justified. In translated literature there is even a rather extensive treatise on the law of war. In the "Officer of the Russian Sovereigns" developed in the Ambassadorial order, one can see the embryo of the diplomatic history of Russia.
Such are the first, still timid steps in our science of international law.
The issues of this law, which interested the authors more than others during this period, are the following: sovereignty (sovereignty), international treaty, the position of foreigners, the right of war and conquest.
In "Political Thoughts" by Yuri Krizhanich, we first encounter in Russian literature a term that in the West has long served to designate the entire set of norms of international law. This term - jus gentium - Krizhanich conveys in Russian with the words "people's truth".
2. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE AMBASSADOR'S ORDER AND ITS PERSONNEL
Boss Ambassadorial order - the head of the foreign affairs department. He could be a duma clerk (in the beginning) or then more and more often - a boyar, a close boyar, that is, a person especially trusted by the tsar. At the beginning of the XVIII century. - chancellor, i.e., the highest official of the first rank in the state, the second person after the king in management. This clearly shows the growing role of foreign affairs in the overall state leadership in Russia.
Chief's comrades Order.
At the beginning, in the 16th century, they were clerks, in the 17th century, clerks, but not duma, but only embassies, at the end of the 17th century, boyars. The comrade (i.e., deputy) of the head of the Order was, as a rule, one, although it could be from one to three at the same time, or in parallel, or sequentially. At least one of them had to have such competence that, if necessary, be able to replace the head either as acting or as the actual head of the Order.
Povytya- departments or departments of the Ambassadorial order. As a rule, from the middle of the 17th century, there were five povytia, although at the beginning, in the 16th century, there were only two or three of them, in the first half of the 17th century. - four, and by the end of the XVII - beginning of the XVIII century. there were even six.
At the same time, despite the stable number of changes, cases were distributed among them in different ways, i.e., firstly, different countries were included in separate departments at different periods, and secondly, administrative- economic functions between departments in different periods. However, the basic principle of dividing into departments from the very beginning of the existence of the Russian Foreign Ministry was regional studies.
At the head of the povyt was an old clerk, that is, the eldest of the clerks who worked in the povyt. In total, there were five old clerks in the Ambassadorial Order - strictly according to the number of povytiy. Each senior clerk was subordinate to 4 more junior clerks, from the last quarter of the 17th century. they began to be divided into middle clerks, junior (or young) clerks, and new non-commissioned, or "new" ones - trainees, trainees appointed to the ranks without salary, so that they "keep an eye on things", that is, for training. The total number of personnel engaged in this way in diplomatic work in the central apparatus of the Posolsky Prikaz was as follows: 5 old clerks - heads of departments (povyty), 10-12 juniors. Since 1689, states have been established: 5 old, 20 middle and young, and 5 new, that is, a total of 30 people. However, in practice, foreign policy personnel have always been short of due to the lack of trained persons, and there were from 18 to 28 people in the Ambassadorial Order at different times. It was on them, on this small number of people, that the main burden of foreign policy work for a century and a half lay.
When distributing functions from the old clerk (head of department) to the assistant (i.e., the junior clerk who had just transferred to this rank from among the trainee trainees, or “newcomers”), the consistently pursued principle of differentiation was maintained in strict dependence on knowledge and work experience . This was reflected primarily in the pay of diplomats. It ranged from 1600 rubles. (for the head of the department) up to 50 rubles. per year (for the referent) in comparable prices for late XIX in. On the Last year work of the Posolsky Prikaz (1701), before its actual liquidation, 6 old clerks, 7 middle and 11 young clerks worked in it, which gives some idea of the distribution of roles.
Distribution of responsibilities between the ranks. Povytia (departments) each dealt with a certain number of countries, like. usually far from equal. This depended at each historical stage on the specific state of international relations, on the presence of frequently changing contractors (partners), i.e., foreign powers with which Russia maintained relations, on the real significance and hence on the actual volume of work with a particular country, on the competence of individual old clerks, from their specific knowledge of certain countries and, finally, not least from the will of the tsar and the head of the order and their discretion about what should be an “equal” load for workers of each rank, what criteria were guided by and on what grounds it was determined and compared in each specific historical period.
If we take into account all these complex circumstances, then for us that structure of uplifts will become explainable, which has never been constant, but has changed and formed in a confused and unsystematic way. Although the basis of the work of povyty already from the end of the XVI century. the principle of specialization of departments by country clearly prevailed, but the very layout of these countries in povyt, their combination may seem to us meaningless, fantastic and simply inconvenient if we do not take into account the above circumstances and approach the assessment of the work of the then departments of the Ambassadorial Order from a modern point of view . Departments (povytya) were initially called by the names of their chiefs-clerks: Alekseev's povytya, Volkov's, Gubin's povytya, then by numbers; 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, So, already in the middle of the 17th century. (1646) there were 4 povyts (in the 70s. - 5, in the 90s - 6). Responsibilities were distributed among them as follows:
1st generation: Kyzylbashi (Dagestan, Azerbaijani khanates, Persia), Denmark, Holland.
2nd generation: Bukhara, Yurgench (Khanate of Khiva), India, Crimea.
3rd generation: Sweden, Moldova, Greek authorities (i.e. Patriarch of Constantinople, Metropolitan of Kyiv).
4th generation: Lithuania and the Turkish sultan.
Inclusion of Moscow's relations with Denmark and Azerbaijan (Persia) in one department, "incomprehensible" at the present time, is in fact explained by the fact that these countries were in constant, stable friendly relations with Russia, and therefore the employees of this department had to develop and cultivate a certain diplomatic language, a certain soft, polite, respectful form of address in the preparation of documents.
On the contrary, in the 4th howl, where it was necessary to speak rather harshly, but at the same time without breaking loose and not allowing insults, with two "eternal" enemies of Russia - with the Sultan and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, with Russia's most unpredictable neighbors - naturally , other qualities should have been developed among diplomats. Flexibility to change the form of relations on the go was not allowed by either tradition or prescription; and everything that concerned a change in policy was decided by the tsar, his Duma, and the strict observance of the instructions was left to the lot of the officials of the Ambassadorial Order. That is why all shades of diplomatic relations - from hostile to friendly to varying degrees - were divided into five possible categories, and the distribution of countries in these categories changed depending on specific historical circumstances. So, for example, having quarreled with the Moldavian ruler, the tsar could order to transfer the conduct of business with Moldavia to the 4th povyt, and this was already enough, because the officials of this povyt would automatically write to the Moldavian ruler in the same tone and in the same spirit as the Turkish Sultan or Grand Duke of Lithuania. Retraining employees of the same department, changing forms of work depending on the situation, was considered in the 16th and 17th centuries. extremely inconvenient and impractical: the clerks themselves could get confused, and this would be detrimental to the prestige of the king. The king did not have to change his orders in such a way that this change of policy was noticeable to his subjects: they were used to everything being unchanged and stable, otherwise they would either get lost or, conversely, lose respect for power as a stable institution. Only in the 80s. XVII century, when European-educated people begin to be placed at the head of the Ambassadorial Office and when the very nature and intensity of European affairs begin to differ too sharply from Asian affairs, and besides, the language factor, knowledge of individual European and Asian languages, begins to play an increasingly important role, while while before it was enough to know two or three "international" - Church Slavonic (for all Slavic and Orthodox countries), Latin (for all Western European) and Greek (for all Eastern and for relations with church hierarchs - the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Metropolitan of Kyiv), breakdown cases of individual povyty begins to acquire a modern regional character.
1st class: The Holy See, the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, Spain, France, England and all matters of protocol.
2nd generation: Sweden, Poland, Wallachia, Moldavia, Turkey, Crimea, Holland, Hamburg, Hanseatic cities, Greeks and visits of the "Greek authorities" (Patriarch of Constantinople).
3rd class: Denmark, Brandenburg, Courland and all matters related to the conduct of technical support for relations: translators, interpreters, dragomans, scribes, gold painters.
4th generation: Persia, Armenia, India, the Kalmyk state, the Don Cossacks, as well as everything related to communications: diplomatic mail and mail in general, couriers, messengers, messengers, messengers, the security service for diplomatic workers (“reprisal cases” ) and sales office.
5th generation: China, Bukhara, Urgench (Khiva), Siberian Kalmyks (Zhungar state), Georgia and providing equipment for embassy workers and decorating receptions (clothing, lace, linen factories, etc.).
Thus, in the 80s, XVII century, three departments dealt with European affairs, and two - with Asian ones. Here there was already a more rational organization of diplomatic work, in which the specialization of workers was possible not only in the form of work, but also in the country, in the very content of diplomatic work. Yet even at the end of the seventeenth century have not yet come to a decision on the separation from the diplomatic work of all auxiliary departments - security, communications, economic services, trade missions. They were given "to the load" little by little for each of the main promotions, not realizing to save the diplomats from the functions of caretaker or security guards that were not characteristic of them.
This structure remains, in fact, until the very end of the existence of the Ambassadorial order, for back in 1701-1702. there was the following division into povyts (departments), where, on the one hand, a shift towards even greater rationality in the division of countries is visible, and on the other hand, blind adherence to tradition in preserving the old order: 1st povyt: Papal Throne, German Empire, France , England, Portugal, Florence, Italy, Venice, electors of Germany, as well as protocol (ceremonial) business and medical support (quarantines, doctors, pharmacists).
2nd class: Greek questions (Constantinople), Denmark, Brandenburg, Courland, as well as security issues (bailiffs and watchmen) and technical support (translators, interpreters, scribes, gold scribes, etc.).
3rd generation: Poland, Sweden, Holland, Turkey, Crimea, Moldavia, Wallachia. (It is easy to see that all the most important, key foreign policy relations of that time were combined in this department, the tsar himself was often interested in this and conducted his affairs, and therefore both European and Asian affairs related to military-strategic and military-foreign policy issues were combined here. : it was a department of neighboring countries on the western border of the empire.) Holland got into this company for two reasons: firstly, it was a country that was distinguished at that time by the tsar himself (Peter I), and secondly, it was closely connected with the solution of military-diplomatic issues, from there came all the naval equipment and training necessary for the wars of Peter I at sea with both Turkey and Sweden; in addition, Holland competed with Sweden in trade in the Baltic.
4th tribe: Persia, Armenia, Don Cossacks, Hanseatic cities, Riga, regulation of the position of foreign merchants in Russia - dealt with the affairs of neutral countries.
5th line: Georgia - Kartaliniya and Georgia - Imereti, China, middle Asia- Bukhara, Urgench (Khiva) - had a purely Asian character.
6th povyte: Separately, issues of relations with the North and Siberia, the so-called. Stroganov affairs, that is, for the first time the government took into its own hands a vast area of relations with the Siberian and northern peoples, which they began to manage from the 15th century. in fact, various private individuals by personal proxy of the king. As a result, Russia's relations with the peoples of Siberia, including with various local (native) states, acquired distorted, colonial-coercive forms, proceeding not even from the state, but from private individuals who for centuries allowed arbitrariness for narrowly selfish purposes. Such were the relations with the Great Perm, Vym, Pelym, Kondinsky, Lyapinsky, Obdorsky, Surgut “principalities”, i.e. with the local state-tribal formations of the Mansi (Vogul) and Khanty (Ostyak) peoples, as well as with the Zhungar, Oirat and others tribal unions and states (khanates) located from the Urals to the borders of the Chinese Empire. Beginning in 1700, relations in this region were for the first time placed under the direct control of the state and therefore were included in the jurisdiction of the Posolsky Prikaz, its special, b-th, povyt.
Such was the structure of the Russian Foreign Ministry before its reorganization into the Collegium of Foreign Affairs.
In addition to the diplomats of the central office, various auxiliary workers constantly worked in the Embassy Prikaz, ensuring the technical implementation of diplomatic assignments and acts.
1. translators- this was the name given only to translators from various foreign languages who prepared Russian texts of foreign letters and verified the identity of the texts of Russian treaties with their foreign version.
In addition to the actual diplomatic work, they were also busy compiling various reference and educational "state books". So, it was in the Ambassadorial Prikaz that the “Titular Book”, “Cosmography”, the collection of church-state canonical rules and laws “Vasiliologion” and other books that were enduring encyclopedic in nature and also associated with processing and collecting information from foreign sources were compiled. The interpreters were, in fact, the first press attaches of the then Foreign Ministry.
The number of translators from the moment the Posolsky Prikaz was organized until its dissolution at the beginning of the 18th century It fluctuated greatly, but grew all the time as the volume of work and the number of countries that entered into diplomatic relations with Moscow grew. There were from 10 to 20 translators from languages (payment from three to five times higher than interpreters, interpreters):
1) Greek classical (ancient Greek, or Hellenic);
2) Greek colloquial (modern Greek);
3) Volosh (Valakh, Romanian);
4) Latin (classical);
5) Caesar's Latin (that is, from Vulgar Latin);
6) Polish;
7) Dutch;
8) English;
9) Caesar (Austrian-German);
10) Tatar;
11) Kalmyk;
12) Turkish (Turkish);
13) Arabic;
14) German (Lower Saxon);
15) Swedish.
2. Tolmachi- in total from 12 to 16. Everyone knew from 2 to 4 languages. Combinations: Tatar, Turkish and Italian - common for that time, as well as Latin, Polish, German. Translated from the following languages.