1. Philology of classical antiquity: the teachings of Panini, the theory of language in the ancient period
2. Medieval theories of language. Arabic linguistics
3. Linguistics of the 17th-18th centuries: linguistic views of G. V. Leibniz, J. Zh. Rousseau, I. G. Herder.
4. General rational grammar.
5. Normative grammars and dictionaries
The first stage in the development of linguistics is divided into three stages: the philology of classical antiquity, the linguistics of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and the linguistics of the 17th-18th centuries. Although people showed interest in the language always and everywhere, the development of linguistics was most significantly influenced by the philology of ancient India and ancient Greece.
Knowledge of the language, as we know, has been accumulated over many centuries. The first thoughts about the language are already recorded in the ancient Indian treatises of the 5th-6th centuries BC. They were generated by the Vedic culture, in particular, by the need to explain the religious texts that have already become difficult for Hindus to comprehend, created in a language that has gone out of active speech use - Sanskrit. It was used only as a literary language by the 5th century. The languages of everyday communication by that time were Prakrits - spoken languages, on the basis of which the modern languages \u200b\u200bof India later arose (Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Punjabi, Marathi, Gujarati, Oriya, Assami, Sindhi, etc.).
For the conscious use of Sanskrit, linguistic comments were created on ancient Indian written monuments, the oldest of which were Vedangas.
The works of Jaska, Panini, Vararuchi, Patanjali acquired the greatest fame. The oldest grammarians describe not only the grammatical structure, but also the physiological characteristics of speech sounds, types of stress, and some sound processes.
Ancient thinkers (Heraclitus, Augustine, Democritus, Aristotle) raised and partially solved the philosophical questions of language. They were interested in the problems of naming (theories of fuses and theses), the relationship between thought and speech, the relationship between lexical and grammatical semantics, theories of anomalies and analogies, questions of the origin of the language. Along with the philosophy of language, the grammatical structure of the language was actively studied (Alexandrian and Pergamon grammar schools). According to the model of Greek, Roman grammars were created (Mark Terence Varro, Aelius Donat, Priscian). Great importance was attached to questions of rhetoric.
Arab scientists made a significant contribution to the development of the science of language. In the field of grammar, Sibawayhs (“Al-Kitab”) became world famous, in lexicography Khalil al Farahidi (“The Book of Ain”), Mahmud al Kashgari (“The Divan of Turkish Languages”). fruitfully studied sound system language. It was they who for the first time in history began to distinguish between the concepts of "sound" and "letter".
The Middle Ages in the history of linguistic teachings are considered an era of stagnation. The main subject of study was the Latin language. On its basis, the ground was prepared for the creation of universal (ideal) grammars.
Themselves, universal grammars arise in the Renaissance (“Grammar of Port-Royal” by Antoine Arnault and Claude Lanslo). Methodological basis became Cartesian philosophy (philosophy of Rene Descartes -lat. Name Cartesius). At the same time, interest in the comparative study of different languages was growing, historical linguistics, lexicography, and various theories of the origin of the language were rapidly developing (J.-J. Rousseau, G. Leibniz, and. Herder).
At the beginning of the 19th century, the prerequisites for the emergence of comparative historical linguistics (Franz Bopp, Rasmus Rask, Jacob Grimm, A.Kh. Vostokov, etc.) were formed, on the basis of which the formation of general linguistics took place (W. von Humboldt, A.A. Potebnya , and. a, Baudouin de Courtenay).
In the 20th century in linguistics a) there is a tendency to use "objective" methods of studying the language, requiring as much as possible to exclude the imposition of categories alien to it, borrowed from other sciences (the school of linguistic structuralism); b) the principles of mathematical thinking are being introduced (mathematical linguistics, linguistic statistics, machine translation, etc.); c) the priority is the study of living languages (the study of living spontaneous speech; d) the method of linguistic experiment is rapidly spreading; e) the formation of lexicology as an independent linguistic discipline is being completed.
Glossary: subject of linguistics, object of study, research method, direction, theory, language, speech, speech activity, modeling.
Topic 3: Linguistic views of M.V. Lomonosov.
1. Russian grammar M.V. Lomonosov
2. Classification of parts of speech.
3. Phonetics and spelling.
4. The theory of three calms.
5. "A short guide to eloquence"
M.V. Lomonosov, taking into account the peculiarities of the Russian literary language of the 18th century, came to the conclusion that there are three “kinds of speech” in it; the corresponding judgments of the great scientist colored the theory of styles for the whole 2 centuries. Lomonosov's theory of three calms is based on the recognition of the heterogeneity of the Russian vocabulary of the 18th century, which was explained by the historical conditions in which the Russian literary language was formed over the previous 8 centuries.
Topic 4: Comparative historical linguistics
1. The emergence of comparative historical linguistics
2. German and Slavic studies. Comparative grammar of F. Bopp, the concept of R. Rusk, J. Grim, A.Kh. Vostokov, A. Schleicher
3. Philosophy of language by W. Humboldt. Morphological classification languages.
4. Logical-grammatical and psychological trends in linguistics (F.I. Buslaev, A.A. Potebnya)
5. Young grammar school
The leading place in comparative historical research belongs to the comparative historical method. This method is defined as a system of research techniques used in the study of related languages to reconstruct a picture of the historical past. Modern comparative historical linguistics, on the one hand, inherits the achievements and traditions of comparative studies of the 19th century, on the other hand, poses new tasks and problems that have arisen in connection with the discovery of new facts and the development of linguistic theories. The study of the connections of large families of languages that are in distant relationships and, possibly, kinship, has an impact on the development of comparative historical and typological linguistics. With the increase in the amount of factual material - in addition to Greek and Latin, the Germanic, Iranian and Slavic languages \u200b\u200bare studied - and the establishment of the relationship of the languages studied with Sanskrit, the comparative historical study of languages made a significant step forward and refined its subject and method. Thus, the separation of European and Asian linguistics was overcome and the question of the unity of linguistics was raised. In the first half of the 19th century, linguistics stood out as a special branch of knowledge, refined its subject and method, and acquired a modern structure. The main sections of linguistics were: general linguistics, understood as the philosophy of language and general grammar, comparative historical linguistics and private linguistics.
Topic 5: Linguistic schools in linguistics
1. Moscow Linguistic School (F.F. Fortunatov, A.A. Shakhmatov, A.M. Peshkovsky). The study of language as a social phenomenon.
2. Kazan Linguistic School (I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, N. V. Krushevsky, V. A. Bogoroditsky). Statement of general theoretical problems.
3. Foreign linguistics. The linguistic theory of Ferdinand de Saussure.
4. Structuralism. Prague Linguistic Circle.
5. Descriptive linguistics, generative grammar, glossematics
The new schools, continuing what had been done earlier, paid special attention to the problems of sociology and the structure of language. The sociological trend in linguistics is established in the struggle against the individual psychological and naturalistic understanding of the essence of language. The emerging neogrammatism is characterized by the recognition of the following basic principles of linguistics:
1. Language is not a natural organism and not an individual phenomenon; language is essentially social;
2. The subject of linguistics is not only the history of the language, but also the structure of the modern language, the definition of its units, their relationships and the very structure of the language;
3. For neogrammatism, it is typical to bring to the fore the theory and grammar, understood as the doctrine of the form of the language;
4. Neogrammatism considered the most important theoretical issue of general linguistics to clarify the aspects of research and the classification of linguistic disciplines. The most significant schools of neogrammatism are: Kazan, Moscow, Geneva linguistic schools.
Topic 6: Soviet linguistics
1. General linguistic problems in the works of Soviet linguists.
2. Linguistic views of L.V. Shcherby, typological concept of I.I. Meshchaninov, the grammatical doctrine of the word V.V. Vinogradov.
3. Soviet linguistics at the end of the 20th century.
Soviet linguistics arose in the course of historical development Soviet society, its science and culture. The creation of the theory of Soviet linguistics began with mastering the traditions of Russian linguistics. Especially influential were the semaseological and grammatical concepts of A.A. Potebnya, the grammatical teaching of F.F. Fortunatov (especially as presented by A.M. Peshkovsky, D.N. Ushakov, A.A. Shakhmatov) and the ideas of I.A. Baudouin de Courtaney (as presented by V.A. Bogoroditsky, E.D. Polivanov, and.L.V. Shcherba). In the works of G.O. Vinokura, V.M. Zhirmunsky, B.A. Larina, A.M. Peshkovsky, L.P. Yakubinsky, a turn was made from historical to descriptive linguistics, to the study of living speech, speech culture, to the sociological and stylistic aspects of the language.
Topic 7: Theory of linguistics. Language and speech.
1. The social nature of the language, its internal structure and forms of existence.
2. Language and speech. Speech activity.
3. Linguistics and semiotics.
4. Types of signs and language units
The connection between language and society is quite definite: language exists only in society. Society cannot exist and develop without language. A language that ceases to function and develop is a dead language: it is preserved only as an object of scientific study, knowledge of the past. The sociology of language, or sociolinguistics, is one of the main sections of theoretical linguistics that influences language policy and has direct access to practice - language construction. The concept of speech activity is so important that some scientists consider language as part of speech activity. And this is true only in the case that the language does not exist by itself as an abstract idea, but is the result and component human activity. Speech activity has two sides: individually - mental and objectively social. Speech activity is, first of all, an act of communication between people with the help of language, a communicative act. Communication involves the generation and perception of speech, which is the psychophysiological mechanisms of speech. There are 4 main levels of speech production: motivational, semantic, grammatical and phonetic. Language is a sign system.
Topic 8: Sociolinguistics as a science of social functions and types of language.
1. The subject of sociolinguistics.
2. Psycholinguistics and ethnolinguistics as sections
sociolinguistics.
3. The concept of literary language. The system of styles, the language of fiction.
4. Nation and national language. Language and history. Language and culture.
The sociality of the language is characterized primarily by the spread of its literary norm, which is directly related to the socio-economic and cultural-political development of society. Literary language is a form of existence and functioning of the language, the usage and norm of a special kind. Literary language is a processed and exemplary form of the language of a particular people. The literary language is characterized by the following features:
1. The presence of a written form that is normalized and codified;
2. Mandatory for all speakers of a given language;
3. Multifunctionality.
Nationalities arise on the basis of tribes and their unions. Mutual language and a common territory, the unity of the spiritual warehouse and culture are the main features of the nationality. Nations arise, exist and develop only in the presence of economic ties of a large number of people connected by a common territory and language. National self-consciousness, manifested in the unity of culture and the spiritual makeup of people. The connection between a language and a nation is, specifically, historical, and the ways in which national languages are formed are varied. Each nation has its own language, but this does not mean that the language of the nation is always native and all nations are related to their language in the same way. The language of interethnic communication is such a language that is used as a means of communication between people of different nations, nationalities and ethnic groups.
Topic 9: Philosophical and linguistic methods of cognition
1. Philosophical methods of knowledge.
2. Linguistic methods of cognition.
3. Comparative-historical method, its main techniques
4. Methods and techniques of descriptive linguistics.
5. Comparative-typological method of studying languages. (Contrastive typology).
6. Methods and techniques of semantic grouping of material.
Philosophical method, i.e. method of cognition (dialectical and metaphysical), is the doctrine of the most general laws nature, society and thought. Cognition as a process includes three main stages: research (discovery of facts or their relationship), systematization (interpretation and proof) and presentation (description). General scientific methods of research are observation, experiment, modeling. The main linguistic methods-aspects are descriptive, comparative and normative-stylistic. Each of the linguistic methods is characterized by its principles and tasks. The descriptive method is a system of research techniques used to characterize the phenomena of a language at a given stage of its development; it is a method of synchronous analysis. Here we can distinguish the following types of analysis: categorical analysis, discrete analysis, component analysis, contextual analysis and many other methods of linguistic analysis. Interlingual comparison arose, on the one hand, under the influence of the practice of teaching a non-native language, and on the other hand, as a result of the study of related languages. Two types are based on the comparison of languages comparative method: comparative-historical and comparative-comparative.
Topic 10: Development of sociological trends in linguistics.
Topic 11: Language, speech and speech activity.
Topic 12: Linguistics and semiotics.
Topic 13: Language as a system. The system and structure of the language.
Topic 14: The public nature of language.
Topic 15: Philosophical method of language cognition. linguistic methods.
1. Alefirenko N.F. Modern problems of the science of language. M.: Nauka,
2. Alpatov V.M. History of linguistic doctrines. M., 1999.
4. Benveniste E. General linguistics. M., 1974.
5. Berezin F.M. History of linguistic doctrines. M., 1975
6. Berezin F.M., Golovin B.N. General linguistics. M., 1979.
7. Golovin B.N. General linguistics. M., 1979.
8. Humboldt V. Selected works on linguistics. M., 1984.
9. Kodukhov V.I. General linguistics. M., 1974.
10. General linguistics. Methods of linguistic research / Ed. Ed. B.A. Serebrennikov. M., 1962.
11. Modern American Linguistics: Fundamental Directions / Under. Ed. A.A. Kibrika. M., 2002.
12. Stepanov Yu.S. Methods and principles of modern linguistics. M., 2001.
13. Suleimenova E.D. Actual problems of Kazakh linguistics: 1991-2001. Almaty, 2001.
14. Shelyakhovskaya L.A., Gilmanova R.S. Kazhigalieva G.A. General linguistics. Materials for the integrated course. Almaty, 2001.
15. Zubkova L.G. General theory of language in development. M., 2003.
16. Modern American Linguistics: Fundamental
directions (Edited by A.A. Kibrik, I.M. Kobozeva, I.A.
Sekerina). M., 2002.
17. Saussure F.de. Course of general linguistics / Proceedings on linguistics. M.,
18. Guillaume G. Principles of teretic linguistics. M., 1992.
19. Lyons J. Introduction to theoretical linguistics / Translated from English. Under the editorship and with the preface. V.A. Zvegintsev. M., 1978.
20. General linguistics //Ed. A.E. Suprun. Minsk, 1983.
21. Arutyunova N.D. Language and the human world. M., 1998.
22. Mechkovskaya N.B. Social Linguistics. M., 1996.
23. Vezhbitskaya A. Language. Culture. Cognition. M., 1996.
24. Maslova V.A. Introduction to linguoculturology. M., 1997.
25. Gak V.G. Pragmatics and linguistic variation // Gak V.G. Language transformations. M., 1998.
26. Konetskaya V.P. Sociology of communication. M., 1997.
27. Dyck T.A. bath Language. Cognition. Communication. M., 1989.
28. Vygotsky L.S. Thinking and speech. M., 1999
29. Luria A.R. Language and consciousness. M., 1998.
30. Levitsky Yu.A. Language, speech, text. Perm, 1998.
31. Berezin F.M. On paradigms in the history of linguistics in the 20th century.
//Linguistic research at the end of the 20th century. M., 2000.
Recently, linguistics has begun to pay more and more attention to the problem of defining the subject of its science.
The main reason for this is the expansion of our experience and knowledge, and hence the desire to rethink the tasks and object of study. With the expansion of experience, such phenomena are involved in the field of analysis that were either not considered at all before, or were studied as part of the so-called related disciplines: psychology, literary criticism, philosophy, semiotics, ethnography, medicine, sociology. Thus, until a certain point, speech and speech activity were studied only by psychologists, and its inclusion in the composition of the objects of study of linguistics at the beginning of the 20th century is associated with the works of Baudouin de Courtenay and Potebnya.
Already in the middle of the 20th century, the formation and approval of a new branch of linguistics - psycholinguistics - took place. With the increasing interest of researchers in language and speech, and even more so in the bearer and creator of this speech, new branches of linguistics appear and develop: poetic linguistics, text linguistics, semiotic linguistics, and sociolinguistics.
Thus, on the borders with adjacent fields, at the junctions of different sciences, there is a constant expansion of our linguistic experience, an increase in potential, scientific knowledge, discoveries are made, hypotheses are formed, new theories are formed. And each new step on the path of progress requires linguists to rethink the object of their science, to establish those of its features and characteristics that play a decisive role in determining its nature, taking into account new data, expanding experience, i.e. at each new stage.
In fact, the entire 19th century passed under the sign of historicism. In line with the teaching that language is a constantly changing phenomenon, it should be studied in development, a comparative historical method took shape, comparative studies arose, and interest in dead languages increased. The historical character of the language has become a defining measure of scientificity.
By the end of the 19th century, interest arose in the study of living languages and dialects, this interest developed not only as a response to the despotism of the historical method, but also in connection with the growth of national self-consciousness.
Already at the beginning of the 20th century, the idea appeared and consolidated in linguistics that language is psychological through and through. At the same time, psychologism does not at all deny historicism, but, on the contrary, contributes to the expansion of linguistic experience.
At the end of the 19th century, F. de Saussure entered the scientific field. He put forward the thesis that language is systemic through and through and social through and through. The first position turned out to be more developed in the experiments of Saussure, therefore, since the 20s of the 20th century, language has acted mainly as a system that is basically a social phenomenon.
Thus, in linguistics, four paradigms can be outlined - "historical", "psychological", "system-structural" and "social". Each of them prevailed in linguistics in some periods of the existence of the language (the boundaries of which, however, are rather blurred) and therefore were paradigmatic, although none of these paradigms existed in its pure form.
Speaking about the modern linguistic paradigm, it should be noted that it is characterized by a general "inhumanity": the image of the language it creates takes on an anthropomorphic character. Therefore, statements like this sound quite natural and justified: "Since language is the main means of communication, the language (and not the person!) Should be in a state of communicative readiness."
Thus, an idea is created about the "pressure of the system", that the language "imposes" a certain way of expression on the speaker; language generally correlates with an inexorable, soulless system that suppresses and subjugates the speaker, regulates his choice, restrains the creative possibilities of self-expression, such a system in the linguistic paradigm is considered without mediating it by a person. The image of such a system stems from the hypostasis of one of the paradigm-forming factors, one of the properties of the language - its system-structural nature. But hypostatization is an inalienable companion of one of the properties of an object, one of its sides. So, studying the historical nature of the language, its temporal changes, the scientist completely focuses on them, pushing the systematic and structural nature of the language into the background. This does not mean that he completely abandons them, declaring historicism the main criterion of scientificity (as it was in the 18th century), it is just that the system-structural properties of the language, remaining "in the mind", turn out to be less important for us.
The hypostatization of one of the aspects also has an ontological premise, since none of the four fundamental properties of the language is integrating, leading, does not contain grounds for the derivation of its other properties: sociality does not imply systemicity, the historical nature of development does not imply the psychological essence of the language, and the latter is not yet the basis for its sociality. As a result, a normal consideration of one of the properties inevitably looks like hypostasis. The way out is seen in the appeal to the human factor, in the introduction to the linguistic paradigm of the linguistic personality as an equal object of study, as such a conceptual position that allows integrating disparate and relatively independent parts of the language.
Linguistic personality as an object of linguistic research allows us to consider on a systematic basis how all four fundamental linguistic properties interact. First, because personality is the concentration and result of social laws; secondly, because it is a product of the historical development of an ethnos; thirdly, because of the belonging of her attitudes and motives to the mental sphere; finally, fourthly, due to the fact that the individual is the creator and user of sign, i.e. system-structural in nature, formations.
The introduction of the human factor, the appeal to the phenomenon of man, to the linguistic personality does not at all mean going beyond the usual circle of ideas and breaking the paradigm that has developed in the science of language, which says that "behind every text there is a system of language."
The new stage in linguistics, in no way canceling this paradigm, simply allows it to be slightly expanded, saying that behind each text there is a linguistic personality who owns the language system.
Test work in linguistics on the topic:
"The history of the development of linguistics as a science"
Plan
1. The initial stage of the development of linguistics: Indian and ancient linguistics
2. Linguistics of the Middle Ages, Renaissance and Modern Times. Universal logical grammar
3. Comparative-historical linguistics and philosophy of language
4. Naturalistic, logical-grammatical and psychological trends in linguistics of the 19th century. Neogrammatism
5. Neogrammatism, aestheticism and the sociology of language
6. Structuralism as the leading trend in linguistics of the 20th century
7. Main directions in modern linguistics
8. Methods of linguistic research
Bibliography
1. The initial stage of the development of linguistics: Indian and ancient linguistics
The initial stage of the development of linguisticsVI century BC-XVIII century. AD:
1. Indian linguistics
2. ancient linguistics
3. Linguistics of the Middle Ages
4. linguistics of the revival of the Middle Ages.
At this time, important problems of linguistics were formed, which laid the foundation for linguistic terminology, accumulated material for the study of various languages of the world.
The ancient idea of the origin of language goes back to myths and connects the appearance of language with God, on the one hand, and with the material world, on the other.
An ancient idea: the origin of the world is based on the divine principle, which turns into matter through the logos (word). "In the beginning was the word, and the word was with God."
The idea of the presence of the meaning of the word served as an impetus for the development of the science of language.
Indian linguistics arose in the need for the interpretation of the Vedas - the sacred books of Hinduism (Vedic linguistics). The most important function of ancient Vedic linguists was to delimit the sacred language of the Vedas, Sanskrit, from the folk language of Prakrit.
The most outstanding merit of Indian linguistics is Panine's grammar (4th century BC). Panine's grammar consists of 3996 sutras (poetic works).
Unlike Indian linguistics, the essence of language, its connection with thinking, was important for European-ancient linguistics. Scientists were interested in natural names. In the first place was the philosophical aspect of language, the very theory of language, born in the depths of philosophy. There are 2 theories of the origin of the language-naming of speech:
1. name by nature physei (Heraclitus) the origin of the name denies the very essence of the subject.
2. according to the formation of thesei (Democritus), things are called things as people are arranged, without reflecting the essence.
The great Ancient Greek trinity of philosophy also contributed: Plato, Socrates and Aristotle.
In addition, the formation of linguistics was influenced by the Stoic philosophers and the Alexandrian grammarians.
2. Linguistics of the Middle Ages, Renaissance and Modern Times. Universal logical grammar
The theory of language (476 AD - 1492 AD) is experiencing stagnation, the efforts of scientists were directed only to the field of canonical biblical texts, they were engaged in the interpretation of texts, the study of vocabulary and etymology.
hermeneutics / paleography (explained the text, interpreted the content)
Ekesgetics / textology (the history of the origin of texts, the study of their authenticity)
In the Renaissance and in modern times there is an explosion in the spiritual life of Europe, geographical discoveries that led to the need to learn new languages. This time is called the period of universal grammar. Representatives believed that the language would be a means of expressing thoughts, and hence the unity in terms of expressing the category is also uniform in terms of grammar.
All languages have the same parts of speech, so the grammar is universal. Scientists sought to consider the grammatical functions of the language from the point of view of logic, if something did not fit, then it was wrong. The first attempt at such a grammar was the general rational grammar of 1660. The Port-Royal grammar is the first and successful attempt at constructing a logical grammar.
The General and Rational Grammar of Port-Royal is a book published by the abbots of the monastery of Port-Royal, Antoine Arnaud and Claude Lanslo, in 1660. It was developed for a series of Port-Royal textbooks along with a textbook on logic. It became the first fundamental grammatical work related to universal grammars, in which grammatical categories are explained through the categories of thinking and human perception of reality. The Grammar is divided into two parts. The first of them is called "Words as Sounds" and consists of six chapters. The second part is called "Words as a means of expression and transmission of thought"; it consists of 24 chapters. It contains provisions on the "basic operations of the mind" (representation, judgment, inference) and the corresponding categories of language. Operations correspond to differences between parts of speech: nouns, adjectives, pronouns and articles correspond to representation, verbs to judgment; the ability to reason finds expression in a coherent text. However, the authors of the grammar considered it necessary to take into account the role of words in a sentence in order to determine the parts of speech.
The basis of the theory set forth in the "Grammar of Port-Royal" is a description of the "operations of the mind", through which the surrounding reality is perceived, analyzed and comprehended; according to the authors of the Grammar..., these operations are comprehensible exclusively through language and expressible only with its help.
And language practice is developing along the path of creating grammars of new European languages.
Starting from the XV century. Grammars of the Spanish and Italian languages appear, in the 16th century. Grammar of French, English, German.
Lexicography is spreading, complete academic dictionaries are being created. The French Academy of Sciences was created to prepare a dictionary of the French language. in Russia since the 16th century. grammar (M. Grek "Verbal Grammar 1586, Lavrenty Zizaniy" Verbal Grammar of Modern Art of the Eight Parts of the Word "1596, M. Smotrytsky" Verbal Grammar 1619). In 1789–1794, the first dictionary of the Russian Academy was published.
3. Comparative historical linguistics and philosophy of language
In the 17th century, linguistics determined its object and subject of research, developed a special method for analyzing linguistic material and became an independent science. During these years, a completely new direction in linguistics arises and is being formed, which has become decisive (comparative-historical method).
Comparative studies is a branch of linguistics that studies the history of languages, compares them, establishes the genetic relationship of languages and restores the oldest forms of proforma. Already at the same time to the XVIII century. Enough facts have accumulated that testify to the kinship of the Germanic and Slavic languages, and scientists no longer doubted that their similarity was from the same source (language families).
The decisive impetus for the formation of comparative studies was the discovery of Sanskrit (at the end of the 18th century by William Jones). After the discovery of Sanskrit, it began to be presented as the most ancient language.
The comparative historical method was finally formed in 1816 (“On the system of conjugation of the Sanskrit language in comparison with Greek, Latin, Persian and Germanic languages” - F. Bonn)
The idea of comparative historical linguistics was developed by R. Rask, Jakob Grinn and the founders of Slavic studies, Joseph Dobrovsky and Ivan Vostokov.
Along with comparative studies, at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, a general theory of language was developing - the philosophy of language. The foundations were laid by W. Von Humboldt. He built his philosophy on the basis of the idealistic concept of Hegel.
In his writings, from an idealistic point of view, the fundamental problems of language are considered:
language-spirit;
matter, thought, language
According to Humboldt, language is an instrument of education, and language reflects the material world in the mind of the individual.
1. Relationship individual-nation-language. The language combines the social and the individual with the priority of the social. The spirit of the people is reflected in the social.
2. Language and speech. The doctrine "On the internal and external forms of language" (Humboldt) was created.
4. Naturalistic, logical-grammatical and psychological trends in linguisticsXIXcentury. Neogrammatism
By the middle of the 19th century, in the depths of comparative historical linguistics, under the influence of the ideas of Charles Darwin, a naturalistic trend was emerging.
It is based on the idea of language as a natural organism that goes through the stages: birth, growing up, maturity, aging and death.
Languages, like animals, are fighting for their existence.
Linguistics was seen as a natural science along with biology. The founder of naturalism in linguistics was the scientist August Schleicher. He introduced the terms: language organism, language family, genealogical tree, etc.
The logical-grammatical direction on a new round developed the ideas proposed by Aristotle and Port-Royal. In a sharp controversy between naturalistic and psychological linguistics, supporters of the logical-grammatical approach believed that there are logical laws in the language, and linguistics is a part of logic, and the language itself is a means of expressing logical concepts, i.e. the word was recognized as identical to the concept. And the sentence serves to establish a logical connection between concepts. The basic unit of the language is the sentence, and it was the study of syntax that took the most time, the center of the study of the school.
Founders and representatives: K. Becker and F. Buslaev.
Psychological linguistics.
At the end of the 19th century, neither a logical nor a naturalistic explanation of the facts, which was reduced to someone, that united all languages (language invariant). His search could not satisfy scientists. They became less interested in the universal properties of languages, and they turned their attention to the individuality in the language. Thus, linguistics approached psychology and a psychological direction was formed.
Founder: Geiman Steinthal, successor: Wilhelm Wundt, and in Russia - A.A. Potebnya.
Basic provisions: G. Steinthal argued that the word and the logical concept do not correlate with each other, and the logical and grammatical categories do not correspond to each other. Language seems to be a kind of logical thinking and develops only according to its own laws (“the doctrine of linguistic thinking”). According to Steinthal, linguistics is a psychological science.
W. Wundt developed the ideas of Humboldt and Steinthal, believed that the language is a reflection of the spirit of the people ("Teaching about the psychology of peoples"), which is reflected in the language of the people.
Potebnya's concept: The problem of language and thinking is central ("there is no language without understanding, and understanding is possible only through the word"). He was the first to recognize the abstract power of the word. The word, in his opinion, is the subject of human cognitive activity. It is through language that existence becomes possible. abstract thinking.
Psychological-historical approach used by young grammarians. This is one of the traveling trends in linguistics of the 19th century, which was formed in the 70s. Their Manifesto came out in 1878.
The Leiciptz School: K. Brugmann, A. Leskin, G. Osthoff, B. de Bruyn and Herman Paul.
They sharply criticized the older generation of comparativists for their stadial teaching on the development of language. Because this theory neglected the facts of living modern languages, which, in their opinion, are going through a period of aging and decline. They put the speaking person at the head as the creator of this language. They watched the creation of the language, hence their interest in new phenomena, live speech, dialects. They did not consider the theory of language, but only certain aspects (isolated approach).
4. Neogrammatism, aestheticism and the sociology of language
Late XIX century - the beginning of the 20th century - a crisis stage, it paved the way for the formation of a structural method, first of all, the comparative historical method is criticized, as well as the views of neogrammarists. In particular, the excessive enthusiasm of neogrammarists for a person was criticized, so 3 main schools are laid:
Aesthetic
· Sociological
· Non-grammatical
aesthetic school or the school of aestheticism and its founder Karl Vossler, in a polemic with neo-grammarists and naturalists, he stated that language should be considered as an indivisible whole educated from an aesthetic point of view. According to Vossler, language is a work of art, it is a single organism and it should not be divided into atoms. Carl proposed to explore language along with aesthetics and literary studies through the prism of the language of fiction. He stated that "all linguistics must be aesthetic."
sociological school. The methodological foundations were laid by Marx and Engels, Paul Morgan.
The foundations of the sociology of language were laid by Antoine Meillet.
They proceeded from the understanding that language is a sociological product, i.e. language must develop in connection with the development of society.
A special place among the sociologists of language belongs to the Swiss scientist F. de Sassure. The stage of truly scientific linguistics is associated with his name. The linguistics of the 20th century began with his ideas.
The concept is based on the representation:
1. About the systemic nature of the language (language is a multi-level, closed system of interaction of phonetic, lexical, grammatical levels)
2. The sign nature of the language. The linguistic sign is arbitrary, not motivated (the word does not reflect the essence of the subject), it combines the material and the ideal (lexical meaning).
Language problems:
1. Language and speech in their opposition (language is social, and speech is individual).
2. Synchrony (language learning horizontally) and diachrony (language learning vertically) in language development.
3. External (associated with the history of society) and internal (the system of language itself, independent of the history of society) linguistics.
neogrammatism. Its appearance was due to the crisis of linguistics, or rather, the cardinal discrepancy between the study of the history of ancient languages and the study of the modern composition of living languages.
It was neogrammatism that became the source from the comparative historical method to the structural methods of the 20th century.
3 schools of neo-grammatism:
1. Kazan school (I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay). Pay attention to phonemes and morphemes. He created the doctrine of the phoneme as an ideal image of sound. The doctrine of statics and dynamics. The doctrine of the mechanisms of language changes. The doctrine of the systemic nature of language.
2. Moscow Linguistic School (F.F. Fortunatov). Particular attention was paid to word forms and phrases.
Achievements:
a) Recognition of language as not only a psychological but also a social phenomenon
b) Distinguishing between external and internal laws of language development
c) Distinguish between synchronic and diachronic methods
d) Consistency recognition
e) The doctrine of the form of the word
f) Interest in living languages and systematic description of folk dialects
g) Establishment of the divergent-corvengent evolution of the language.
3. Geneva school (the teachings of F. de Sassure).
All schools paid special attention to the study of the grammar of the language, the subject of study was the structure of the language. They recognized the social nature of language, but did not deny the connection between the development of language and psychological processes.
5. Structuralism as the leading trend in linguistics of the 20th century
At the beginning of the 20th century, linguistics, thanks to the success of neogrammatists, achieved significant success in the study of language as a systemic phenomenon at the synchronic level. In general, the emergence of structuralism was a response to the crisis in linguistics itself. Research objectives: to reveal the logic of generation, structure and functioning of complex objects of human culture, which include language. The use of these methods refutes the psychological and anthropocentric methods of studying linguistic phenomena. Structuralism is an international and interscientific phenomenon.
3 schools of structuralism:
1. Prague School - Prague Linguistic Circle (PLC). Headed by: N.S. Trubetskoy, R.O. Jacobson, W. Mothesius. The main thesis of the PLC was the assertion that language is a means to achieve certain goals. The main task is to develop a doctrine about the functions of language.
Main achievements:
Creation of phonology by Trubetskoy as a science of the phoneme
Creation of the doctrine of the actual division of the sentence
2. Danish school - Danish glossematics - an abstract theory of language, which claimed to be approved for the study of language as a system.
Led by: Louis Hjelmslev, who developed the doctrine of 3 types of dependence between elements in phrases:
Coordination (coordination)
Determination (management)
· Constellation (adjacency)
3. American descriptivism (description).
Representatives: E. Sapir, L. Bloomfield.
Important achievement:
The doctrine of the hierarchy of the language system (from lower to higher)
· N. Chomsky changed the hierarchy to the opposite (from the highest to the lowest), it was the Chomsky revolution.
7. Main directions in modern linguistics
By the middle of the 20th century, structuralism had exhausted itself, and scientists returned to the study of language on the principles of anthropocentrism.
· Cognitive linguistics - a direction in which explores the problems of correlation and consciousness, the role of language in and the world, in cognitive processes and the generalization of human experience, the connection of individual human cognitive abilities with language and the forms of their interaction. Language is a cognitive mechanism, a system of signs that specifically codifies and transforms information. (linguists: , , , , .)
· Functional linguistics (functionalism) - a set of schools and trends that emerged as one of the branches of structural linguistics, characterized by a predominant attention to the functioning of the language as a means of communication. F.'s predecessors l. – I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, F. de Saussure, O. Jespersen. The basis of the principle of Functional Linguistics is the understanding of language as a purposeful system of means of expression.
Generative linguistics (transformational generative grammar, transformational-generative grammar, Chomskian linguistics) - the most popular since the late 1950s. direction in the world, which aims to develop a theory of language according to the model; founder and leader - (). The goal of linguistic theory according to Chomsky is to explain the fact of a remarkably fast child on the basis of a clearly insufficient external stimulus, that is, the information that can be extracted from the speech of others. The human language ability is based on an innate biologically determined component that determines the basic parameters of human and, in particular, the structure of linguistic knowledge.
8. Methods of linguistic research
Any science, along with the object of study, must have certain research methods. The term "method" in a broad philosophical and narrow special sense. In a philosophical sense: Method –way of knowing and interpreting any phenomenon of reality. In narrow: Method – it is a system of research methods and procedures that contribute to the purposeful study of an object from one point of view or another. The bases of the linguistic method can be either one language or a set of languages. Specialization – this is a concentration on any tier of the language. Aspects of the methodology – these are the studied aspects of the language, since its structural features or functional properties. Methodology– this is the inclusion of one or another research technique in the research procedure.
Distinguish:
Observation technique
The method of isolating a linguistic unit
The method of generalizing units into classes
Simulation
· Experimental
#1 - Descriptive method
This is a system of research techniques used to characterize the phenomena of a language at a given stage of its development. This is a synchronous analysis technique. The basis of the methodology is the method of observation with the intuitive selection of language units and their reduction in the aggregate. The goal is to establish certain facts or phenomena and include them in the everyday life of scientific research.
#2 - Primary Segmentation Method
1) primary segmentation
2) secondary segmentation - structural elements are distinguished here.
3) Interpretation of the identified nominative communicative and structural units.
#3 - Structural Methods
The main goal is to present the structure of the language and describe its system.
It helps to describe the semantic structure of a word. It is based on the fact that the lexical meaning of a word is divided into minimal units of meaning that are in systemic relations. Component analysis is a method of decomposing a lexical meaning into semes. They come to light in a logical way. Each seme in the meaning is represented by one or more words.
Sema is a reflection in the consciousness of a separate attribute.
Allocate: Generic families. They reflect such a sign as animation / inanimateness, materiality / intangibility, male / female sex. Species seeds. Species belonging.
Semes are also divided into:
Nuclear. Reflect the main, essential features
Peripheral. Reflect secondary, non-main features of the nuclear seme object: "sporty, playing basketball"
peripheral: "high"
potential (associative) Reflects a sign that is attributed to the general consciousness. Component analysis allows not only to give a complete formulation of the lexical meaning, but also to more accurately describe the mechanism of semantic word matching. Component analysis is used more often in determining the boundaries of semantic fields, synonymous series and antonymic pairs.
Bibliography
1. Mechkovskaya N.B. “General linguistics. Structural and social typology of languages"
2. Mikhalev A.B. “General linguistics. History of Linguistics: A Guide to Linguistics
Panini's grammar has been considered the standard of grammar for almost two millennia. Panini's "Octateuch" is still considered one of the most complete and rigorous descriptions of the language. In this work, such philosophical reflections on language are given that amaze even today's philosophers. Panini's genius was also reflected in how consistent and clear he created the methodology for describing the language. Later, while remaining classical, Panini's grammar was subjected only to commentary, i.e. detailed explanation and interpretation.
In modern linguistics, Sanskrit has been studied quite well, modern scientists note many features similar to the structures of other ancient languages - Latin and Ancient Greek - on this basis, it is assumed that Sanskrit is a language related to Latin and Ancient Greek. Therefore, it can be assumed that there was an even more ancient language that served as the basis for the formation of Sanskrit, Latin and ancient Greek, but the language has not been preserved.
So, in ancient India, the emergence of linguistics was caused by practical or religious-practical tasks. Ancient Indian philologists believed that the basis of the expression of thought is a sentence that is created from words, and words can be classified by parts of speech. The word is divided into an invariable part ( root) and variable ( the ending). Of the sounds, vowels are the most important. The grammar of Panini is the classical grammar of classical Sanskrit.
In the XIII century AD, a new grammar of Sanskrit was compiled, the author was the grammarian Vopadeva, but the new grammar repeated the main provisions of Panini's grammar.
The Danish linguist Wilhelm Thomsen (1842-1927), lecturing on "Introduction to Linguistics" in Copenhagen, said: "The height that linguistics has reached among the Hindus is absolutely exceptional, and the science of language in Europe could not rise to this height until until the 19th century, and even then having learned a lot from the Indians.
Significance of ancient Indian linguistics
A) They gave a description of the articulation of sounds, a description of the differences between vowel and consonant sounds.
B) Compiled a certain classification of sounds.
C) They gave a description of the fusion of sounds, i.e. description of the syllable. The ancient Hindus considered the vowel sound to be independent, and the consonant sound to be dependent.
D) Indian authors, especially Panini, determining the importance of a clear pronunciation of the text of the Veda, the traditional reading of religious hymns, singled out the features of sounds in sounding speech and thereby came close to understanding phonemes, i.e. to distinguish between the sound of language and the sound of speech.
AT morphology three sections were distinguished:
classification of parts of speech(4 parts of speech are distinguished: verb, noun, preposition, particle).
word formation(stand out roots, suffixes, endings, as well as primary words (roots) and derivative words were distinguished).
shaping(the case system is highlighted).
Syntax The basic unit of a language is a sentence.
It should be noted , that syntax is a section of linguistics poorly studied by the Hindus.
Significant success was achieved by Indian authors in lexicography: dictionaries were compiled in verse form. The Indian tradition had a strong influence on the development of linguistics in ancient China. And also on the development of medieval Arabic linguistics.
Linguistics in Ancient China
The Chinese language began to be studied more than two thousand years ago. Chinese linguistics developed completely independently, separately, in isolation. Linguists note only a slight influence of the traditions of Indian linguistics on Chinese linguistics. Chinese classical linguistics is one of three independent linguistic traditions. Chinese linguistics influenced only Japanese linguistics.
The Chinese grammatical tradition is created on the basis of hieroglyphic writing. The first grammatical works in China formulate separate rules for creating signs writing - hieroglyphs- and the rules for reading or pronouncing hieroglyphs, therefore, the rules for generating written speech were clearly separated from the rules for generating oral speech.
In Chinese, the smallest unit of a character is an element - a whole syllable (not divided into sounds). And the whole syllable is correlated with the smallest element of meaning. (You can draw a parallel with European languages, in which the sound does not matter, but the morpheme does. The morpheme, as a rule, is equal to the syllable). Therefore, the hieroglyph writes the word through meaning.
In the 5th-3rd centuries BC, philosophy reigned in China, but ancient Chinese philosophers were also interested in language, especially names. The famous Chinese philosopher Confucius said: "If I were entrusted with the management of the state, then I would start by correcting the names." Confucius taught that the name (name) is inextricably linked with the designated (object, thing, phenomenon), and the name must correspond to the designated phenomenon. Confucius explained the unrest in society by the fact that a person occupying a certain social position behaves in a way that does not correspond to this position.
Many ancient books and dictionaries Chinese not preserved, but they are mentioned in later sources. The first systematized collection of hieroglyphs was created in the 3rd century BC. a set of Chinese characters with their spelling description, called "Erya". The name of the dictionary is commented on in different ways, traditionally it is considered that the name means “approaching the correct one”. The dictionary does not have a specific author. Apparently, this dictionary is the fruit of the joint work of several scientists. For the first time, the dictionary systematized Chinese characters according to 19 topics, according to semantic groups: sky, earth, mountains, water, trees, fish, birds, etc. The text of "Erya" gives not only the meanings of hieroglyphs, but also determines the place of each hieroglyph in the system of concepts associated with the pictures of the surrounding world.
More significant for the history of ancient Chinese philology and general linguistics is Xu Shen's dictionary. Xu Shen (Xu Shen) - was born in 30 AD and died in 124, having lived for 94 years. He called his dictionary "Showen jiezi" ("Description of simple and explanation of complex signs"). The dictionary is usually dated to the first century AD. Xu Shen completed his dictionary in 100, but only 21 years later, in 121, this dictionary was presented to the emperor.
In this work, the words are not arranged according to themes, as in "Erya", but depending on the shape of the hieroglyph, on its appearance, appearance. "Showen jiezi" approximately resembles such a dictionary, in which words are arranged depending on the external form of the word - in alphabetical order by the first letter of the word. Xu Shen gave a description of all the constituent parts, or elements, of hieroglyphs and how to use them to create a hieroglyph. The semantic element in modern sinology is called the "key". Xu Shen's dictionary is the first work that describes the Chinese language as a subject of grammatical art. The words are grouped according to the similarity of the “key” so that words similar in form are next to each other. Xu Shen created a theory of the categories of hieroglyphs, establishing six categories: pictorial, demonstrative, ideographic, phonographic (phonetic), modified, and the category of borrowed hieroglyphs. Hieroglyphs are divided into simple and complex. Complex ones are created from simple ones. Xu Shen listed all the simple characters and the rules for using them to create complex characters.
The history of creating dictionaries of hieroglyphs was continued in the 2nd century AD: the dictionary "Shiming" was created, the author of which Liu Xi indicates that he used the traditions of the Erya dictionary. But Liu Xi in his dictionary gives more space to the etymology of each name with its meaning.
In 230 AD, Zhang Yi's dictionary appeared, named by the author "Guangya", the name is translated as "extended Erya".
Theory of Language in Ancient Greece and Rome
Linguistics in Ancient Greece
Interest in the study of language in ancient Greece is caused by reasons other than those in India and China. In ancient India, the reasons were the tasks of a pedagogical nature: how to transfer knowledge to the young? How to transfer knowledge as best and full as possible? In ancient China, the reasons were the tasks of graphic design of speech.
In ancient Greece - if we recall the history of ancient Greece - the phenomenon of public speeches of philosophers before the crowd, before the people was popular. A kind of competition in eloquence. The winner was the one who knew how to choose an interesting topic (cognitive factor), could present it philosophically (philosophical factor), could do all this in a beautiful language (oratory). Consequently, interest in the language was supported by cognitive-philosophical and oratorical tasks. Among the Greeks, as V. Thomsen writes, the philosophers gave the first impetus to the analysis of language by their studies of the relationship between thought and word, between things and their Greek names.
In ancient Greece, linguistics was not distinguished as a separate science, but as part of philology, it was part of philosophy. And therefore, the reasons for the emergence of linguistics were cognitive-philosophical, pedagogical and oratorical tasks.
Paying attention to the theory of knowledge - epistemology - ancient ancient philosophers tried to explain the origin of words, the origin of language. There were two points of view: the first theory explained the words by their nature, truly. This point of view was held by Heraclitus of Ephesus (540-480 BC). He believed that each name is inextricably linked with the thing, the name of which is. This understanding was called the term "fuzey" - from the Greek "fusis" - nature. Plato outlined his views on language in the work "Cratylus". The dialogue involves the philosophers Hermogenes, Plato, Socrates and Cratylus. Plato's dialogue "Cratylus" is interpreted by scientists in different ways (both as a serious philosophical work and as a semi-joking presentation of some of the views of ancient scientists), but one thing is clear that the question of the origin of the language, even in antiquity, was not unambiguously resolved.
Plato, through the lips of Socrates, is trying to convey the symbolism of some sounds, for example, the sound P (R) expresses movement, therefore all words with this sound are verbs; the sound L (L) is an expression of something soft and smooth. And indeed, in the vocabulary of, for example, the modern Russian language, words with the meaning of "action" contain the vibrant "R": "smash", "cut", "hack". In the sound "R" there is a certain component of rudeness, opposed to the softness of the sound "L", which can be illustrated by the words "rude" - "affectionate", "cute", "scold", "scold" - "love", "caress", " break" - "blind".
The second theory asserted that words designate things according to custom, by establishment, this point of view is called the term "these". According to this theory, words are chosen, elected, established by people. These philosophers include Democritus (460-370 BC). Democritus from Abdera argued that words are a human creation, not divine, that words are not perfect, as nature is perfect. And he proved this by the fact that there are not enough words, therefore different objects can be named with one word; many concepts do not have names-words; many things can have several names, etc.
The discussion "about the nature of words and things" did not lead the arguing to one result, but it was of great theoretical importance for the development of linguistics.
According to Plato's conclusions, words are divided into 2 groups: name are the words by which something is affirmed and verb- words that say something about the name. According to the selection of the name and the verb, 2 main members of the statement are distinguished: the name is the subject, the verb is the predicate, the predicate.
The most famous philosopher of antiquity, Aristotle, who lived in the 4th century BC (384-322 BC), in his philosophical writings also touches on the problems of linguistics ("Poetics"). He distinguishes eight parts of speech: element (sound), syllable, union, member (article), name, verb, case, sentence. Aristotle defined the functions of cases, stressed the dominant role of the nominative case. He gave a description of articulate speech, i.e. description of the speech apparatus. In phonetics, Aristotle distinguishes vowels and semivowels, distinguishes sounds according to the shape of the mouth, places of formation, distinguishes long and short sounds. In morphology, Aristotle considers the name and the verb to be the main parts of speech. The name has the main form - the original one - this is the nominative case. Names are divided into female and male and lying between them, that is, middle ones.
The third century BC is characterized by the flourishing of philosophical schools: skeptical school, epicurean school, stoic school. The most interesting for linguistics is the direction - stoicism. Term stoicism appeared from the name of the portico Stoa in Athens, where the philosopher Zeno taught. Philosophers belonged to the Stoic school: the founder of the school, Zeno (336-264 BC), Chrysippus (281-200 BC or 280-206 BC), Diogenes of Babylon ( 240-150 BC). Unfortunately, the works of the Stoics have not survived to this day in their entirety. We can judge their views on language only from the surviving individual quotations used by later scholars.
The main sources of information about the views of the Stoics on the language are the works of the Roman scholar of the first century BC Mark Terentius Varro “On the Latin Language”, the Greek writer of the third century AD Diogenes Laertius “The Life and Teachings of Famous Philosophers”, a Christian theologian of the 4th-5th centuries AD Augustine "On Dialectics".
Stoicism is a direction in the philosophy of ancient society, oscillating between materialism and idealism; according to Stoicism, the task of the sage is to free himself from passions and inclinations and live in obedience to reason; Roman stoicism, which was dominated by idealistic and religious views and calls for resignation to fate, had a great influence on early Christianity. Stoicism brought up in a person stamina and courage in life's trials. In linguistics, the Stoics left a fairly noticeable mark. In the dispute about the nature of words and things, the Stoics adhered to the point of view according to which words are true and revealing the nature of the word, analyzing the word, one can understand the true nature of the thing, the essence of the thing. The Stoics believed that words are the sounds that things make. A word is an impression, an imprint, a trace of an object left by an object in the human soul. The Stoics asserted the inseparable connection of the sounds that make up the word-name with the essence of the called object. Being philosophers, the Stoics transferred from philosophy, or rather from logic, to linguistics a large number of terms, which were later translated (traced) by many grammarians of specific languages. These terms include: "part of speech", "common noun", "proper name", "case" ("deviation", "inclination").
The Stoics gave names to the cases: "nominative", "genitive"("form meaning genus, species"), " dative"("case of giving"), "accusative"("case denoting that which has been affected", "causal case"), " vocative". The Stoics identified 24 sounds, but they identified the sound and the letter, so they have 24 letters, of which 10 letters are vowels, 14 consonants. The Stoics distinguished 5 parts of speech: verb, union-copy, member (pronoun and adverb), proper name and common noun.
The leader of the Stoic school was the philosopher Chrysippus (280-206 BC, according to other sources - 281-200 BC).
The Stoics are convinced that in this world there are all conditions for a decent and happy life. The world is rational. Everything that exists on earth is rational. There is nothing random in the world. All events are connected by an inextricable chain of causality. It follows from this that every phenomenon can be explained by means of other phenomena. "Etymology" - the science of the origin of words - occupies an important place in scientific activity Chrysippus. And the term "etymology" was first introduced into scientific use by Chrysippus.
The Stoics believed that the first words imitated things: honey tastes good and the word mel (honey) pleasant to the ear; word crux (cross) rough - means an instrument of torture and execution; latin word vos (you) requires an indication of the interlocutors (when pronouncing the pronoun, the lips are pulled towards the interlocutor), and when pronouncing the pronoun nos (we) the tongue is pressed against its own teeth.
In the history of ancient Greece, an era stands out, a period of time longer than three centuries, associated with the flourishing of Greek culture on the outskirts of the Greek empire, which is called the era of Hellenism in many textbooks. It highlights the periods of early, middle and late Hellenism. The era of Hellenism was also reflected in linguistics by a peculiar phenomenon called Alexandrian grammar.
In ancient history, a special place is given to the description of Alexandria, which, due to its geographical remoteness from the center of the empire, has preserved many of the classical traditions of Greek culture. Alexandria - one of the cities of Egypt, northern Africa, was a Greek colony for more than three hundred years. The Greek colonists, being away from the Greek center, tried to keep the Greek language and Greek culture pure and correct.
In the second century BC, in the city of Alexandria, thanks to the activities of Alexander the Great, the largest library for those times was created, in which about 800 thousand volumes of books written in different languages were collected. These texts had to be read correctly, understood their content, studied. Around this library, an association of scientists has been created who speak different languages, who can decipher ancient writings, who are able to interpret texts in different languages. This association was named Alexandrian school.
The Alexandrian school was a kind of educational (enlightenment) and scientific (research) center, in which the leading scientists of that era worked. For the history of linguistics, the most interesting is the grammar of the Greek language, created within the walls of the Alexandrian school, called - Alexandrian grammar.
The most significant success in creating grammar was achieved by scientists Aristarchus of Samothrace (215-143 BC, according to other sources - 217-145 BC) and his student Dionysius of Thracia (170-90 BC), Apollon Diskol (2nd century BC). Aristarchus of Samothrace - the largest Alexandrian philologist of the second century BC, studied Homer, dealt with issues of spelling, stress, inflection. He outlined his thoughts about language in a treatise on eight parts of speech, which, unfortunately, has not been preserved.
Dionysius of Thrace (Dionysius Thracian) - a student of Aristarchus of Samothrace, lived at the turn of the first and second centuries BC. His "Grammar" has been preserved, in which he outlined the basic information of the grammatical teaching of his teacher.
Apollo Diskol (Apollonius Diskol) - the most famous philologist of the first half of the second century AD. He wrote more than thirty works in which he considers issues related to the morphology and syntax of the Greek language, studies Greek dialects.
The Alexandrians made grammar an independent discipline, they accumulated grammatical material and established the basic categories of the name and the verb. Alexandrian scientists tried to describe the Greek language, noting in it both regular systematic phenomena and deviations, i.e. exceptions, anomalies. Alexandrian scholars paid great attention to phonetics. Sounds were identified with letters. Longitude-shortness was noted in letters-sounds, the ability of one sound to be either long or short. Diphthongs were distinguished, i.e. complex sounds.
A word is recognized as a unit of speech, and speech (or a sentence) is a combination of words that expresses a complete thought.
There are eight parts of speech in the Alexandrian grammar: name, verb, participle, member (article, interjection), pronoun, preposition, adverb, conjunction. When describing names, the Alexandrians note that names can denote bodies (for example, " a rock") and things (for example, " upbringing"), i.e., in modern terms, names are divided into concrete and abstract. Names can be called general and private (" Human" - general, " Socrates"- private). Names change in numbers and cases. The verb has forms of mood, tense, number, person. A verb is a word that names an action or suffering. There are five moods: indicative, imperative, desirable, subordinating, indefinite. There are three collaterals: action, suffering and middle(middle voice).
There are four types of verbs: completed, contemplative, initiatory, sympathetic. The verb has three numbers: singular, plural, dual. The verb has three persons: first face means from whom it is spoken, second face - to whom it is, third face - who are you talking about. Participles are words that are involved in the features of both verbs and names.
The Alexandrians name the main functions of a member (article) - to be a carrier of signs of gender, number, case of a name. A pronoun is a word used instead of a name, showing certain persons.
The Library of Alexandria was destroyed by the barbarian Arabs in 642 AD, hence the library has existed for over a thousand years. And for more than a thousand years, there was a scientific center at the library, whose employees tried to comment on ancient texts, translate foreign texts into Greek (Hellenic language).
The importance of Alexandrian grammar lies in the fact that it was the standard for the grammars of other languages until the 19th century. For almost two thousand years, languages have been studied using the basic concepts and basic terms introduced by the Alexandrians.
Linguistics in Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome in many respects he repeated the customs and laws of life of the Hellenes (Greeks). In the second century BC, Roman philosophers transferred, translated, used the Alexandrian grammar for the Latin language, making some changes to it. The Romans continued the discussion about the origin of the language. The Romans defended the conditionality of the connection between the word and the subject. The Romans strengthened the style by adding some laws of oratory. In grammar, thanks to the Romans, an interjection appeared as a part of speech. Julius Caesar introduced ablative, i.e. ablative. A significant place is occupied by the works of Mark Terentius Varro "On the Latin Language".
Roman grammars of the Latin language have been classic textbooks for over a thousand years. The most famous are the grammars of Aelius Donat - "Ars grammatica" (full) and "Ars minor" (short), created in the 4th century AD. Later, these two works, combined together, received the name "Grammar Manual" or "Donat's Grammar".
Donat's grammar consists of two parts: the Lesser Manual (Ars minor) and the Greater Manual (Ars maior). It became one of the most famous works in the history of linguistics, which served as the main textbook of the Latin language in European schools for more than a thousand years - until the beginning of the 15th century.
Equally popular was PRISCIAN's Institutiones grammaticae (Grammar Doctrine), written in the 6th century AD. Priscian, relying on the grammatical teachings of the Greeks, created the most significant Latin grammar of antiquity - the Grammar Course, consisting of 18 books.
The value of ancient linguistics
It is difficult to overestimate the importance of ancient culture in world history. It is also difficult to overestimate the importance of the works of ancient scientists in the history of linguistics. ancient world was the cradle of European civilization. The grammatical teaching of the Greeks, supplemented by the Romans, was the basis, base, foundation for the grammatical systems of European languages.
The linguistic terms of modern languages are either borrowed from Latin (verb, verbum, nomen, conconantes), or tracing from Greek, for example, in Russian: adverb from AD-VERBUM, where VERBUM is speech; pronoun from PRO NOMEN; pretext from PRAEPOSITIO (before).
The Alexandrians made grammar an independent scientific and academic discipline. Ancient linguists-philosophers created the foundation for individual sections of linguistics: phonetics, morphology, syntax. In the ancient period, attempts were made to separate the word and the sentence, the part of speech and the member of the sentence.
With undoubted achievements, ancient linguistics was not devoid of shortcomings, which already from the height of the twenty-first century include the following:
1. The strong influence of philosophy led to the confusion of logical categories with grammatical ones.
2. Only Greek and Latin were studied, all others were considered barbaric.
3. The isolation of the languages was so strong that at that time there were no even attempts to compare the system of the Greek language with the system of the Latin language.
4. The naivety of the ancient linguists was also manifested in the fact that they did not understand and did not accept changes in the language, did not take into account the influence of time on the language.
Ancient Arabic linguistics
The considered classical linguistic traditions - Indian, European (or Greco-Latin) and Chinese - continued for quite a long time and left their imprint on later studies of the language. Less important traditions include the Arabic and Japanese traditions, about which many textbooks on the history of linguistics are silent.
The Arabic linguistic tradition appeared much later than those considered, namely, at the end of the first millennium of our era. The need to study the Arabic language and teach it to people belonging to other language systems arose in the 7th century AD during the formation of the Arab Caliphate - an Arab-Muslim state headed by caliphs (caliphs). State language the language of the Koran became the caliphate.
The first centers for the study of the language and its teaching methods were the cities of Basra, located on the Persian Gulf, and Kufa, located in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). Philologists of Basra protected purity and norms classical language Koran, and the philologists of Kufa, allowing deviations from the norms of the classical Arabic language, focused on the spoken language. The Basra scholars chose the name of the action as the basic unit for word formation, i.e. verbal noun. And the scientists of Kufa offered the basis for the subsequent formation of words the form of the past tense of the verb. Until the 7th century, Arabic writing did not know graphic signs for denoting vowel sounds. In the 7th century, the Basrian Abu al-Aswad al-Duali introduced graphic signs for vowels that serve to express a change in the form of a word.
The first was the Arabic grammar, which appeared in 735-736, but the most famous is the grammar of the Persian Sibawayhi (Sibavaihi, a representative of Basra), which for many years was considered a classic, exemplary textbook and which describes in detail the phonetics, morphology and syntax of the classical Arabic language. Sibawayhi called his work “al-Kitab” (“The Book”). All subsequent numerous grammars of the Arabic language, created in Basra and Kufa, were modeled on the grammar of Sibawayh. Dictionaries were also created here.
Another Arabic linguistic center was Arabic Spain, in which, at the end of the 10th - at the beginning of the 11th century, an Arabic linguist, the son of a Greek slave, Ibn Jinni, worked, who studied the language and the language norm, etymology and semantics.
As a result of the Mongol and Turkish conquests, the Caliphate disintegrated, scientific centers were destroyed, but the Arabic linguistic tradition, dating back to Sibaveikhi, still exists.
Ancient Japanese linguistics
At present, the opinions of linguists-historians regarding the Japanese linguistic tradition differ quite strongly. Thus, some argue that the Japanese linguistic tradition has existed only since the 17th century, and is largely based on the Chinese tradition of language learning. Having existed for a little more than two centuries (until 1854 - the year of the discovery of Japan), the Japanese tradition in the 19th century succumbed to the strong influence of the European tradition.
Others try to distinguish two stages in the history of the development of the Japanese tradition: first covers its beginning VIII-X centuries AD. and continued until the middle of the 19th century. This period was marked by the creation of the national Japanese script ( cana); the second period begins in the second half of the 19th century and continues at the present time.
In the book "History of Linguistic Doctrines" V.M. Alpatov names several more traditions that are still poorly studied to date: Jewish, Tibetan, Tibeto-Mongolian.
Linguistics in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance
Ancient civilization perished in 476 when the barbarians burned Rome and plundered the Roman Empire. From 476 (or from the 5th century AD) the era begins Middle Ages which conditionally ends in 1492, when America was discovered by Columbus. The Middle Ages are 10 centuries or a millennium.
The era of the Middle Ages is characterized by stagnation in all spheres of life, including science, in particular, linguistics. The main reason for this was the dominance of religion in all spheres of society. The ritual language of religion was Latin, and through the dominance of religion, Latin became the language of science, religion, and external relations.
Prerequisites for the emergence of comparespruce-historical linguistics
(պատմահամեմատական լեզվաբանության ծագման նախադրյալները)
The question of the diversity of languages was not of interest to antiquity, since the Greeks and Romans recognized only their own language as worthy of study, while they considered the rest of the languages "barbaric", equating someone else's speech with inarticulate "mumbling".
In the Middle Ages, the question of the diversity of languages was resolved in accordance with the Bible: the diversity of languages was explained by the legend of the Tower of Babel, according to which God "mixed" the languages of the people who built this tower in order to prevent them from entering heaven.
Only in the Renaissance, when it became necessary to theoretically comprehend the question of the composition and type of the national language, the spokesman of a new culture, and its relationship with Latin and Ancient Greek, did scientists think about solving this issue scientifically.
So, the prerequisites for the emergence of comparative historical linguistics are divided into 1) extralinguistic (extralinguistic) and 2) linguistic.
1) The first are geographical discoveries, who introduced into the circle of research numerous languages previously unknown to science: Asian, African, American, and then Australian and Polynesian. The discovery of new lands and peoples soon leads to their conquest by technically advanced European states and to the beginning of colonial expansion(գաղութային ընդարձակում, տարածում). The need that arose in connection with this to communicate with the natives, to influence them through religion, leads to dissemination among them Christianity. It was missionary monks who owned the earliest dictionaries (glossaries) and grammatical descriptions of various world languages (the so-called missionary grammars).
2) Thus, we moved on to one of the linguistic prerequisites for the emergence of comparative historical linguistics, to the fact of the creation multilingual dictionaries and comparative grammars. This phenomenon soon takes on a wide scope, and sometimes on a national scale. So, at the end of the XVIII century. in Russia, with the assistance of Catherine II, lists of words and instructions (հրահանգներ) were prepared, which were sent to the administrative centers of Siberia to members of the Academy who worked there, as well as to various countries where Russia had its representative offices (ներկայացուցչություններ), to collect according to these lists of words the corresponding equivalents (համարժեք բառեր) from local languages and dialects. The materials of this study were processed by Acad. P.S. Pallas and summarized by him in a large translation and comparative dictionary, published in 1786-1787. (I-th two-volume edition). It was the first dictionary of this type, published under the title "Comparative Dictionaries of All Languages and Dialects", where a "Catalogue of Languages" was compiled into almost 200 languages of Europe and Asia. In 1790-1791. The second (updated and corrected) four-volume edition of this dictionary was released with the addition of data on 30 African languages and 23 American languages (272 languages in total).
A second similar dictionary was made by a Spanish monk named Lorenzo Hervas y Panduro, who first in Italian (1784) and then in Spanish (1800-1805) published a dictionary entitled "Catalogue of the languages of known peoples, their calculation, division and classification according to the differences in their dialects and dialects", in which gave information about about 300 languages, not limited only to vocabulary, but also gave a brief grammatical description of them (for 40 languages).
The most famous dictionary of this type is "Mithridates, or General Linguistics" of the Baltic Germans I. Kh. Adelunga and I.S. Vater(1806-1817, four volumes), which contains the prayer "Our Father" in 500 languages of the world, and for most languages it is a fantastic artificial translation. True, in this edition, comments on the translation and some grammatical and other information are of interest, in particular W. Humboldt's note on the Basque language.
All these attempts to "catalog languages", no matter how naive they were, nevertheless brought great benefits: they introduced the real facts of the diversity of languages and the possibilities of similarity and difference of languages \u200b\u200bin the same words, which enriched the actual knowledge of languages and promoted interest in the comparative comparison of languages.
And yet, although the ground for the emergence of comparative-historical linguistics was ready, one more, final push was needed, which would suggest the correct ways to compare languages and indicate the necessary goals of such studies. And such a "push" was opening Sanskrit 1 is apparently the most important linguistic factor that directly influenced the emergence of comparative historical linguistics.
The first to notice the similarities between Sanskrit and European languages was the Florentine merchant and traveler Filippo. Sassetti(1540–1588). Comparing Italian words like sette(seven), new(nine), Dio(God) with Sanskrit sapta, nava, devas, he realized that their similarity was not accidental, but due to linguistic kinship. He reported this in his Letters from India, but no scientific conclusions were drawn from these publications.
The question received a correct formulation only in the second half of the 18th century, when the Institute of Oriental Cultures was established in Calcutta. In 1786, the English orientalist and lawyer William Jones in a report read to the Asiatic Society in Calcutta, he pointed out the connection of Sanskrit with Greek, Latin, Celtic, Gothic and Old Persian languages and the regular coincidences between the various forms of these languages. The conclusion reached by Jones boils down to the following points: 1) similarity, not only in roots, but also in grammatical forms, cannot be the result of chance; 2) there is a relationship of languages that go back to one common and, possibly, 3) no longer existing source, 4) to which, in addition to Sanskrit, Greek and Latin, Germanic, Celtic and Iranian languages also go back. Of course, in Jones we still do not find any rigorously formulated method of linguistic analysis and proof, and, moreover, Sanskrit does not act as a proto-language for him, as was characteristic of later theories. At the same time, Jones declared that Sanskrit had an amazing structure, more perfect than Greek, richer than Latin, and more beautiful than any of them.
However, the list of factors that led to the emergence of comparative historical linguistics will be incomplete if we do not point out two more - a) the development romantic direction and - most importantly - b) penetration into science and universal recognition historicism. These factors (also of an extralinguistic nature) can be called philosophical and methodological prerequisites for comparative historical linguistics. If romanticism caused interest in the national past and contributed to the study of ancient periods in the development of living languages, then the principle of historicism, which penetrated into linguistics, was embodied in it in the method of comparing languages from a historical point of view and classifying languages according to their origin and development.
Questions and tasks on the topic covered:
List the main extralinguistic prerequisites for the emergence of comparative historical linguistics (CIL).
What are the linguistic prerequisites for SIL?
Why didn't scholars address the question of the diversity of languages either in antiquity or in the Middle Ages?
What is the merit of P.S. Pallas and L. Hervás y Panduro in the comparative study of languages?
Name and describe the work of I. Kh. Adelung and I. S. Vater.
Briefly list the conclusions of W. Jones.
first attempt at genealogy 2 language classifications
For the first time, the idea of genetic links between languages, i.e. the idea of the relationship of languages, originated long before the emergence of comparative historical linguistics. As early as 1538, the work of the French humanist Guilelm Postellus “On the Relationship of Languages” appeared - the first attempt to classify (դասակարգում) languages. And already in 1599, the Dutch scientist Joseph-Justus Scaliger in the treatise "Discourse on the Languages of Europeans" makes an attempt to classify European languages, reducing them to 11 main groups, among which he identifies 4 large and 7 small ones. According to Scaliger, each group had its own "mother language", while the unity of the language is manifested in the identity of words. The name of the 4 "big" mother languages - Latin, Greek, Teutonic (Germanic) and Slavic - is conveyed by Scaliger, respectively, in the words Deus, Θεòς, Godt, God. The seven minor mother languages are Albanian, Tatar, Hungarian, Finnish, Irish, Cymric (British), and Basque. At the same time, all 11 "mother languages" are "not linked by ties of kinship."
The problem of the kinship of languages also worried philosophers during this period. Much attention is paid to this issue by Gottfried-Wilhelm Leibniz, who divided the languages \u200b\u200bknown to him into two main groups: 1) Aramaic (Semitic); 2) Japhetic. He divides the last group into two more subgroups: a) Scythian (Finnish, Turkic, Mongolian, Slavic) and b) Celtic (European). If in this classification the Slavic languages are moved to the "European" subgroup, and the "Scythian" languages are renamed at least "Ural-Altaic", then we will practically get what linguists came to in the 19th century.
In the XVIII century. Dutch explorer Lambert Ten-Cate in the book "An Introduction to the Study of the Noble Part of Low German", conducted a thorough comparison of the Germanic languages (Gothic, German, Dutch, Anglo-Saxon and Icelandic) and established the most important sound correspondences of these related languages.
Of great importance among the predecessors of comparative historical linguistics are the works of M.V. Lomonosov: “Russian Grammar” (1755), Preface “On the Usefulness of Church Books in the Russian Language” (1757 / 1758) and the unfinished work “On Russian Native Languages and on Current Dialects”, which gives an accurate classification of three groups of Slavic languages with an indication of the greater proximity of the eastern to the southern than to the western (n / r, Russian is closer to Bulgarian than to Polish), the correct etymological (ստուգաբանական) correspondences of single-root Slavic and Greek words are shown on a number of words. He also establishes the relationship of the Slavic languages with other Indo-European languages, namely: with the Baltic, Germanic, Greek and Latin, and notes the especially close connection of the Slavic languages with the Baltic ones. Comparison of languages Lomnosov conducts most often on the material of the analysis of numerals.
However, the works of these scientists, created without any genuine historical theory, could not lead to the desired results; they were only at the origins of the emergence of comparative historical linguistics. In addition, that colossal comparative lexicographic (բառարանագրական) work, which was carried out at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries, has not yet been carried out. in different countries of Europe and Asia. This is on the one hand. And on the other - scientific world still did not know anything about Sanskrit, the literary language of ancient India, and about its unique, exclusive role in the study of Indo-European languages. Textbook
... linguistics, literary criticism). However, after 1917 it developed in new social historical ... , compared niya... historical In relation to the tale, this is a rather late phenomenon. Prerequisite ... spruce forest... _ origin, occurrence; education process...
Textbook for students of non-historical specialties
DocumentSocieties - from emergence property inequality ... 5) the interest of the church. Preconditions associations were: a) ... It can be compare so... to self historical creativity, ... under Yelney(here... political economy and linguistics. Victims...