Aryan languages. Iranian group Iranian group

IRANIAN LANGUAGES, a group of languages belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European language family. They are distributed in a continuous array or with foreign-language inclusions on the territory of Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, in the north-eastern part of Iraq (Kurdistan), eastern Turkey (along the borders with Iran, Iraq and Syria, in Russian Federation(Republic of North Ossetia-Alania), in Georgia (South Ossetia). There are separate Iranian-speaking regions in Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, India, Kyrgyzstan, China, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Pakistan, Syria, and Uzbekistan. The Iranian language group includes more than 50 languages, dialects and dialect groups. The number of speakers of Iranian languages has not been precisely established, according to a 1999 estimate, there are more than 100 million. The history of Iranian languages is divided into three main periods: 1) ancient (from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC to the 4th–3rd centuries AD. ); 2) middle (from the 4th–3rd centuries BC to the 8th–9th centuries AD); 3) new (from the 8th–9th centuries AD to the present). Based on the genetic classification, the Iranian languages are divided into two large groups - the western (in which the northwestern and southwestern subgroups are clearly distinguished) and the eastern (in which there is also a division into the northeastern and southeastern subgroups, but it is not so clear , as in the Western group). The Western Iranian group of languages continues the historical line of development of the languages and dialects of the western part of the Iranian Highlands, where they spread by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The Eastern Iranian group of languages goes back to the Iranian dialects of Central Asia and adjacent regions. The languages of the southwestern group include: from the languages of the ancient and middle periods - Old Persian and Middle Persian (Pahlavi); from modern languages modern Persian, Tajik, Dari, Tat, Khazar, Lur and Bakhtiyar group of dialects, Laristan group of dialects, Fars dialects, Kumzari, Bashkardi group of dialects, Char-Aimak group of dialects. Northwestern languages include: ancient period- Median; from the middle - Parthian; and modern - Baloch, Kurdish, Gilyan, Mazanderan, Talysh, Semnan, a group of dialects of Tati, Parachi, Ormuri, a group of dialects of Central Iran. The northeastern Iranian languages include: from the ancient period - Scythian; from the middle period - Alanian, Sogdian, Khorezmian; modern - Ossetian and Yagnob; the southeastern Iranian languages include: from the middle period - the Saka languages (or dialects), Bactrian, Khotan, Tumshuk, etc.; modern languages include Pashto (Afghan), Pamir languages (Shugnano-Rushan group, Vakhani, Yazgulyam, Ishkashim, Munjan and Yidga).

Typologically, the Iranian languages are heterogeneous. Ancient Iranian languages in their own way morphological type are inflectional-synthetic with a developed system of declension and conjugation forms. In the Middle Iranian languages, the inflectional-synthetic type already has noticeable traces of the decomposition of the ancient system. In the new Iranian languages, the inflectional-analytical type was preserved in Pashto, but also in a greatly modified form compared to Old Iranian. Most modern Iranian languages are inflectional-analytical with elements of agglutination. The ratio of inflectional and analytical forms in different languages is not the same. Most Iranian languages (Old Persian, Avestan, Khotanosak, Sogdian, Persian, Tajik, Dari, Tat, Gilan, Mazand, Ossetian, Yagnob, etc.) from a typological point of view belong to the languages of the nominative system. Middle Persian, Parthian, Kurdish, Zaza, Gurani, Balochi, Talysh, Semnan, Pashto, Ormuri, Parachi are languages of mixed type (nominative construction with transitive verbs in all tenses and moods and with intransitive verbs in the present tense expressive and subjunctive moods ; with transitive verbs in the past tenses, the construction of the sentence is ergative or ergative). Iranian languages have had a great influence on the languages and cultures of neighboring peoples.

Indo-Aryan languages (Indian) - a group of related languages, dating back to the ancient Indian language. Included (together with the Iranian languages and closely related Dardic languages) in the Indo-Iranian languages, one of the branches of the Indo-European languages. Distributed in South Asia: northern and central India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Republic of Maldives, Nepal; outside this region - Romani languages, Domari and Parya (Tajikistan). The total number of speakers is about 1 billion people. (estimate, 2007). ancient Indian languages.

Ancient Indian language. Indian languages come from dialects of the ancient Indian language, which had two literary forms - Vedic (the language of the sacred "Vedas") and Sanskrit (created by Brahmin priests in the Ganges valley in the first half - the middle of the first millennium BC). The ancestors of the Indo-Aryans came out of the ancestral home of the "Aryan expanse" at the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd millennium. The related Indo-Aryan language is reflected in proper names, theonyms and some lexical borrowings in the cuneiform texts of the state of Mitanni and the Hittites. Indo-Aryan writing in the Brahmi syllabary originated in the 4th-3rd centuries BC.

The Middle Indian period is represented by numerous languages and dialects that were in use in oral, and then in written form from the middle. 1st millennium BC e. Of these, Pali (the language of the Buddhist Canon) is the most archaic, followed by Prakrits (the Prakrits of inscriptions are more archaic) and Apabhransha (dialects that developed by the middle of the 1st millennium AD as a result of the development of Prakrits and are a transitional link to the New Indian languages ).

The New Indian period begins after the 10th century. It is represented by about three dozen major languages and a large number of dialects, sometimes quite different from each other.

In the west and northwest they border on Iranian (Balochi, Pashto) and Dardic languages, in the north and northeast - with Tibeto-Burman languages, in the east - with a number of Tibeto-Burman and Mon-Khmer languages, in the south - with Dravidian languages (Telugu, Kannada). In India, linguistic islands of other linguistic groups (Munda languages, Mon-Khmer, Dravidian, etc.) are interspersed in the array of Indo-Aryan languages.

Hindi and Urdu (Hindustani) are two varieties of the same New Indian literary language; Urdu - official language Pakistan (Capital Islamabad), has a script based on Arabic alphabet; Hindi (state language of India (New Delhi) - based on the Old Indian script Devanagari.
Bengal (State of India - West Bengal, Bangladesh (Kolkata))
Punjabi (eastern part of Pakistan, Punjab state of India)
Lahnda
Sindhi (Pakistan)
Rajasthani (Northwest India)
Gujarati - s-W subgroup
Marathas - western subgroup
Sinhalese - insular subgroup
Nepal - Nepal (Kathmandu) - central subgroup
Bihari - Indian state of Bihar - eastern subgroup
Oriya - ind. state of Orissa - eastern subgroup
Assamese - Ind. Assam State, Bangladesh, Bhutan (Thimphu) - east. subgroup
Gypsy -
Kashmiri - Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan - Dardic group
Vedic - the language of the ancients sacred books Indians - the Vedas, which developed in the first half of the second millennium BC.
Sanskrit has been the literary language of the ancient Indians since the 3rd century BC. to 4th century AD
Pali - Central Indian literary and cult language of the medieval era
Prakrits - various spoken Middle Indian dialects

Iranian languages - a group of related languages \u200b\u200bas part of the Aryan branch Indo-European family languages. Distributed mainly in the Middle East, Central Asia and Pakistan.

The Iranian group was formed according to the generally accepted version as a result of the separation of languages from the Indo-Iranian branch in the territory of the Volga region and the southern Urals during the period of the Andronovo culture. There is also another version of the formation of the Iranian languages, according to which they separated from the main body of the Indo-Iranian languages on the territory of the BMAC culture. The expansion of the Aryans in ancient times took place to the south and southeast. As a result of migrations, Iranian languages spread by the 5th century BC. in large areas from the Northern Black Sea region to Eastern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Altai (Pazyryk culture), and from the Zagros Mountains, eastern Mesopotamia and Azerbaijan to the Hindu Kush.

The most important milestone in the development of the Iranian languages was the identification of the Western Iranian languages, which spread westward from Deshte-Kevir along the Iranian plateau, and the Eastern Iranian languages opposed to them. The work of the Persian poet Firdousi Shahnameh reflects the confrontation between the ancient Persians and the nomadic (also semi-nomadic) East Iranian tribes, nicknamed by the Persians as Turans, and their habitats as Turan.

In II - I centuries. BC. the Great Central Asian migration of peoples takes place, as a result of which the eastern Iranians populate the Pamirs, Xinjiang, Indian lands south of the Hindu Kush, and invade Sistan.

As a result of the expansion of Turkic-speaking nomads from the first half of the 1st millennium AD. Iranian languages begin to be supplanted by Turkic ones, first in the Great Steppe, and with the beginning of the 2nd millennium in Central Asia, Xinjiang, Azerbaijan and a number of regions of Iran. The relic Ossetian language (a descendant of the Alano-Sarmatian language) in the mountains of the Caucasus, as well as the descendants of the Saka languages, the languages of the Pashtun tribes and the Pamir peoples, remained from the Iranian steppe world.

The current state of the Iranian-speaking array was largely determined by the expansion of the Western Iranian languages, which began under the Sassanids, but gained full strength after the Arab invasion:

The spread of the Persian language throughout the territory of Iran, Afghanistan and the south of Central Asia and the massive displacement of local Iranian and sometimes non-Iranian languages in the respective territories, as a result of which the modern Persian and Tajik communities were formed.

Expansion of the Kurds into Upper Mesopotamia and the Armenian Highlands.

Migration of the semi-nomads of Gorgan to the southeast and the formation of the Baloch language.

The phonetics of the Iranian languages shares many similarities with the Indo-Aryan languages in development from the Indo-European state. The ancient Iranian languages belong to the inflectional-synthetic type with a developed system of inflectional forms of declension and conjugation and are thus similar to Sanskrit, Latin and Old Church Slavonic. This is especially true of the Avestan language and, to a lesser extent, Old Persian. In Avestan, there are eight cases, three numbers, three genders, inflectional-synthetic verbal forms of present, aorist, imperfect, perfect, injunctiva, conjunctiva, optative, imperative, there is a developed word formation.

1. Persian - writing based on the Arabic alphabet - Iran (Tehran), Afghanistan (Kabul), Tajikistan (Dushanbe) - southwestern Iranian group.

2. Dari is the literary language of Afghanistan

3. Pashto - since the 30s the state language of Afghanistan - Afghanistan, Pakistan - East Iranian subgroup

4. Baloch - Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan (Ashgabat), Oman (Muscat), United Arab Emirates (Abu Dhabi) - northwestern subgroup.

5. Tajik - Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan (Tashkent) - Western Iranian subgroup.

6. Kurdish - Turkey (Ankara), Iran, Iraq (Baghdad), Syria (Damascus), Armenia (Yerevan), Lebanon (Beirut) - Western Iranian subgroup.

7. Ossetian - Russia (North Ossetia), South Ossetia (Tskhinval) - East Iranian subgroup

8. Tatsky - Russia (Dagestan), Azerbaijan (Baku) - western subgroup

9. Talysh - Iran, Azerbaijan - northwestern Iranian subgroup

10. Caspian dialects

11. Pamir languages are the unwritten languages of the Pamirs.

12. Yagnob is the language of the Yaghnobi, the inhabitants of the Yagnob river valley in Tajikistan.

14. Avestan

15. Pahlavi

16. Median

17. Parthian

18. Sogdian

19. Khorezmian

20. Scythian

21. Bactrian

22. Saky

Slavic group. Slavic languages are a group of related languages of the Indo-European family. Distributed throughout Europe and Asia. The total number of speakers is about 400-500 million people [source not specified 101 days]. They differ in a high degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the structure of the word, the use of grammatical categories, the structure of the sentence, semantics, the system of regular sound correspondences, and morphonological alternations. This proximity is explained by the unity of the origin of the Slavic languages and their long and intense contacts with each other at the level literary languages and dialects.

The long independent development of the Slavic peoples in different ethnic, geographical, historical and cultural conditions, their contacts with various ethnic groups led to the emergence of differences in material, functional, etc. The Slavic languages within the Indo-European family are closest to the Baltic languages. The similarity between the two groups served as the basis for the theory of the "Balto-Slavic parent language", according to which the Balto-Slavic parent language first emerged from the Indo-European parent language, later splitting into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. However, many scientists explain their special closeness by the long contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs, and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language. It has not been established in which territory the separation of the Slavic language continuum from the Indo-European / Balto-Slavic took place. It can be assumed that it took place to the south of those territories that, according to various theories, belong to the territory of the Slavic ancestral homelands. From one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic), the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages. The history of the Proto-Slavic language was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages. For a long time it developed as a single dialect with an identical structure. Dialect variants arose later. The process of transition of the Proto-Slavic language into independent languages most actively took place in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD. e., during the formation of the early Slavic states in the territory of South-Eastern and Eastern Europe. During this period, the territory of Slavic settlements increased significantly. Areas of various geographical zones with different natural and climatic conditions were mastered, the Slavs entered into relationships with the population of these territories, standing at different levels cultural development. All this was reflected in the history of the Slavic languages.

The history of the Proto-Slavic language is divided into 3 periods: the most ancient - before the establishment of close Balto-Slavic language contact, the period of the Balto-Slavic community and the period of dialect fragmentation and the beginning of the formation of independent Slavic languages.

Eastern subgroup

1. Russian

2. Ukrainian

3. Belarusian

Southern subgroup

1. Bulgarian - Bulgaria (Sofia)

2. Macedonian - Macedonia (Skopje)

3. Serbo-Croatian - Serbia (Belgrade), Croatia (Zagreb)

4. Slovenian - Slovenia (Ljubljana)

Western subgroup

1. Czech - Czech Republic (Prague)

2. Slovak - Slovakia (Bratislava)

3. Polish - Poland (Warsaw)

4. Kashubian - a dialect of Polish

5. Lusatian - Germany

Dead: Old Church Slavonic, Polabian, Pomeranian

Baltic group. Baltic languages - language a group representing a special branch of the Indo-European group of languages.

The total number of speakers is over 4.5 million people. Distribution - Latvia, Lithuania, earlier the territories of (modern) north-east of Poland, Russia (Kaliningrad region) and north-west of Belarus; even earlier (before the 7th-9th, in some places the 12th centuries) up to the upper reaches of the Volga, the Oka basin, the middle Dnieper and Pripyat.

According to one theory, the Baltic languages are not a genetic formation, but the result of an early convergence [source not specified 374 days]. The group includes 2 living languages (Latvian and Lithuanian; sometimes the Latgalian language is distinguished separately, which is officially considered the dialect of Latvian); the Prussian language attested in the monuments, which became extinct in the 17th century; at least 5 languages known only by toponymy and onomastics (Curonian, Yatvingian, Galindian/Golyadian, Zemgalian and Selonian).

1. Lithuanian - Lithuania (Vilnius)

2. Latvian - Latvia (Riga)

3. Latgalian - Latvia

Dead: Prussian, Yatvyazhsky, Kurzhsky, etc.

German group. The history of the development of the Germanic languages is usually divided into 3 periods:

Ancient (from the emergence of writing to the XI century) - the formation of individual languages;

middle (XII-XV centuries) - the development of writing in the Germanic languages and the expansion of their social functions;

new (from the 16th century to the present) - the formation and normalization of national languages.

In the reconstructed Proto-Germanic language, a number of researchers single out a layer of vocabulary that does not have Indo-European etymology - the so-called pre-Germanic substratum. In particular, these are the majority of strong verbs, the conjugation paradigm of which also cannot be explained from the Proto-Indo-European language. The displacement of consonants compared to the Proto-Indo-European language - the so-called. "Grimm's law" - supporters of the hypothesis also explain the influence of the substrate.

The development of the Germanic languages from antiquity to the present day is associated with numerous migrations of their speakers. The Germanic dialects of the most ancient times were divided into 2 main groups: Scandinavian (northern) and continental (southern). In the II-I centuries BC. e. part of the tribes from Scandinavia moved to the southern coast of the Baltic Sea and formed an East Germanic group, opposing the West Germanic (formerly southern) group. The East Germanic tribe of the Goths, moving south, penetrated the territory of the Roman Empire up to the Iberian Peninsula, where they mixed with the local population (V-VIII centuries).

Inside the West Germanic area in the 1st century AD. e. 3 groups of tribal dialects were distinguished: Ingveon, Istveon and Erminon. The resettlement in the 5th-6th centuries, part of the Ingvaeonic tribes (Angles, Saxons, Jutes) to the British Isles predetermined the development in the future in English The complex interaction of West Germanic dialects on the continent created the prerequisites for the formation of Old Frisian, Old Saxon, Old Low Frankish and Old High German. Scandinavian dialects after their isolation in the 5th century. from the continental group, they were divided into eastern and western subgroups, on the basis of the first Swedish, Danish and Old Gutnish languages were later formed, on the basis of the second - Norwegian, as well as insular languages - Icelandic, Faroese and Norn.

The formation of national literary languages was completed in England in the 16th-17th centuries, in the Scandinavian countries in the 16th century, in Germany in the 18th century. The spread of the English language outside of England led to the creation of its variants in the USA, Canada, and Australia. German in Austria it is represented by its Austrian variant.

North German subgroup.

1. Danish - Denmark (Copenhagen), northern Germany

2. Swedish - Sweden (Stockholm), Finland (Helsinki) - contact subgroup

3. Norwegian - Norway (Oslo) - continental subgroup

4. Icelandic - Iceland (Reykjavik), Denmark

5. Faroese - Denmark

West German subgroup

1. English - UK, USA, India, Australia (Canberra), Canada (Ottawa), Ireland (Dublin), New Zealand (Wellington)

2. Dutch - Netherlands (Amsterdam), Belgium (Brussels), Suriname (Paramaribo), Aruba

3. Frisian - Netherlands, Denmark, Germany

4. German - Low German and High German - Germany, Austria (Vienna), Switzerland (Bern), Liechtenstein (Vaduz), Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg

5. Yiddish - Israel (Jerusalem)

East German subgroup

1. Gothic - Visigothic and Ostrogothic

2. Burgundian, Vandal, Gepid, Herulian

Roman group. Romance languages (lat. Roma "Rome") - a group of languages and dialects that are part of the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family and genetically ascend to common ancestor- Latin. The name Romanesque comes from the Latin word romanus (Roman). The science that studies the Romance languages, their origin, development, classification, etc. is called romance and is one of the subsections of linguistics (linguistics). The peoples who speak them are also called Romance. The Romance languages developed as a result of the divergent (centrifugal) development of the oral tradition of different geographical dialects of the once single folk Latin language and gradually became isolated from the source language and from each other as a result of various demographic, historical and geographical processes. This epoch-making process was initiated by Roman colonists who settled regions (provinces) of the Roman Empire remote from the capital - the city of Rome - in the course of a complex ethnographic process called ancient Romanization in the period of the 3rd century BC. BC e. - 5 in. n. e. During this period, the various dialects of Latin are influenced by the substrate. For a long time, the Romance languages were perceived only as vernacular dialects of the classical Latin language, and therefore were practically not used in writing. The formation of the literary forms of the Romance languages was largely based on the traditions of classical Latin, which allowed them to converge again in lexical and semantic terms already in modern times.

French - France (Paris), Canada, Belgium (Brussels), Switzerland, Lebanon (Beirut), Luxembourg, Monaco, Morocco (Rabat).
Provencal - France, Italy, Spain, Monaco
Italian –Italy, San Marino, Vatican City, Switzerland
Sardinian - Sardinia (Greece)
Spanish - Spain, Argentina (Buenos Aires), Cuba (Havana), Mexico (Mexico City), Chile (Santiago), Honduras (Tegucigalpa)
Galician - Spain, Portugal (Lisbon)
Catalan - Spain, France, Italy, Andorra (Andorra la Vella)
Portuguese - Portugal, Brazil (Brazilia), Angola (Luanda), Mozambique (Maputo)
Romanian - Romania (Bucharest), Moldova (Chisinau)
Moldavian – Moldova
Macedonian-Romanian - Greece, Albania (Tirana), Macedonia (Skopje), Romania, Bulgarian
Romansh – Switzerland
Creole languages are crossed Romance languages with local languages

Italian:

1. Latin

2. Medieval Vulgar Latin

3. Oscan, Umbrian, Saber

Celtic group. The Celtic languages are one of the western groups of the Indo-European family, close, in particular, to the Italic and Germanic languages. Nevertheless, the Celtic languages, apparently, did not form a specific unity with other groups, as was sometimes believed earlier (in particular, the hypothesis of Celto-Italic unity, defended by A. Meie, is most likely incorrect).

The spread of the Celtic languages, as well as the Celtic peoples, in Europe is associated with the spread of the Hallstatt (VI-V centuries BC), and then the La Tène (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC) archaeological cultures. The ancestral home of the Celts is probably located in Central Europe, between the Rhine and the Danube, but they settled very widely: in the 1st half of the 1st millennium BC. e. they penetrated the British Isles, around the 7th century. BC e. - in Gaul, in the VI century. BC e. - to the Iberian Peninsula, in the V century. BC e. they spread to the south, cross the Alps and come to northern Italy, finally, by the 3rd century. BC e. they reach Greece and Asia Minor. We know relatively little about the ancient stages of the development of the Celtic languages: the monuments of that era are very scarce and not always easy to interpret; nevertheless, data from the Celtic languages (especially Old Irish) play an important role in the reconstruction of the Indo-European parent language.

Goidel subgroup

Irish - Ireland
Scottish - Scotland (Edinburgh)
Manx - dead - the language of the Isle of Man (in the Irish Sea)

Brythonic subgroup

1. Breton - Brittany (France)

2. Welsh - Wales (Cardiff)

3. Cornish - dead - in Cornwall - the peninsula southwest of England

Gallic subgroup

1. Gallic - extinct since the era of education French; was distributed in Gaul, Northern Italy, the Balkans and Asia Minor

Greek group. The Greek group is currently one of the most peculiar and relatively small language groups (families) within the Indo-European languages. At the same time, the Greek group is one of the most ancient and well-studied since antiquity. Currently, the main representative of the group with a full set of language features is the Greek language of Greece and Cyprus, which has a long and complex history. The presence of a single full-fledged representative today brings the Greek group closer to the Albanian and Armenian, which are also actually represented by one language each.

At the same time, there were other Greek languages and highly isolated dialects that have either died out or are on the verge of extinction as a result of assimilation.

1. modern Greek - Greece (Athens), Cyprus (Nicosia)

2. ancient Greek

3. Middle Greek, or Byzantine

Albanian group.

Albanian (alb. Gjuha shqipe) is the language of the Albanians, the indigenous population of Albania itself and part of the population of Greece, Macedonia, Kosovo, Montenegro, Lower Italy and Sicily. The number of speakers is about 6 million people.

The self-name of the language - "shkip" - comes from the local word "shipe" or "shpee", which actually means "stony soil" or "rock". That is, the self-name of the language can be translated as "mountain". The word "shkip" can also be interpreted as "understandable" (language).

Armenian group.

Armenian is an Indo-European language, usually classified as a separate group, rarely combined with Greek and Phrygian. Among the Indo-European languages, it is one of the ancient written languages. The Armenian alphabet was created by Mesrop Mashtots in 405-406. n. e. (see Armenian script). The total number of speakers around the world is about 6.4 million people. During its long history, the Armenian language has been in contact with many languages. Being a branch of the Indo-European language, Armenian later came into contact with various Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages - both living and now dead, adopting from them and bringing to our days much of what direct written evidence could not preserve. At different times, Hittite and hieroglyphic Luwian, Hurrian and Urartian, Akkadian, Aramaic and Syriac, Parthian and Persian, Georgian and Zan, Greek and Latin came into contact with the Armenian language at different times. For the history of these languages and their speakers, the data of the Armenian language are in many cases of paramount importance. These data are especially important for urartologists, Iranianists, Kartvelists, who draw many facts of the history of the languages they study from Armenian.

Hitto-Luvian group. The Anatolian languages are a branch of the Indo-European languages (also known as the Hitto-Luvian languages). According to glottochronology, they separated quite early from other Indo-European languages. All languages of this group are dead. Their carriers lived in the II-I millennium BC. e. on the territory of Asia Minor (the Hittite kingdom and the small states that arose on its territory), were later conquered and assimilated by the Persians and / or Greeks.

The oldest monuments of the Anatolian languages are the Hittite cuneiform and Luvian hieroglyphics (there were also brief inscriptions in the Palai language, the most archaic of the Anatolian languages). Through the work of the Czech linguist Friedrich (Bedrich) the Terrible, these languages were identified as Indo-European, which contributed to their decipherment.

Later inscriptions in Lydian, Lycian, Sidetic, Carian, and other languages were written in Asia Minor alphabets (partially deciphered in the 20th century).

1. Hittite

2. Luuvian

3. Palai

4. Carian

5. Lydian

6. Lycian

Tocharian group. Tocharian languages - a group of Indo-European languages, consisting of the dead "Tocharian A" ("Eastern Tocharian") and "Tocharian B" ("Western Tocharian"). They were spoken in the territory of modern Xinjiang. The monuments that have come down to us (the first of them were discovered at the beginning of the 20th century by the Hungarian traveler Aurel Stein) date back to the 6th-8th centuries. The self-name of the carriers is unknown, they are called “Tochars” conditionally: the Greeks called them Τοχάριοι, and the Turks - toxri.

Tocharian A - in Chinese Turkestan
Tocharsky V - ibid.

- (from Sanskrit aria a person of an Iranian or Indian tribe). Indo-European and Zendic languages. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. ARYAN LANGUAGES from Sanskrit, aria, a person of Iranian or Indian ... ...

And Aryan peoples, see Aryans and Indo-Europeans ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

Same as Indo Iranian languages... Handbook of etymology and historical lexicology

This term has other meanings, see Languages of the world (meanings). Below is full list articles on languages and their groups that are already on Wikipedia or must be. Only human languages are included (including ... ... Wikipedia

Languages of the peoples inhabiting (and inhabiting earlier) Earth. The total number of I. m. from 2500 to 5000 (it is impossible to establish the exact figure due to the conventionality of the difference between different languages and dialects of the same language). To the most common Ya. m ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Languages of the world- The languages of the world are the languages of the peoples inhabiting (and inhabiting earlier) the globe. The total number is from 2500 to 5000 (it is impossible to establish the exact figure, because the distinction between different languages and dialects of one language is conditional). To the most common...

AND LANGUAGES Indo-Germanic. origin Greeks, Romans; Romanesque, Slavic, Germanic tribes: descended from the Aryans. A complete dictionary of foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language. Popov M., 1907. ARYAN PEOPLES AND LANGUAGES peoples and languages ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Text of the Rig Veda ... Wikipedia

Iranian Taxon: group Range: Middle East, middle Asia, North Caucasus Number of speakers: approx. 150 million Classification ... Wikipedia

Indo-Iranian languages- (Aryan languages) a branch of the Indo-European family of languages (see Indo-European languages), splitting into Indian (Indo-Aryan) languages and Iranian languages; it also includes the Dardic languages and the Nuristani languages. The total number of speakers is 850 million people ... Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary

Books

Languages of the world. Relic Indo-European languages of Western and Central Asia,. The book is the next volume of the encyclopedic publication "Languages of the World", which is being created at the Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences. This volume is devoted to a number of branches of the Indo-European language family, ...

Iranian peoples spread from the territory of the Caucasus to Central Asia; 3/4 of them are Tajiks, who have close related peoples in Northern Iran. The second largest Iranian people are Ossetians, who are more strongly influenced by Russians than other mountain peoples. Turkic-Azerbaijanis are closer to Iranians in their culture.

Ossetians (402 thousand people) - the main population of North Ossetia (about 335 thousand people), also live in Kabardino-Balkaria, the Stavropol Territory, Karachay-Cherkessia. They are divided into two sub-ethnic groups: Irons and Digors (the latter are concentrated mainly in the north-west of Ossetia). The Iron dialect was the basis of the Ossetian literary language.

Kurds (4.7 thousand people) live mainly in the Krasnodar Territory. AT former USSR the Kurdish population reached 152.7 thousand people. (Caucasus and Central Asia). Kurds are an autonomous population of Kurdistan, part of Iran (5.5 million people), Turkey (6.5 million people), Iraq (4 million people), Syria (720 thousand people). The total number of Kurds exceeds 17 million people. Believing Kurds are Sunni Muslims, although there are Shia Muslims and Christians among them.

Tats (19.4 thousand people) live in the southern regions of Dagestan (12 thousand people) and in small groups in other republics of the North Caucasus. About 10 thousand Tats live in Azerbaijan. All Tats are divided on a religious basis into three groups: Tats-Muslims (Shia), Tats-Judaists (Mountain Jews) and Tats-Christians (monophysites).

Mountain Jews (self-name Dzhukhur) - an ethno-linguistic group of Jews, as well as an ethno-confessional group of Tats (11.3 thousand people in Dagestan, Kabardino-Balkaria, Chechnya, Ingushetia). They speak the Tat language, which has the Makhachkala-Nalchik, Derbent, and Kuban dialects.

The peoples living in the Russian Federation who speak the languages of the Iranian group of the Indo-European language family also include Tajiks (38.2 thousand people), Central Asian (Bukharian) Jews (ethnolinguistic group of Jews, 1.4 thousand people, speak North Tajik dialect), Talysh (0.2 thousand people), Baloch (0.3 thousand people), Irani (Persians) (2.6 thousand people), Afghans (Pashtuns) (0.9 thousand people .).

Source: Yu. P. PLATONOV. The peoples of the world in the mirror of geopolitics (structure, dynamics, behavior): Proc. allowance.- St. Petersburg: Publishing House of St. Petersburg. un-ta, . - 432 p.. 2000(original)

Origin

The Iranian languages preserved in the South Central Asian region demonstrate the absence of a specific substrate, in contrast to the Iranian languages of Western Iran and the Indo-Aryan languages of India. The common substratum identified in all Indo-Iranian languages presumably correlates with the pre-Aryan culture of the BMAK. In addition, there is a transfer of some geographical names from the South Central Asian region to India (cf. Arachosia” ~ other ind. Sárasvatī-.

Language

Having no monuments of the most ancient era, the Dardic languages were traditionally considered as a special sub-branch of the Indo-Aryan, however modern research show that the allocation of the ancestor of the Dardians took place in an era correlated with the division of the Proto-Indo-Aryan and Prairan, the Dardic in some respects occupy an intermediate position between the Indo-Aryan and Iranian. Therefore, the Dardic languages should rather be considered as a separate branch of Indo-Iranian.

From the point of view of relative chronology, the selection of the ancestor of the Nuristan languages should be attributed to greater antiquity than the collapse of the Indo-Iranian languages proper (Indo-Aryan, Dard and Iranian). Thus, the selection of archaic Nuristani languages can be considered the earliest filiation of the Proto-Aryan language.

Culture and religion

The material and spiritual culture of the ancient Aryans (Indo-Iranians) is being restored on the basis of the evidence of the most ancient literary monuments of the Indo-Aryans (Vedas) and Iranians (Avesta), as well as historical evidence about the ancient Indo-Iranian peoples, archaeological data, data from late epic legends (Mahabharata, Ramayana, Shah-name) and ethnographic studies of modern archaic Indo-Iranian peoples.

spiritual culture

The Proto-Indo-Iranian religion is reconstructed on the basis of the preserved data of the Vedic religion (Indo-Aryans) and Zoroastrianism (Iranian peoples), the main sources for its reconstruction are the Rigveda and Avesta. Correspondence of the Indian Adityas (Veda) to the seven Iranian supreme spirits Amshaspendams (Amshaspandam), for example the head of the Adityas, Varuna to the Iranian Ahuramazd; the satellite of Varuna - Mitra (other-ind. Mitra-, Avest. Miθra-) - the Iranian solar god Mithre; The abstract names of the Ashaspends, embodying moral and religious concepts, are to some extent a parallel to the abstract names of the Indian Adityas (Mitra - friendly, friend, Aryaman of the Adityas - best friend) - all these signs point to a common ancient layer of Indo-Aryan beliefs. The Ossetian epos "Narts" also preserved plots and images that have direct correspondences in ancient literature India and Iran. The Swedish scientist S. Vikander proved that the common features of the Indian epic Mahabharata and the Persian Shahnameh go back to a single Indo-Iranian epic heritage. . AT late XIX century, there was an unconfirmed hypothesis that the Indo-Iranian ideas about the seven supreme gods were formed under the influence of the Babylonian-Assyrian cult of the seven supreme deities: the sun, moon and five planets.

In the Vedic religion, the twin myth about the progenitor of people Vivasvanta (brother of Varuna and the god of the sun, who lived for some time on earth as a mere mortal) and his children, the twins Yama and Ima (or Yami) (ancient Ind. Yama-, Avest. Yima-, see Yama and Jamshid). This version, which also has an Iranian parallel, is considered one of the oldest in the Vedas, and it apparently reflects the Indo-Iranian version of the twin myth. Yama was the first dead on earth, respectively, he was the first to open the door of the underworld and became the god of death and the shadows of the dead.

The Ossetian religious and epic tradition about the path of the soul to the afterlife, where it overcomes many obstacles and about the kingdom of the dead, goes back to the ancient Indo-Iranian ideas. Similar myths are apparently reflected in the images of the fight between people and vultures on the Scythian sarcophagi.

In the religion of the Indo-Iranians during the period of Indo-Iranian unity and in the era immediately following it, there were obviously elements of shamanism, and a number of features of shamanic beliefs coincide with those of the peoples of Siberia. The legend of the era of the Indo-Iranian community is the myth of the bird Garuda (Saena, Simurgh).

The religions that have survived to our time, which arose, among other things, on Indo-Iranian soil, are Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, the religion of the Kalash and Kafirs of the Hindu Kush and Zoroastrianism.

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Notes

An excerpt characterizing the Indo-Iranians

The first party was: Pfuel and his followers, war theorists who believe that there is a science of war and that this science has its own immutable laws, the laws of oblique movement, detour, etc. Pfuel and his followers demanded a retreat into the interior of the country, deviations from the exact laws prescribed by the imaginary theory of war, and in any deviation from this theory they saw only barbarism, ignorance or malice. German princes, Wolzogen, Wintzingerode and others, mostly Germans, belonged to this party.
The second batch was the opposite of the first. As always happens, at one extreme there were representatives of the other extreme. The people of this party were those who, ever since Vilna, had demanded an offensive against Poland and freedom from all plans drawn up in advance. In addition to the fact that the representatives of this party were representatives of bold actions, they were at the same time representatives of nationality, as a result of which they became even more one-sided in the dispute. These were Russians: Bagration, Yermolov, who was beginning to rise, and others. At this time, the well-known joke of Yermolov was widespread, as if asking the sovereign for one favor - his promotion to the Germans. The people of this party said, recalling Suvorov, that one should not think, not prick a card with needles, but fight, beat the enemy, not let him into Russia and not let the army lose heart.
The third party, in which the sovereign had the most confidence, belonged to the court makers of transactions between both directions. The people of this party, for the most part non-military and to which Arakcheev belonged, thought and said what people usually say who have no convictions, but who wish to appear as such. They said that, without a doubt, a war, especially with such a genius as Bonaparte (he was again called Bonaparte), requires the most profound considerations, a deep knowledge of science, and in this matter Pful is a genius; but at the same time it is impossible not to admit that theoreticians are often one-sided, and therefore one should not completely trust them, one must listen both to what Pfuel's opponents say, and to what practical people, experienced in military affairs, and from everything take the average. The people of this party insisted that, by holding the Drissa camp according to the Pfuel plan, they would change the movements of other armies. Although neither one nor the other goal was achieved by this course of action, it seemed better to the people of this party.
The fourth direction was the direction of which the most prominent representative was the Grand Duke, the heir to the Tsarevich, who could not forget his disappointment at Austerlitz, where, as if at a review, he rode in front of the guards in a helmet and tunic, hoping to valiantly crush the French, and, unexpectedly falling into the first line , forcibly left in general confusion. The people of this party had in their judgments both the quality and the lack of sincerity. They were afraid of Napoleon, they saw strength in him, weakness in themselves and directly expressed it. They said: “Nothing but grief, shame and death will come out of all this! So we left Vilna, we left Vitebsk, we will leave Drissa too. The only thing left for us to do wisely is to make peace, and as soon as possible, before we are driven out of Petersburg!”
This view, which was widely spread in the highest spheres of the army, found support both in St. Petersburg and in Chancellor Rumyantsev, who, for other state reasons, also stood for peace.
The fifth were adherents of Barclay de Tolly, not so much as a person, but as a minister of war and commander in chief. They said: “Whatever he is (they always started like that), but he is an honest, efficient person, and there is no one better than him. Give him real power, because war cannot go on successfully without unity of command, and he will show what he can do, as he showed himself in Finland. If our army is organized and strong and retreated to Drissa without suffering any defeats, then we owe this only to Barclay. If now they replace Barclay with Bennigsen, then everything will perish, because Bennigsen had already shown his incapacity in 1807,” said the people of this party.
The sixth, the Bennigsenists, said, on the contrary, that after all there was no one more efficient and more experienced than Bennigsen, and no matter how you turn around, you will still come to him. And the people of this party argued that our entire retreat to Drissa was a shameful defeat and an uninterrupted series of mistakes. “The more mistakes they make,” they said, “the better: at least they will soon realize that this cannot go on. And what is needed is not some kind of Barclay, but a person like Benigsen, who already showed himself in 1807, to whom Napoleon himself gave justice, and such a person who would be willing to recognize power - and such is only one Benigsen.
Seventh - there were faces that always exist, especially under young sovereigns, and who were especially numerous under Emperor Alexander, - the faces of the generals and the adjutant wing, passionately devoted to the sovereign, not as an emperor, but as a person who adores him sincerely and disinterestedly, as he adored Rostov in 1805, and seeing in it not only all virtues, but also all human qualities. Although these persons admired the modesty of the sovereign, who refused to command the troops, they condemned this excessive modesty and wished only one thing and insisted that the adored sovereign, leaving excessive distrust of himself, openly announce that he was becoming the head of the army, would amount to headquarters of the commander-in-chief and, consulting, where necessary, with experienced theoreticians and practitioners, he himself would lead his troops, whom this alone would bring to supreme state inspiration.
The eighth, largest group of people, which, by its huge number, related to others as 99 to 1, consisted of people who did not want peace, or war, or offensive movements, or a defensive camp, either under Drissa, or anywhere else. there was no Barclay, no sovereign, no Pfuel, no Benigsen, but they wanted only one thing, and the most essential: the greatest benefits and pleasures for themselves. In that muddy water of intersecting and intertwining intrigues that swarmed at the sovereign's main apartment, it was possible to succeed in a great deal in such a way that would have been unthinkable at another time. One, not wanting only to lose his advantageous position, today agreed with Pfuel, tomorrow with his opponent, the day after tomorrow he claimed that he had no opinion on a well-known subject, only in order to avoid responsibility and please the sovereign. Another, wishing to acquire benefits, attracted the attention of the sovereign, loudly shouting the very thing that the sovereign had hinted at the day before, arguing and shouting in council, hitting his chest and challenging those who disagreed to a duel and thereby showing that he was ready to be a victim of the common good. The third simply begged for himself, between two councils and in the absence of enemies, a lump sum for his faithful service, knowing that now there would be no time to refuse him. The fourth inadvertently caught the eye of the sovereign, burdened with work. The fifth, in order to achieve the long-desired goal - dinner at the sovereign, fiercely proved the correctness or wrongness of the newly expressed opinion and for this he cited more or less strong and fair evidence.
All the people of this party were catching rubles, crosses, ranks, and in this catching they only followed the direction of the weather vane of the royal mercy, and just noticed that the weather vane turned in one direction, as all this drone population of the army began to blow in the same direction, so that the sovereign the harder it was to turn it into another. In the midst of the uncertainty of the situation, in the midst of a threatening, serious danger, which gave everything a particularly disturbing character, amid this whirlwind of intrigues, vanities, clashes of different views and feelings, with the diversity of all these people, this eighth, largest party of people hired by personal interests, gave great confusion and confusion to the common cause. No matter what question was raised, and even a swarm of these drones, without having yet blown off the previous topic, flew over to a new one and, with its buzz, drowned out and obscured the sincere, arguing voices.
Of all these parties, at the very time that Prince Andrei arrived at the army, another ninth party gathered, and began to raise its voice. It was a party of old, sensible, state-experienced people who knew how, without sharing any of the contradictory opinions, to abstractly look at everything that was being done at the headquarters of the main apartment, and to think over the means to get out of this uncertainty, indecision, confusion and weakness.
The people of this party said and thought that everything bad comes mainly from the presence of the sovereign with the military court at the army; that the indefinite, conditional, and wavering precariousness of relations, which is convenient at court, but harmful in the army, has been transferred to the army; that the sovereign needs to reign, and not to rule the army; that the only way out of this situation is the departure of the sovereign with his court from the army; that the mere presence of the sovereign paralyzes fifty thousand troops needed to ensure his personal safety; that the worst but independent commander-in-chief would be better than the best, but bound by the presence and power of the sovereign.
At the same time that Prince Andrei was living idle under Drissa, Shishkov, the secretary of state, who was one of the main representatives of this party, wrote a letter to the sovereign, which Balashev and Arakcheev agreed to sign. In this letter, using the permission given to him by the sovereign to discuss the general course of affairs, he respectfully and under the pretext of the need for the sovereign to inspire the people in the capital to war, suggested that the sovereign leave the army.
The animating of the people by the sovereign and the appeal to him to defend the fatherland is the same (as far as it was produced by the personal presence of the sovereign in Moscow) animating the people, which was main reason triumph of Russia, was presented to the sovereign and accepted by him as a pretext for leaving the army.

X
This letter had not yet been submitted to the sovereign, when Barclay told Bolkonsky at dinner that the sovereign personally wanted to see Prince Andrei in order to ask him about Turkey, and that Prince Andrei had to appear at Benigsen's apartment at six o'clock in the evening.
On the same day, news was received in the sovereign's apartment about Napoleon's new movement, which could be dangerous for the army - news that later turned out to be unfair. And on the same morning, Colonel Michaud, driving around the Dris fortifications with the sovereign, proved to the sovereign that this fortified camp, arranged by Pfuel and considered until now the chef d "?uvr" of tactics, supposed to destroy Napoleon - that this camp is nonsense and death Russian army.
Prince Andrei arrived at the apartment of General Benigsen, who occupied a small landowner's house on the very bank of the river. Neither Bennigsen nor the sovereign was there, but Chernyshev, the sovereign's adjutant wing, received Bolkonsky and announced to him that the sovereign had gone with General Benigsen and with the Marquis Pauluchi another time that day to bypass the fortifications of the Drissa camp, the convenience of which was beginning to be strongly doubted.