In the 1900s, Sigmund Freud put forward a general psychological theory of the structure of the mental apparatus as an energy system, the dynamics of which is based on the conflict between different levels of the psyche, primarily consciousness and spontaneous unconscious drives. Expanding the scope of psychoanalysis, Freud tried to extend its principles to various areas of human culture - mythology, folklore, artistic creativity, up to the interpretation of religion as a special form of collective neurosis.
There was such a trend as Freudianism - a general designation for various schools and trends that seek to apply the psychological teachings of Freud to explain the phenomena of culture, the processes of creativity and society as a whole.
The first ideas that laid the foundation for Freudianism began to take shape during the time when S. Freud was a senior student at the medical faculty of the University of Vienna. One of the first major impetus for the emergence of this trend in psychology was Freud's attendance at seminars and open lessons famous French psychiatrist Jean Charcot, who investigated the causes and treatment of hysteria, in particular, the use of hypnosis for these purposes. The experience and knowledge gained by Freud during his Paris internship with Charcot later found application in the course of joint work with the Viennese scientist Josef Breuer, who developed a method of treating hysteria that greatly inspired Freud called the "cathartic method". From the latter, however, Freud himself soon abandoned, recognizing it as imperfect and replacing it with another approach to treatment, the method of free association, which became one of the cornerstones of Freudianism. Together with Breuer Freud, the most important work for the emergence of a new science was written - the book "Studies in Hysteria" (1895), which, among other things, gave impetus to the emergence of one of the most important ideas for Freudianism - the concept of transfer (transfer), and also formed the basis for the emerging later ideas about the oedipal complex and infantile (childish) sexuality.
In the course of clinical practice, Freud repeatedly observed in his patients multiple conflicts, caused, in his opinion, by the confrontation between drives - in particular, he found that socially determined prohibitions often limit the manifestation of biological drives. Based on these observations, the scientist developed an original concept of mental organization, highlighting three structural elements of personality: “It” (or “Id”), “I” (or “Ego”) and “Super-I” (or “Super-Ego”) .
The concept of "It" (Id) was borrowed by Freud from the German physician Georg Groddeck, who used it to denote an unknown force that controls human actions. In correspondence with Groddek, Freud expressed admiration for his colleague's discovery and insisted that analysts (to avoid misunderstandings) oppose not the conscious to the unconscious, but the "I" to the repressed material. The concept was finally established in the psychoanalytic lexicon after the publication of the work "I and It" in 1923. Later, when describing the origin of the term, Freud no longer referred to Groddek, but to Nietzsche, who used this word to denote the impersonal, naturally necessary in a person "It", according to the Freudian concept, serves as the basis for two other manifestations of personality, contains energy for them . "It", in fact, is static - not being influenced by the outside world and not in contact with it, "It" does not change over the course of a person's life.
"I" (Ego) - this, in fact, is the personality of a person, the personification of his mind. "I" exercises control over all the processes taking place in the psyche of the individual. Its main function is to maintain the relationship between instincts and actions. The "I" is governed by the reality principle, while the "It" is governed by the pleasure principle. The “I”, according to Freud, draws energy for its functioning from the “It”, being, as it were, between a hammer and a hard place: on the one hand, the “I” defends itself from the requirements of the “It” (in satisfying unconscious desires), on the other hand, it always defends itself from the pressure of the "Super-I", which performs the functions of censorship; Thus, the essence of the activity of the "I" lies in the harmonization of the forces acting on it
"Super-I" (Super-Ego) - a mental instance that includes "parental authority, self-observation, ideals, conscience. In a metaphorical sense, the "Super-Ego" acts as an inner voice, a censor, a judge. The main activity of the "Super-I" is to restrict, prohibit or condemn the activity of consciousness ("I"), as well as the unconscious ("It"). It is the "Super-I" that is responsible for the moral norms existing in the individual.
The final discovery that marked the beginning of Freudianism was the development of a technique for interpreting dreams (1900). Z. Freud considered this technique to be his greatest discovery, "illumination", which, in his words, "fall to the lot of a person, but only once in a lifetime." Starting from 1902, the formation of Freudianism proceeded by leaps and bounds, a new trend in psychology began to gain more and more followers, tirelessly attracting the interest of young scientists, who by the end of the decade rallied under the leadership of Freud into the "Vienna Psychoanalytic Association"
In the late 1930s, neo-Freudianism arose, which seeks to turn Freudianism into a purely sociological and cultural doctrine, while breaking with the concept of the unconscious and with the biological premises of Freud's teachings.
Freudianism is a general designation for various schools and trends that seek to apply the psychological teachings of the Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist, the founder of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud, to explain cultural phenomena, creative processes and society as a whole.
Freudianism as a social and philosophical-anthropological doctrine should be distinguished from psychoanalysis as a specific method of studying unconscious mental processes, the principles of which Freudianism attaches universal significance, which leads it to the psychologization of society and the individual. Freudianism from the very beginning of its existence did not represent something unified; Freud's ambivalent attitude towards the unconscious, in which he saw the source of both creative and destructive tendencies, led to the possibility of different, sometimes directly opposite, interpretations of the principles of his teaching.
Already among the closest students of Freud in the 1910s, a dispute arose about what should be considered the main driving factor of the psyche. If Freud recognizes the energy of unconscious psychosexual drives as such, then the Austrian doctor and psychologist, the creator of the system of individual psychology Alfred Adler and in the individual psychology he founded, this role is played by an inferiority complex and the desire for self-affirmation, in the school of analytical psychology of Carl Gustav Jung, the collective unconscious is considered the fundamental principle and his archetypes, and for O. Rank (Austria) all human activity turned out to be subordinated to overcoming the primary “birth trauma”.
Freudianism began to spread widely after the First World War of 1914 - 1918 and was associated both with the general crisis of bourgeois society and culture, and with the crisis of a number of traditional areas of psychological science. At the same time, various areas of Freudism sought to fill in the missing philosophical and methodological justification for the provisions of Freud's teachings, relying on various philosophical and sociological doctrines. A biologist trend emerged, leaning towards positivism and behaviorism and especially influential in the USA; it had a significant impact on the development of psychosomatic medicine (psychosomatics); the experiments of rapprochement of Freudianism with reflexology, cybernetics, etc. adjoin the same direction.
The so-called social Freudianism became widespread; in its traditional form, it considers cultural, social and political phenomena as the result of the sublimation of psychosexual energy, the transformation of primary unconscious processes that play the role of a basis in Freudianism in relation to the social and cultural sphere.
In the late 1930s, neo-Freudianism arose, which sought to turn Freudianism into a purely sociological and cultural doctrine, while breaking with the concept of the unconscious and with the biological premises of Freud's teachings; it received the greatest distribution in the USA after the 2nd World War 1939 - 1945 (Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan).
Since the end of the 40s of the 20th century, under the influence of existentialism, so-called. existential analysis (Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger) and medical anthropology (German neurologist and philosopher, representative of the psychosomatic direction in medicine, Victor von Weizsäcker). Attempts to use Freudism by Protestant (Reinhold Niebuhr, Paul Tillich) and partly by Catholic theologians (I. Caruso in Austria, the so-called left Catholics, etc.) are characteristic. Freudianism received a specific refraction in the 1960s in the ideology of the “new left” movement (Herbert Marcuse, “Eros and Civilization”, 1955, etc.) through the medium of Freud’s student Wilhelm Reich, the ideologist of the so-called. sexual revolution.
The influence of Freudism was especially manifested in social psychology, ethnography (American cultural anthropology, closely related to neo-Freudianism), literary criticism, art and literary criticism (see, for example, the Ritual-Mythological School), etc. Along with this, the influence of Freudianism affected the theory and the practice of various modernist artistic movements (Surrealism, which claimed to expand the scope of art through the involvement of the unconscious, etc.).
To consider the main issues of the abstract, it is necessary to distinguish between the main concepts used in the course of the work.
Psychoanalysis (from the Greek psyche-soul and analysis-decision) - part of psychotherapy, a medical research method developed by Z. Freud for the diagnosis and treatment of hysteria. Then it was reworked by Freud into a psychological doctrine aimed at studying the hidden connections and foundations of human mental life. This doctrine is based on the assumption that a certain complex of pathological ideas, especially sexual ones, is "forced out" from the sphere of consciousness and acts already from the sphere of the unconscious (which is conceived as the area of domination of sexual aspirations) and under all sorts of masks and vestments penetrates consciousness and threatens spiritual unity. I, included in the world around him. In action so repressed" complexes"they saw the cause of forgetting, reservations, dreams, false deeds, neuroses (hysterias), and they tried to treat them in such a way that during a conversation ("analysis") one could freely call up these complexes from the depths of the unconscious and eliminate them (through conversation or appropriate actions), namely to give them the opportunity to respond. Proponents of psychoanalysis attribute sexual (" libido") a central role, considering the human mental life as a whole as the sphere of domination of unconscious sexual desires for pleasure or displeasure.
Based on the foregoing, we can consider the essence of psychoanalysis at three levels:
psychoanalysis - as a method of psychotherapy;
psychoanalysis - as a method of studying the psychology of personality;
psychoanalysis - as a system of scientific knowledge about the worldview, psychology, philosophy.
Having considered the basic psychological meaning of psychoanalysis, in the future we will refer to it as a worldview system.
As a result of creative evolution, Z. Freud considers the organization of mental life in the form of a model that has various mental instances as its components, denoted by the terms: It (id), I (ego) and super-I (super-ego).
Under It (id) was understood the most primitive instance, which embraces everything inborn, genetically primary, subject to the principle of pleasure and knowing nothing about reality or society. It is inherently irrational and immoral. Its requirements must be satisfied by the instance of I (ego).
Ego - follows the principle of reality, developing a number of mechanisms that allow you to adapt to the environment, to cope with its requirements.
The ego is a mediator between stimuli coming both from this Environment and from the depths of the organism, With on the one hand, and response motor reactions on the other. The functions of the ego include self-preservation of the body, imprinting the experience of external influences in memory, avoiding threatening influences, control over the requirements of instincts (coming from the id).
Particular importance was attached to the super-I (super-ego), which serves as a source of moral and religious feelings, a controlling and punishing agent. If the id is genetically predetermined, and the Self is the product of individual experience, then the superego is the product of influences coming from other people. It arises in early childhood (associated, according to Frame, with the Oedipus complex) and remains virtually unchanged in subsequent years. The superego is formed due to the mechanism of identification of the child with the father, which serves as a model for him. If I (ego) makes a decision or performs an action to please It (id), but in opposition to the super-I (super-ego), then It experiences punishment in the form of ephors of conscience, feelings of guilt. Since the super-ego draws energy from the id, so the super-ego often acts cruelly, even sadistically. From the stresses experienced under the pressure of various forces, I (ego) is saved with the help of special "protective mechanisms" - repression, rationalization, regression, sublimation, etc. Repression means the involuntary elimination of feelings, thoughts and desires for action from consciousness. Moving into the area of the unconscious, they continue to motivate behavior, put pressure on it, and are experienced as a feeling of anxiety. Regression - slipping away from a more primitive level of behavior or thinking. Sublimation is one of the mechanisms by which forbidden sexual energy, moving to non-sexual objects, is discharged into an activity acceptable to the individual and society. A kind of sublimation is creativity.
Freud's teachings became famous primarily for penetrating into the recesses of the unconscious, or, as the author himself sometimes said, " hell"psyche. However, if we confine ourselves to this assessment, then we can lose sight of another important aspect: Freud's discovery of complex, conflicting relationships between consciousness and unconscious mental processes, seething beyond the surface of consciousness, along which the subject's gaze glides during self-observation. Man himself, Freud believed , does not have in front of him a transparent, clear picture of the complex structure of his own inner world with all its currents, storms, explosions. And here psychoanalysis with its method is called to help " free associations"Following the biological style of thinking, Freud singled out two instincts, driving behavior, the instinct of self-preservation and the sexual instinct, which ensures the preservation of not the individual, but the whole species. This second instinct was elevated by Freud to the category of psychological dogma (a reference to Jung) and named - libido. The unconscious was interpreted as a sphere saturated with the energy of libido, a blind instinct that knows nothing but the principle of pleasure that a person experiences when this energy is discharged. The repressed, repressed sexual desire was deciphered by Freud by the associations of his patients free from mind control. Freud called this interpretation psychoanalysis. In examining his own dreams, Freud came to the conclusion that " scenario"dreams, with its seeming absurdity, is nothing but a code of hidden desires, which is satisfied in the images - symbols of this form of nightlife.
The idea that our daily behavior is influenced by unconscious motives was discussed by Freud in The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901). Various erroneous actions, forgetting names, slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue are usually considered to be accidental and attributed to the weakness of memory. According to Freud, hidden motives break through in them, because there is nothing accidental in a person’s mental reactions. Everything is causal. In another work, "Wit and its Relation to the Unconscious" (1905), jokes or puns are interpreted by Freud as a release of tension created by the restrictions that various social norms impose on the individual's consciousness.
The scheme of the psychosocial development of the personality from infancy to the stage at which a natural attraction to a person of the opposite sex arises is considered by Freud in Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905). One of the leading versions of Freud is the Oedipus complex, as the age-old formula of the boy's relationship to his parents: the boy is attracted to his mother, perceiving his father as a rival who causes both hatred and fear.
During the First World War, Freud makes adjustments to his scheme of instincts. Along with the sexual in the human psyche, there is an instinct of striving for death (Thonatos as the antipode of Eros), according to Freud, this instinct also includes the instinct of self-preservation. The name Tonatos meant not only a special attraction to death, but also to the destruction of others, the desire for aggression, which was elevated to the rank of a well-known biological impulse inherent in the very nature of man.
None of the psychological teachings caused such sharp differences in assessments as the teachings of the Austrian neurologist, psychiatrist and psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the founder of psychoanalysis. Freudianism claimed to create a new "picture of man", a new worldview.
Numerous observations by psychiatrists and neuropathologists showed that a person is by no means the intellectualized being that the psychology of the nineteenth century portrayed him. In their observations, the mental life of a person appeared as deeply saturated with affects and emotions, inclinations and passions, aspirations and desires that are opposite to each other, often distorting the perception and thinking of a person. At the same time, it turned out that a person often does not realize the motives, motivations of his actions and confidently denies that he has some knowledge, memories, which, however, are reproduced by him in a state of hypnosis. These observations became the source of the construction of psychoanalytic Freudian theory. One of the reasons for its widespread use was that it revealed more fully than other theories the exceptional complexity of human mental life. In Freud's works, the question of human sexual life was raised as a serious psychological problem.
Having outlined a number of new problems and pointed out phenomena that have not been subjected to psychological research, Freud, however, presented these phenomena in his theory in a mystified and hypertrophied form.
Z. Freud began his scientific career at the Physiological Institute, and the view of the body as an energy value was deeply rooted in his mind: the body is the driving force of behavior in the form of a special energy. Freud was a practicing neuropathologist. His patients suffered from neuropsychiatric disorders, but it was impossible to understand the causes of their suffering from the device. nervous system. In his medical practice, he constantly encountered facts that could not be explained in anatomical and physiological terms. And Freud was faced with a dilemma: to approach the mechanisms of motivation (motives, drives, affects) with an anatomical-physiological scheme, or to turn to indefinite psychological factors.
It was the beginning of the 20th century. - the era of imperialism has come, irrationalism and mysticism dominated the philosophical scene. In that atmosphere, Freud's system of views took shape. The notion that irrational psychic forces, and not the laws of social development, govern people's behavior, that the individual and the environment are in a state of eternal war - such are the basic idealistic philosophical views of the era of imperialism. In this environment, Freud raised a "revolt" against traditional psychology. Destroying the old explanatory schemes, he put forward new ones. In his medical practice, Freud began to widely use the method of free association. He believed that every association arises under the influence of some reasons. Freud viewed associations as symptoms of a person's motivational attitudes. With the help of associations, he sought to trace the thoughts of his patients, hidden not only from the doctor, but also from themselves.
Initially, he presented mental life as built from three levels: the unconscious, the preconscious, and the conscious. The source of the instinctive charge that gives motivational strength to human behavior is the unconscious. It is saturated with sexual energy. This sphere is closed from consciousness due to prohibitions imposed by society. In all cases, they were offered the same model: the repressed attraction, faced with the internal censorship of consciousness, looks for various workarounds and discharges in forms that are outwardly neutral, but have a second symbolic plan. The repressed impulses still seek a way out for themselves and manifest themselves in the state of sleep (in the form of dreams) and in the state of wakefulness (in the form of various slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, forgetting certain things; here he also included jokes, various puns). All this is nothing more than a momentary discharge of tension created by the restrictions imposed by social norms.
The center of Freud's ideas was the idea of metamorphoses undergone by the sexual instinct, the appearance of which
Modern psychology abroad dates back to the moment when the child touches the mother's breast. According to the Freudian concept of infantile sexuality, the child goes through a series of phases until the age of 5-6 years. Between 6 years and adolescence - the period when the sexual instinct is in a latent state. A special place was given to the so-called oedipal complex, which was understood as a certain motivationally effective formula of the child's relationship to his parents. Greek myth about Oedipus Rex comes down, according to Freud, to the eternal sexual complex that gravitates over every man: the boy is attracted to his mother, perceiving his father as a rival, causing both hatred and fear of punishment. The Freudian theory of the sexual development of the child and the Oedipus complex is built on reasoning and analogy, and therefore is not science, but mythology.
Psychoanalysis did not limit its claims to the field mental development individual. He extended them to the entire history of human culture, looking for in its products the embodiment of all the same complexes, the same sexual forces. During this period, Freud's views on the structure of personality undergo a change. He proposes a different model, which has had a significant impact on the psychological doctrines of personality, in which it is argued that personality is built from three main components, denoted by the terms "id" (It), "this" (I) and "super-ego" (over -I). The id is the most primitive component, the carrier of instincts (or libido): being irrational and unconscious, it obeys the pleasure principle. The ego follows the principle of reality - it takes into account the features of the external world, its properties and relations. Finally, the super-ego serves as the bearer of moral standards; this is the part of the personality that acts as a critic and censor. If the ego makes a decision or takes an action in utodu id, but in opposition to the super-ego, it experiences punishment in the form of guilt, pangs of conscience. Since the demands on the ego from various instances - the id and the super-ego - are incompatible, it is inevitably in a state of conflict that creates unbearable tension. The ego is saved from this tension with the help of special "protective mechanisms" - repression, sublimation, etc.
Repression means the active, but unconscious, removal of a person's consciousness, feelings, thoughts, and desires for action. Moving into the area of the unconscious, they continue to motivate behavior and are experienced as feelings of anxiety. Sublimation is one of the mechanisms by which forbidden sexual energy is discharged in the form of other socially acceptable activities, such as art.
All these were problems that were by no means reduced to the question of the relationship between consciousness and the unconscious. The main category in psychoanalysis was the category of motive. Psychoanalysis claimed to tell people more about the springs and energy reserves of their behavior than they know from their own ideas about themselves. But Freud contrasted motivation with consciousness. His consciousness by itself is powerless. All energy is drawn, ultimately, from the depths of the unconscious. In Freud, psychic energy replaced biological energy and acted as the main engine of social development. Both the organism and society turned out to be nothing but the material from which the libido molds its forms.
FEDERAL STATE STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION MOSCOW UNIVERSITY OF THE MIA OF RUSSIA
Department of Philosophy
ESSAY
On the discipline "Philosophy"
Topic: Freudianism and Neo-Freudianism. Main ideas and representatives»
I've done the work:
Work checked:
Moscow - 2014
Introduction
Freudianism. general characteristics
2. Representatives of Freudianism
3. Neo-Freudianism. general characteristics
4. Representatives of neo-Freudianism
Conclusion
Bibliography
INTRODUCTION
Looking with the naked eye at the words "Freudianism" and "neo-Freudianism", we can easily notice the similarity in the consonance of the sounds of these two words. This "musical" fact is due to the fact that these terms have one common root - "Freud". What is Freud? Or, perhaps, who is Freud? Getting an answer to this question will not be difficult ...
Freud Sigmund - Austrian neurologist, psychiatrist and psychologist; founder of psychoanalysis. Graduated from the Medical Faculty of the University of Vienna. In 1876-1882. he worked at the Vienna Physiological Institute with E. Brucke, where he became acquainted with the views of the school of H. Helmholtz, whose ideas Freud later transferred to psychology; in 1885-1886 in the Salpêtrière clinic (Paris) with J. Charcot. M.D. (1881). Since 1902 professor at the University of Vienna. In 1908 (together with E. Bleuler and C. G. Jung) founded the Yearbook of Psychoanalytic and Psychopathological Research, in 1910 - the International Psychoanalytic Association. Literary Prize. Goethe (1930). After the capture of Austria by Nazi Germany (1938) he emigrated to Great Britain.
Simply put, Sigmund Freud is a brilliant doctor who made a huge contribution to the development of psychology, psychiatry, and psychoanalysis. But not only the medical and scientific sphere is rich in his discoveries and accomplishments: Freud's ideas continue to influence literature, art, anthropology, sociology and medicine. Many of his views are generally accepted, other aspects of his theory are widely discussed. In my work, Freud will appear as a talented philosopher who allowed us, with his works, thoughts and ideas, to plunge into the abyss of the mystery of such a beautiful science as philosophy.
In my work, I will consider the features and reveal the essence of two philosophical and psychological trends: “Freudianism” and “neo-Freudianism”.
CHAPTER I. FREUDISM. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Freudianism is a general designation of various schools and trends seeking to apply the psychological teachings of Z. Freud to explain the phenomena of culture, the processes of creativity and society as a whole. Freudism, as a social and philosophical-anthropological doctrine, should be distinguished from psychoanalysis as a specific method of studying unconscious mental processes, the principles of which Freud attaches universal significance, which leads him to the psychologization of society and the individual.
From the very beginning of its existence, Freudianism did not represent something unified; Freud's ambivalent attitude towards the unconscious, in which he saw the source of both creative and destructive tendencies, led to the possibility of different, sometimes directly opposite, interpretations of the principles of his teaching. Freudianism began to spread widely after the First World War and was associated both with the general crisis of bourgeois society and culture, and with the crisis of a number of traditional areas of psychological science. At the same time, various directions sought to fill in the philosophical and methodological substantiation of the provisions of Freud's teachings, which was missing from Freud, relying on various philosophical and sociological doctrines. scientific theory Freud absorbed many different ideas drawn by the founding father from the works and concepts of various famous scientists. So, for example, Freudianism borrowed quite a lot from the monadology of Gottfried Wilhelm (according to Leibniz, monads are single elements of reality, different from atoms and representing an unextended psychic entity that has a psychic basis) and concepts threshold of consciousness Johann Friedrich Herbart, who believed that a number of human ideas, located "below" the threshold of consciousness, are unconscious. Freud was also greatly influenced by the views of Gustav Theodor Fachner, who, like Herbart, developed the idea of the unconscious and, in particular, proposed to visualize the concept psyche through the image of an iceberg. The development of Freud's psychoanalytic concept was also significantly influenced by the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, and Jean Charcot's theory of the effects of hypnosis for the treatment of hysteria. Freud drew a lot of ideas from Carl Gustav Carus (namely, the assumption that the unconscious mental activity manifested through experiences and dreams), Eduard Hartmann and his "Philosophy of the Unconscious" and Arthur Schopenhauer. (singling out the "will to live", which Freud designated as Eros). The German philosopher and psychologist Theodor Lips, who devoted several works to unconscious mental processes, had a significant influence on the formation of Freud's views.
On the present stage In the development of psychoanalytic thought, "Freudianism" is most often understood as the whole complex of Freud's ideas and works - the so-called "Freudian metapsychology". The "core" of Freudianism is the idea that the main driving force of personality development is represented by instinctive drives - sexual and aggressive. Since the antipode to the satisfaction of these drives are the prohibitions and restrictions imposed by the outside world, the former undergo a process of repression, thus forming the unconscious of a person.
2. REPRESENTATIVES OF FREUDISM
Perhaps the most prominent representatives of Freudianism include A. Adler, K.G. Jung and O. Rank, who were the closest students of Z. Freud. Among the above pupils Freud in the 1910s a dispute arose about what should be considered the main driving factor of the psyche. If in Freud the energy of unconscious psychosexual drives is recognized as such, then in A. Adler this role is played by an inferiority complex and the desire for self-affirmation. A. Adler expounds this idea in the book he created on the basis of Freud's teachings. Individual psychology . He believed that initially most children have a sense of their own inferiority in comparison with "omnipotent adults", which leads to the formation of an "inferiority complex" in the child. Personal development, according to Adler's views, depends on how this complex will be compensated. In pathological cases, a person may try to compensate for his inferiority complex by striving for power over others.
C. G. Jung did not share the views of the great teacher all his life. However, many of Freud's concepts had a significant impact on the development of C. G. Jung as a scientist. The main work of Z. Freud, in which C. G. Jung became interested and applied his postulates in his practice, was “The Interpretation of Dreams”.
Differences in their views began in 1913. The basis of these disagreements were opposing approaches to understanding the problem of the "unconscious". From Jung's point of view, the unconscious is not only and not so much akin to human instincts, as Freud understood it, but is a high manifestation of the human psyche. If in Freud the unconscious has a biological nature, then in Jung it is endowed with social elements.
Studying the problems of culture and society, C. G. Jung comes to the conclusion that along with the "individual unconscious" there is also a "collective unconscious". In the school of "analytical psychology" by C. G. Jung, the collective unconscious and its archetypes are considered the fundamental principle. Jung believed that there is a certain inherited structure of the psyche, developed over hundreds of thousands of years, that makes us experience and realize our life experience in a very specific way. And this certainty is expressed in what Jung called archetypes that influence our thoughts, feelings, actions.
Otto Rank believed that all human activity was subordinated to overcoming the primary "trauma of birth". This "trauma of birth" becomes the first source of fear and anxiety O. Rank proceeded from the fact that the moment of the birth of a child and his separation from his mother is a traumatic event in a person's life. The desire to return to the mother's womb, to restore the previous position is directly related to the trauma of birth.
NEOFREUDISM. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Neo-Freudianism is a trend in psychology that developed in the 20-30s of the 20th century, founded by the followers of Sigmund Freud, who accepted the foundations of his theory, but in which the key concepts of Freud's psychoanalysis were reworked, for example, based on the postulate of the social determinism of the human psyche.
Freud's psychoanalysis (Freudianism) consisted in a systematic explanation of unconscious connections through an associative process. Freud proposed a new structure of a person's personality, dividing it into Ego ("I"), Superego ("SuperI") and Id ("It") All mental states, all human actions, and then all historical events and social phenomena, Freud exposes psychoanalysis, that is, it interprets it as a manifestation of unconscious, and above all sexual, drives.
Freud's followers (representatives of neo-Freudianism) believe that social and cultural influences play a leading role in a person's position. That is, they focus their attention on social and cultural processes. In their opinion, it is these processes that have a significant impact on the emergence of intrapersonal conflicts of the individual. At the heart of all the theoretical constructions of this direction are the concepts of the unconscious and the fundamental conflict of relations between the individual and society.
A variety of theories and concepts of neo-Freudians contributed to the spread of psychoanalytic orientations and the introduction of a complex of psychoanalytic ideas into various spheres of public life. Having criticized a number of provisions of classical psychoanalysis in the interpretation of intrapsychic processes, the representatives of neo-Freudianism left its most important concepts (irrational motives human activity inherent in each individual) and shifted the focus to the study of interpersonal relationships.
This is done in an effort to answer questions about human existence, how a person should live and what he should do. They consider the cause of neuroses in humans to be anxiety, which arises in a child when it encounters an initially hostile world and intensifies with a lack of love and attention. Later, such a reason becomes the impossibility for the individual to achieve harmony with the social structure. modern society, which forms in a person a feeling of loneliness, isolation from others, alienation. It is society that is considered as a source of general alienation and is recognized as hostile to the fundamental trends in the development of the individual and the transformation of his life values and ideals. Through the healing of the individual, the healing of the whole society can and must take place.
Neo-Freudianism did not adopt those concepts that, being originally formulated by Os. innovators of psychoanalysis, eventually revealed their clearly unscientific and illusory character. Moreover, many of the theoretical propositions of classical psycho analysis were not only questioned, but also subjected to fundamental criticism by individual representatives of neo-Freudianism. However, their critical considerations of Freud's psychoanalysis concerned only particulars that related to the procedure of psychoanalytic research, to erroneous theoretical conclusions, to the interpretation of the nature of various mental processes. processes that determine the activity of the individual. The general principles and attitudes of classical psychoanalysis (“the psychology of the unconscious”, ideas about irra aspects of human activity, conflict and splitting of the inner world of the individual, "repressiveness" of culture and society) formed the basis of the teachings of modern neo-Freudians.
Thus, neo-Freudians, like Freudians, explain human behavior by the activity of the unconscious. In addition, they also explain mental illness by the dynamics of unconscious processes. Like Freud, neo-Freudians retain the concepts of repression and resistance and use the same psychoanalytic methods invented by Freud: dream interpretation, free association, transference, and so on.
The similarity of Freudianism and neo-Freudianism (and the latest psychoanalysts of the "I") is in their common understanding of the unconscious as the engine of human behavior, in emphasizing the role of repression and in the application of psychoanalytic technique. They are also united by an analysis of culture and society based on the unconscious. Thus, we see that bourgeois ideology is infinitely inventive, offering the same ideological food under different sauces. Neo-Freudianism is a seasoning for Freud's main dish - the unconscious - taking into account the role of social and cultural factors in the determination of normal and pathological phenomena of the human psyche.
REPRESENTATIVES OF NEOFREUDISM
The main representatives of neo-Freudianism are G. Sullivan, K. Horney, E. Fromm. A. Kardiner, F. Alexander and some other representatives of psychoanalysis are also often referred to as neo-Freudians. According to Sullivan, a person’s personality is not an innate quality, but is formed in the process of an infant’s communication with others, that is, “personality is a model of repetitive“ interpersonal relationships ” . In its development, the child goes through several stages - from infancy to adolescence, and at each stage a certain model is formed. In childhood, this model is formed on the basis of joint games with peers, in pre-adolescence - on the basis of communication with representatives of the opposite sex, etc. Although a child is not born with certain social feelings, they are formed in him in the first days of life, their development is associated with the desire man to discharge<#"justify">Fromm's psychoanalysis is anthropological and humanistic in nature. Man is the starting point from which the philosopher begins all research. But Fromm, unlike Freud, considers a person not one-sidedly, but in the aggregate of biological and social principles. All ideas about the need to transform society begin with a scientist with ideas about the need to form new personality. Love, altruism and kindness as an inner need of the soul are at the heart of the formation of the human of the future.
These principles, from the point of view of E. Fromm, are fundamental in the teaching of the so-called "radical humanism", the founder of which he considered K. Marx. It was Fromm's study of the American industrial society that helped the scientist to conclude that changes in the psyche of modern people are not determined only by biological factors, they are a reflection of social processes. But under the influence of the teachings of Z. Freud, E. Fromm, nevertheless, relies on the principles of psychoanalysis in explaining the formation of personality.
So, Fromm claims that there are two principles in the human psyche: love for life and love for death (Eros and Thanatos in Freud). Some people tend to the first beginning, others - to the second. Hence, two main psychological types arise: biophiles - those who want to live and necrophiles - those who strive for death. E. Fromm explains the behavior of many politicians who played a negative role in society, including Hitler, by the fact that they belong to the type of necrophiles, those who are attracted to everything dark, negative, evil.
Since Fromm's entire socio-philosophical concept is permeated with love for a person, the scientist does not disregard the very problem of love. According to Fromm, love is not given to everyone, it is a gift of fate that opens the way for a person to self-expression and freedom. Fromm's concept of responsibility is closely connected with the concept of love, which he defines as a person's readiness for Actions.
But the idea of the future society, proposed by E. Fromm, is not aimed at creating a new social order, but at the formation of small communities with their own culture, language and morality within the framework of the former formation. Fromm sought to shift the emphasis from the biological motives of human behavior in psychoanalysis to social factors, to show that "human nature - the passions of a person and his anxieties - are a product of culture."
Freudian neo-Freudian psychoanalysis
Of all the mysteries of existence, none is of such importance for modern man as the mystery of his own being and the establishment of his own special, personal conditionality and exclusivity.
To this center of man's inner life, Freud once again brought psychology, which by that time had become an abstract science, closer. He was the first to develop with almost artistic power the dramatic elements inherent in man - this convulsive play of flickering in the twilight light of the subconscious, where an insignificant impulse is given off with the most distant consequences and the past and the present are intertwined in the most amazing combinations - truly a whole world in the close circulation of the human body, boundless in its integrity and yet charming as a spectacle, in its incomprehensible patterns.
And what is natural in man - this is the decisive re-setting of Freud's teaching - is in no way amenable to academic schematization, but can only be experienced, lived out together with him and known in the process of this living out, as the only characteristic of him. The personality of a person is comprehended not with the help of frozen formulas, but exclusively on the basis of the imprints of experiences sent to him by fate; therefore, any healing in the narrow sense of the word, any help in the moral sense, presupposes, according to Freud, the knowledge of the individual, but the knowledge is affirmative, sympathetic, and therefore truly complete. Therefore, respect for the individual, for this, in Goethe's sense, "revealed mystery" is for him the immutable beginning of any psychology and any mental healing, and Freud, like no one else, taught us to keep this respect as a kind of moral law.
It was only thanks to him that thousands and hundreds of thousands learned about the vulnerability of the soul, especially of a child, and in the face of the expressions he revealed, they began to understand that any rude touch, any unceremonious climb (often with the help of a single word!) matter can be destroyed by fate and that, consequently, all rash prohibitions, punishments, threats and coercive measures impose on the punisher a previously unknown responsibility. He invariably introduced into the consciousness of modernity - schools, churches, courtrooms - respect for the individual, even on the paths of its deviation from the norm, and by this deeper penetration into the soul planted in the world more foresight and indulgence.
The art of mutual understanding, the most important art in human relations, which can contribute to the emergence of a higher humanity, owes its development to Freud's teaching on personality much more than to any other modern method; it is only thanks to him that the meaning of the individual, the unique value of every human soul, has become clear to our era, in a new and real understanding. Going his own, third-party path, Freud invariably found himself in the center of life - in the realm of the human.
And while specialists still cannot reconcile themselves to the fact that his work is not sustained in the strict academic forms of medicine, natural science or philosophy, while privy councilors and scientists still argue furiously about individual points and about the ultimate goal of his work, Freud's teaching has long been revealed as immutably true - true in that creative sense, which is captured in Goethe's unforgettable words: "What is fruitful is the only true."
CONCLUSION
So, if we consider psychoanalysis as a system of scientific knowledge about the worldview, psychology and philosophy, then Freudianism is the common name for various schools and trends that seek to apply the psychological teachings of Z. Freud to explain phenomena related to man, society and culture. Both A. Adler and K. Jung are representatives of Freudianism. In the late 1930s, neo-Freudianism arose, combining Freud's psychoanalysis with sociological theories. Having criticized a number of provisions of classical psychoanalysis in the interpretation of intrapsychic processes, but leaving its most important concepts (irrational motives of human activity inherent in each individual), representatives of neo-Freudianism shifted the focus to the study of interpersonal relationships. This is done in an effort to answer questions about human existence, how a person should live and what he should do. They consider the cause of neuroses in humans to be anxiety, which arises in a child when it encounters an initially hostile world and intensifies with a lack of love and attention. Later, such a reason becomes the impossibility for the individual to achieve harmony with the social structure of modern society, which forms a person's feeling of loneliness, isolation from others, and alienation. It is society that is considered as a source of general alienation and is recognized as hostile to the fundamental trends in the development of the individual and the transformation of his life values and ideals. Through the healing of the individual, the healing of the whole society can and must take place.
The ideas of non-Freudianism, despite their psychological concepts, had a huge impact on social life, ethics, and culture. Neo-Freudian views became particularly well known in the mid-1960s during the rise of the New Left, which enthusiastically embraced Reich's ideas about the "sexual revolution", Marcuse's ideas about the "one-dimensional" man and the need for a "great rejection" of both capitalism and socialism, distorted by the totalitarian system of power.
LIST OF USED LITERATURE
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2.Voloshinov V.N., "Freudianism" -. M. - L., 1927 - 164 p.
.Golovin S. Freudianism. Dictionary of practical psychologist "- Harvest, AST, 2001. - 512 p.
.Cutter P.; Müller T. “Psychoanalysis. Introduction to the psychology of unconscious processes. - M.: Kogito-Centre, 2011. - S. 27. - 384 p.
.Laktionov A. I. "Escape from freedom." (Translated from English) - M .: AST; Moscow, 2009. - 17 p.
.Leibin V. M., “The origins of psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis "(Chapter 2) - St. Petersburg, 2008. - 592 p.
.Schultz, D., Schultz, S. “Psychoanalysis: origins. Story modern psychology". - Eurasia, 2002. - 544 p.
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He was not only the founder of psychoanalysis. His incredible, revolutionary ideas about the components of the human personality in particular and the evolution of mankind as a whole gave a powerful impetus to the development of such a philosophical direction as Freudianism.
In principle, Freudianism is a communal designation for completely different currents and schools that seek to apply the psychological teachings of Dr. Freud to explain various cultural phenomena, creative processes and the whole society in its entirety.
If we consider Freudism as a philosophical, anthropological and social doctrine, then, undoubtedly, it should be distinguished from psychoanalysis as a method of comprehending unconscious mental processes, that is, those principles to which Freud attached universal significance and which led him to a generalized psychologization of both society and personality.
From the very beginning, Freudianism was not something monolithic, unified. It has always been ambivalent, most likely due to Freud's ambivalent attitude towards the unconscious, for he saw in it both the source of all human creative powers and a certain destructive tendency.
It is this duality that gave rise to the possibility of diametrically opposed interpretations of the principles of Dr. Freud's teachings. Even among the closest students of Freud, back in the 1900s, there was a dispute about what exactly should be considered the dominant driving factor in the human psyche. Here, for example, both in A. Adler himself and in the individual psychology founded by him, this function is performed by an inferiority complex and, as a result, a desire for self-affirmation.
According to the school of "analytical psychology" and the authoritative opinion of its founder C. Jung, the fundamental principle is the collective unconscious, as well as its archetypes. With O. Rank, absolutely all human activity turned out to be subordinated to the desire to overcome the primary “trauma of birth”.
Whereas in Freud, the teacher of all these worthy gentlemen, the main factor driving force psyche, only the energy and power of unconscious psychosexual drives are recognized. Freudianism began to spread widely after graduation, which was due not only to the crisis experienced by society and culture, but also to the crisis of a number of areas in the science of psychology that were previously considered traditional.
At the same time, various areas of Freudism set themselves the goal of filling the voids of the methodological and philosophical justifications for Freud's teachings, relying in this on various sociological and.
The biologizing current of Freudism, for example, had an enormous impact in its significance on the evolution of psychosomatic medicine. This trend is very consonant with positivism, and is most widespread in the United States. Experiments with cybernetics and reflexology are also adjacent to the biologizing Freudianism.
But, for example, social Freudianism (in its traditional form) considers and studies cultural, political and social phenomena as a result of the sublimation of psychosexual energy and the transformation of primary unconscious processes that play the role of a basis in relation to the cultural and social environment. At the end of the thirties of the twentieth century, such a trend as Neo-Freudianism arose, which finally breaks with the concept of the unconscious and all the biological factors of Freud's teachings and turned Freudianism into an exclusively cultural and sociological doctrine.
Especially the influence of Freudism manifested itself in ethnography, social psychology, art and literary criticism. And also Freudianism played an important role in the formation of various artistic movements. For example, surrealism extended the forms art through the involvement of the unconscious.