The conclusions of systematics about the proximity of man to these monkeys are based on solid comparative morphological and comparative physiological material.
The latter serves as the basis for the theory of the pithecoid (monkey) origin of man, in view of which we will briefly dwell on it. Comparative morpho-physiological analysis of human and anthropomorphic monkeys makes it possible, in particular, to outline the formulation of the question of the phylogenetic relationship between them. Indeed, it seems important to find out which of the three great apes closer to the person.
The table compares, first of all, the main dimensional features of all four forms.
The table shows that for most of the listed dimensional features, chimpanzees and gorillas are closest to humans. At the same time, it is striking that, in terms of brain weight, chimpanzees are closest to humans.
hairline. The body of anthropomorphic monkeys is covered with coarse hair. The back and shoulders are more heavily haired (especially in the orang). The chest is slightly covered. The face, part of the forehead, the soles of the feet, the palms of the hands are devoid of hair. The back of the hand is slightly hairy. The undercoat is missing. Consequently, the hairline reveals the features of rudimentation, however, far from being as pronounced as in humans. In chimpanzees, sometimes the armpits are covered with hair (resemblance to humans). Orangs have a strong development of beards and mustaches (resemblance to humans). As in humans, the hair of the shoulder and forearm of all anthropomorphs is directed towards the elbow. In chimpanzees and orangs, as in humans, baldness is observed, especially in the hairless chimpanzee - A. calvus.
| Dimensional signs | Orang | Chimpanzee | Gorilla | Man | The greatest proximity to a person in this trait |
| Body weight - kg | 70-100 | 40-50 | 100-200 | 40-84 | Chimpanzee |
| Height - m | Up to 1.5 | Up to 1.5 | Up to 2 | 1,40-1,80 | Gorilla |
| Arm length to body length (100%) | 223,6% | 180,1% | 188,5% | 152,7% | Chimpanzee |
| Leg length to body length (100%) | 111,2% | 113,2% | 113,0% | 158,5% | Gorilla and chimpanzee |
| Wrist length as a percentage of body length (100%) | 63,4% | 57,5% | 55,0% | 36,8% | Gorilla |
| Foot length as a percentage of torso length (100%) | 62,87% | 52-62% | 58-59% | 46-60% | Gorilla |
| brain weight to body weight | 1:200 | 1:90 | 1:220 | 1:45 | Chimpanzee |
Color of the skin. Chimpanzees have light skin, except for the face. The pigment is formed in the epidermis of the skin, as in humans.
Skull and jaw apparatus. The skull of an adult human differs sharply from that of apes in a number of ways. However, even here there are some similarities: the table compares some elements of the characteristics of the skulls of humans and great apes.
Selected elements of the characteristic, as well as the data in the table, show that African anthropomorphic monkeys are closer to humans than the orangutan. If we calculate the volume of the brain box of a chimpanzee in relation to its body weight, then this monkey will be the closest to man. The same conclusion follows from the comparison of the 5th, 6th, 10th and 12th indicators given in the table.
vertebral column. In humans, it forms an S-shaped profile line, that is, it functions like a spring that guarantees the brain from concussion. Cervical vertebrae with weak spinous processes. Anthropomorphic monkeys do not have an S-curve, the spinous processes are long, especially in the gorilla. They are most similar to human ones in chimpanzees, elongating evenly from the first to the last cervical vertebra, like in humans.
Rib cage. Its general shape in humans and anthropomorphic is barrel-shaped, somewhat compressed in the dorsal-abdominal direction. This configuration of the chest is characteristic only of man and anthropomorphic. In terms of the number of ribs, the orang is the closest to a person, having, like the last one, 12 pairs of ribs. However, the same number is observed in the gorilla, although it happens, like in the chimpanzee, 13 pairs. The human embryo normally has the same number of ribs that is sometimes found in an adult. Thus, anthropomorphic are very close in this feature to humans, especially orangutans. However, the chimpanzee and gorilla are closer to humans in the shape of the sternum, which consists of a small number of elements, more numerous in the orang.
limb skeleton. For anthropomorphic, as for all monkeys, a certain similarity in the functions of the fore and hind limbs is characteristic, since both arms and legs are involved in climbing a tree, and the forelimbs, which have a much greater lifting force than those of Homo, are of leading importance. Both limbs of the anthropomorphic are multifunctional, and the functions of the hand are wider and more diverse than the functions of the leg. In a person, the hand is completely freed from the function of movement, for which other functions associated with his labor activity have been extraordinarily enriched. The human leg, having become the only support of the body, on the contrary, experienced a process of narrowing of functions and, in particular, an almost complete loss of the grasping function. These relationships caused the development of significant differences in the structure of the skeleton of the limbs of anthropomorphic and human, especially the legs. The human leg - thigh and lower leg - significantly exceeds the same anthropomorphic elements in length.
The powerful development of muscles in the human leg has led to a number of features in the structure of its bones. The hip is characterized by a strong development of the rough line (linea aspera), a long neck and an obtuse angle at which it deviates from the body of the bone itself. There are a number of distinctive features in the human foot. Then, as in anthropomorphic, as a rule, thumb the legs are tilted at an angle to the rest; in humans, it is located approximately parallel to the rest of the fingers. This increases the supporting power of the leg, i.e., is a sign associated with upright walking. This is also confirmed by the fact that in the mountain gorilla, which often assumes an upright position, the big toe of the hind foot is similar in position to the human. Another feature of a person is the domed, concave lower surface of the sole, springy when walking. This feature is absent in the flat feet of monkeys. In the latter, the hand and foot are very long. The hand and foot of the gorilla, in general, are closer to the human, which is associated with a more developed chthonobiontism of this monkey.
Taz. The human pelvis is wider than it is long. The structure of the sacrum fused with it includes 5 sacral vertebrae, which increases the supporting force of the pelvis. The gorilla's pelvis is most similar to that of a human, followed by chimpanzees and orangutans. And in this feature, the closeness of the gorilla to man is a consequence of chthonousness.
muscles. A person has strongly developed leg muscles (upright posture), namely: the gluteal, quadriceps, gastrocnemius, soleus, third peroneal, square muscle of the foot. Like humans, anthropomorphic ear muscles are rudimentary, especially in orangs, while chimpanzees are able to move their ears. However, in general muscular system African anthropomorphic are closer to the human than to the orangutan system.
The brain of man and chimpanzee. (12). Both brains are shown equal in size for ease of comparison (actually, the chimpanzee brain (2) is much smaller). Brain areas: 1 - frontal, 2 - frontal granular, 3 - motor, 4 - parietal, 5 - striated, 6 - temporal, 7 - preoccipital, 8 - insular, 9 - postcentral. (From Nesturh)
Brain, sense organs. The volume of the cranium and the weight of the brain have already been indicated. Orangs and gorillas are farthest from humans in terms of brain weight, and chimpanzees are closest. The human brain is strikingly superior in volume and weight to the anthropomorphic brain. More. more important is the fact that it is richer in convolutions, although it is similar in this respect to the brain of anthropomorphs. However, the functional characteristics of the brain associated with its subtle (cytological) architectonics are of decisive importance. The figure shows that this latter is very similar in man and chimpanzee. However, the anthropomorphic ones do not have developed motor and sensory "speech centers", of which the first is responsible for the motor work of the human articulatory apparatus, and the second is for the semantic perception of the words heard. The cytological architectonics of the human brain is much more complex and more developed, especially within the frontal lobe, which makes up 47% of the lateral surface of the brain in humans, 33% in chimpanzees, 32% in gorillas, and even less in orangs.
sense organs human and anthropomorphic in many respects are similar. In all these forms, some reduction of the olfactory organs is observed. Human hearing is close in its perceptive features to the hearing of a gorilla, a chimpanzee has a greater ability to perceive high tones. The similarity of the auricle in African anthropomorphic and human is very great. Remarkably, the pinna gives variations that are remarkably similar to those of chimpanzees and other apes. Both man and anthropomorphic are characterized by great visual acuity, and, moreover, both three-dimensional (stereometric) and color.
Ontogenesis. Anthropomorphic embryogenesis is unusually similar to human embryogenesis. The early stages of development are generally hardly distinguishable in all monkeys. Differentiation according to species (and generic) characters begins at later stages. The figure shows that the heads of human embryos, chimpanzees and gorillas on the eve of birth, as well as the skulls of anthropomorphic newborns in humans, have many similarities - the roundness of the cranial vault, large, forward-directed rounded orbits, the dominance of the cranium over the jaw apparatus. There are also many similarities in the soft parts of the face. In chimpanzee and gorilla embryos, the eyeball protrudes noticeably from the orbit, due to the initial predominance of eyeball growth over orbital growth. In the human embryo, this discrepancy also takes place, but to a lesser extent. On the eyelids of human embryos and these monkeys, characteristic restrictive grooves are visible, which are weaker in humans. The ear of the gorilla fetus has a loose lobe, as in many people, etc. The general similarity of the embryos mentioned is therefore very great. Gorilla and chimpanzee embryos show distinct "whiskers" and "beards". In the human embryo, they are less developed, but Darwin pointed out ("The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection") that in the human embryo in the fifth month, the embryonic down around the mouth is noticeably elongated, so that in this sign; there is a clear resemblance.
However, during postembryonic development, signs of similarity give way to increasing signs of differences, i.e., ontogenetic divergence occurs. In the skull, it is expressed in the progressive development in anthropomorphic monkeys of the dentition, jaws, chewing muscles and sagittal crest (in the gorilla and orang) and the lag, compared with humans, in the development of the cranium.
General conclusion. The above comparative review leads to the following general conclusions:
a. Man and anthropomorphic monkeys have many similarities in the morpho-physiological organization and in the patterns of embryogenesis.
b. African forms (gorilla, chimpanzee) are closer to humans than the orangutan. The chimpanzee is closest to man, but in a number of signs - a gorilla, in a few - an orangutan.
in. If we take into account the phenomena of the ontogenetic divergence noted above and the fact that signs of similarity with humans are scattered within all three genera of anthropoid apes, then the final conclusion from the review will be the following: humans and anthropomorphic apes originate from a common root, and later historically developed in divergent directions.
Thus, we see that the theory of the pithecoid (monkey) origin of man corresponds to comparative morphological and comparative physiological data.
Skull of Ardipithecus (Ardipithecus ramidus) at the National Museum of Natural Sciences of Spain
Tiia Monto / Wikimedia Commons
American anthropologists and neuroscientists led by Owen Lovejoy of Kent State University in two papers published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, proposed an explanation for the origin of the ancestors Homo sapiens social monogamy and the subsequent reproductive success that allowed humans to populate almost the entire planet. In one of the articles scientists put forward a hypothesis according to which social monogamy in ancestors Homo sapiens arose due to neurochemical changes in the striatum - a part of the brain that, among other things, produces dopamine and serotonin. In another publication, researchers attributed the reproductive success of humans to the high survival rate of young females, which they believe became possible after the emergence of monogamy.
In the early 1990s, researchers discovered the remains of hominins in Ethiopia that lived about 4.4 million years ago. After the view Ardipithecus ramidus was described, anthropologists called him the direct ancestor of Australopithecus - the highest primates who lived in Africa 4.2-1.8 million years ago and whose descendants were people. Ardipithecus were small in stature, about 120 centimeters, their brain volume was 300-350 cubic centimeters (about 20 percent of the brain volume of modern people). Scratches and marks on the teeth of ancient primates testified that they were omnivores and ate a lot of fruits. They mainly foraged in the forests, but occasionally searched for food in the savannahs. Unlike the fangs of modern chimpanzees and gorillas, which use them to argue over territory and females, the fangs of male and female Ardipithecus practically did not differ in size, and in general, males were not too large than females. Judging by the structure of the skeleton, the ancient primates moved on two legs, but at the same time they climbed trees well.
In 2009, based on the results of many years of studying the remains of ardipithecus, a special issue was published. Science, which was published by the American anthropologist Owen Lovejoy. The scientist back in the early 80s suggested that one of the main factors that led to the appearance of man was the emergence of social monogamy, and not the appearance of stone tools or an increase in brain volume. In a 2009 paper, Lovejoy offers support for his hypothesis. Male modern great apes have much larger fangs than females. Males use them as weapons when trying to assert their dominant status. In Ardipithecus, they were almost the same in size in both of them, from which the anthropologist concluded that, apparently, they managed to get along with other males without fights. Also, the ancient primates developed upright posture, possibly due to the fact that they began to look for food on the ground and periodically go out into the savannah. But bipedal locomotion is not the fastest and most energy-efficient mode of transportation. In addition, it could lead to injury. Therefore, ardipithecus, especially females with cubs, could become easy prey for predators.
It should be noted that modern great apes, humans, and, apparently, their ancestors adhered to the K-reproduction strategy. The species that "choose" her breed relatively rarely and bring few cubs, and the mother then raises them for several years, investing a huge amount of resources. The R-strategy, on the other hand, is about numbers: such species breed often and in large numbers, but care little for the young.
In conditions when males fight for territory and females (at the same time, females also get it, so some of them die), and females are forced to take care of the cub for a long time, alone getting food for both and risking becoming a victim of predators, the chances of survival of the species are very few. However, the direct descendants of the Ardipithecus, the Australopithecus, not only survived, but spread throughout much of Africa. Lovejoy explains this paradox by the emergence of social monogamy among Ardipithecus - the male mated with only one of the females, and in return provided her with food. So the females had the opportunity to get food for themselves and for the cub, and at the same time not get into the teeth of a predator. In addition, she had more time to take care of the baby. According to Lovejoy, upright posture evolved in part because males needed to bring food to the female. And the females, obviously, chose those who brought more food. In return, the male received regular sex and ensured that his genes were passed on to his offspring. Therefore, he did not have to prove his dominant position and be at enmity with other males. Accordingly, the need for large fangs also disappeared. Probably, females also “helped”, choosing not fighters, but those males who took better care of their offspring. However, there was a problem with this: female modern great apes "announce" to all interested males that they have begun ovulation and are ready to mate. In particular, in female chimpanzees, the skin around the genitals swells and turns red. Monogamous pairs of Ardipithecus did not need such "advertising". Therefore, according to Lovejoy's hypothesis, females have learned to hide the moment of ovulation, so as not to attract the unwanted attention of foreign males.
It should be noted that not all anthropologists recognize Lovejoy's theory. Thus, the Russian anthropologist Marina Butovskaya suggests that the males of the ancient hominins mated with several females, and the females with several males, but at the same time they abstained from sexual intercourse with close relatives.
The emergence of social monogamy according to the hypothesis of Owen Lovejoy
Owen Lovejoy/Science, 2009
In a new study, scientists led by Lovejoy propose a neurochemical explanation for the emergence of social monogamy. Researchers believe that changes in the striatum or striatum played a key role in this process. This part of the brain, among other things, is associated with the "reward center", planning, decision-making and "autonomous" behavior, and, on the other hand, with the ability to adapt to the behavior of others. Behavior, in turn, depends on the concentration of neurotransmitters in the striatum: dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, and neuropeptide Y.
Researchers suggest that high concentrations of acetylcholine in the striatum increase aggressiveness and provoke dominant behavior. An increase in serotonin affects the inhibition of impulsive behavior and cognitive control of emotions - key skills for cooperation and partnership formation. At the same time, a decrease in the concentration of serotonin in the striatum enhances impulsivity, including those unacceptable for social relations, for example, outbursts of aggression. Scientists associate an increase in the concentration of dopamine in the striatum with conformity (a change in behavior under the influence of other people) and satisfaction from communicating with others. If an increase in dopamine concentration is accompanied by a decrease in acetylcholine concentration, this contributes to social behavior and increased sensitivity to social cues. The role of neuropeptide Y in the striatum in social behavior is not yet clear, but increasing the concentration of this substance in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with schizophrenia improved their social skills.
The researchers analyzed neurotransmitter levels in the striatum of monkeys (capuchin, pig-tailed macaque and anubis baboon), great apes (chimpanzees and gorillas), and humans. Humans, compared with other primates, showed higher levels of dopamine, serotonin and neuropeptide Y, and, at the same time, lower levels of acetylcholine. According to the authors of the work, this combination contributes to an increase in empathy, the ability to recognize social signals, altruism and conformity. At the same time, lower levels of acetylcholine appear to have reduced the aggressiveness of human ancestors. The researchers note that chimpanzees, gorillas and humans had higher levels of serotonin and neuropeptide Y than monkeys. These neurotransmitters may have provided a reduction in impulsive behavior and enhanced social skills in great apes and humans. At the same time, the level of acetylcholine in great apes was higher than in humans. The combination of increased concentrations of dopamine and reduced concentrations of acetylcholine in the striatum, scientists call unique to humans. According to them, perhaps it was this that led to the emergence of social behavior specific to people.
The role of the striatum in the origin of man according to Lovejoy. As the primates shifted from an R to a K breeding strategy, their striatal levels increased in serotonin (5HT), which reduced aggressiveness, and neuropeptide Y (NPY), which improved social skills. In the striatum of modern chimpanzees and gorillas high level acetylcholine (ACh) and low dopamine (DA). Conversely, modern humans have low levels of acetylcholine (Ach) and high levels of dopamine (DA), making them more social and less aggressive than great apes.
Mary Ann Raghanti et al. / PNAS, 2018
The authors of the article believe that a decrease in the level of acetylcholine in the striatum, which reduces aggressiveness, and an increase in the level of dopamine, which enhances satisfaction from communicating with others, was the key to the emergence of social monogamy in ancient people. Some species of modern mammals have social, and occasionally genetic monogamy ( , , ), but territorial. A couple with cubs does not welcome not only predators, but also other individuals of their species that have wandered into their territory. People, in general, willingly communicate and establish social ties not only with their family members, but also with other people.
In another article published in the same issue Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences anthropologists offer a hypothesis that explains the phenomenal reproductive success of people, which allowed them to spread around the planet. The researchers used macaques as model animals. Crab-eating macaques ( Macacafascicularis) and rhesus monkeys ( Macacamulatta) are the most successful primates after humans in terms of "capturing" territories. They settled in South-East Asia and were able to survive not only in the wild, but also in an urbanized environment. According to researchers ( , ), the annual increase in populations of these species can reach 10-13 percent. But some macaques, such as the Ceylon macaque ( Macaca sinica) are found only in limited areas and their population growth is small. To understand what caused these differences, the authors of the article used data from primatologists ( , , ) who observed monkeys and compared the survival rates of female cynomolgus, rhesus and Ceylon monkeys.
In females of all three species of macaques, reproductive age occurs with a slight difference: in rhesus monkeys - at four years, in Ceylon macaques - at five, and in crabeater macaques - at 5-6 years. At the same time, female rhesus and crabeater bear cubs for 19-20 years. In Ceylon macaques, the reproductive age is half as long - about 10 years. But the researchers saw the main reason for the poor reproduction of Ceylon macaques not in this, but in the different survival rates of young females. 75-80 percent of female rhesus monkeys, about 67 percent of female cynomolgus monkeys, and only 15 percent of female ceylon macaques survive to reproductive age.
Young female Ceylon macaques are at the very bottom of the hierarchy. Adults treat them and take away food (sometimes literally take it out of their mouths), so that most of the females die in the first six months of life. As a result, although Ceylon macaques breed on average, quite often, once every year and a half, their reproduction rate (the average number of daughters a female has during her life) was less than one - 0.9. While in cynomolgus monkeys and rhesus monkeys, the reproduction rate was 3.1 and 1.6-2, respectively.
The authors of the study conclude that the change in the social structure of the ancient ancestors of people and the emergence of monogamy seems to be the most likely reason for their reproductive success. In human communities, there was no such rigid hierarchy as in other primates, and this made it possible to reduce the mortality of young females, which, according to the researchers, ensured population growth.
Researchers have proposed other versions of the emergence of social monogamy. So, economist Gary Becker assumed that monogamous couples arose when it became important for a man to be sure of his paternity. Biologists from the University of Waterloo showed with the help of a computer model, that ancient people could switch to monogamy out of fear of sexual infections and under pressure from other members of the community who did not want to catch the infection. And ethologists from Cornell University assumed that males were forced to become monogamous because they could only protect one female and her offspring.
Ekaterina Rusakova
The assumption that the chimpanzee is the closest relative of man was first proposed by Charles Darwin. Despite its adventurous nature, this hypothesis aroused keen interest among scientists. Well, how could it be otherwise, because both humans and chimpanzees have so much in common. This applies to nutrition, brain size, DNA structure, social aspects, language and facial expressions, sexual habits, body structure. Of course, despite the huge number of common points, there are opposites that cannot be ignored. But the fact remains, which means that we can assume that both humans and chimpanzees had a common ancestor.
To begin with, both humans and chimpanzees are members of the family of the most highly developed primates, called hominids. Despite the fact that a person is singled out here in separate view"Homo sapiens", scientists still have not come to a consensus about its origin. Who was our ancestor, we still do not know. Although, if you do not get into the wilds, then you can agree that both humans and chimpanzees belong to the same species, since both are fertile. True, chimpanzees, unlike humans, have two subspecies - ordinary and dwarf. But this does not give us the right to doubt that the ancestor of both them and us was common. Scientists even agree that he was Sahelontrop, who lived on earth seven million years ago.
The common origin is also evidenced by the fact that human and chimpanzee DNA have almost the same structure. The difference is only one percent. As for genetics, it is, of course, different. Plus, genes can mutate. But even in this case, we have about 90% of common genes. This, of course, is debatable. The thing is that most of the DNA is directly involved in the construction of the cell. They are the same for all living beings. Believe it or not, even a banana peel has DNA molecules similar to human ones. However, this does not mean that we have something in common with this vegetable. So it turns out that such a high percentage of coincidence still does not mean anything. In addition, chimpanzees have two more chromosomes than humans. However, scientists have found an answer to this fact. In their opinion, as a result of human evolution, its two pairs of chromosomes were able to join together, forming one pair. This has led to the fact that the variation of the genes of modern man turned out to be extremely poor, and does not allow for inbreeding. Chimpanzees are clearly winning in this regard.
The volume of the human brain can range from 900 to 1350 milliliters. In chimpanzees, it is much smaller, and is only 370 milliliters. Although, as studies have shown, the volume factor has a minimal effect on mental ability. The level of IQ of the most ordinary person depends on the structure of individual parts of the brain, and their organization. If we compare the brains of chimpanzees and humans, we will find significant differences in the area of the cerebral surface and the number of convolutions. In humans, these indicators are disproportionately higher, which means that he is much smarter and more organized, and besides, he has logic and abstract thinking.
Ecology
Chimpanzees are known to be our closest living relatives, but few knew this until Charles Darwin popularized the idea in 1859 with his famous On the Origin of Species. Many of us still do not know what we really have in common and how we differ. Perhaps by learning more about our closest relatives, we can learn more about ourselves?
1) Number of species
Chimpanzees belong to the family hominid to which we belong. In addition, this family also includes orangutans and gorillas. Currently, there is only one kind of person: homo sapiens(reasonable person). Many scientists argue over which of our distant ancestors also belonged to people, but many of them convince everyone that they themselves belong to some kind of "higher" species. Humans are capable of producing fertile offspring, which means we belong to the same species. Chimpanzees actually have two species - the common chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes) and the pygmy chimpanzee ( pan paniscus) or bonobos. The two species are distinct and do not interbreed. Man and both of these species of chimpanzee are descended from the same common ancestor, possibly, Sahelanthropus, between 5 and 7 million years ago.
2) DNA
You may have heard that chimpanzee and human DNA are 99 percent the same. Genetic comparison is very difficult to make because of the repetitive and mutable nature of genes, so it would be better to say that we have 85 to 95 percent of our genes in common. Even these numbers seem impressive, although much of the DNA is used as the basis for cellular functions in virtually every living organism on the planet. For example, human DNA is half the same as that of a banana, but we can hardly say that we are similar to a banana. 95 percent coincidence is also not so much. Chimpanzees have 48 chromosomes, 2 more than we do. It is believed that this happened due to the fact that in the human ancestor, two pairs of chromosomes joined into one pair. Interestingly, humans have the smallest genetic variation of all animals, which is why inbreeding can cause so many problems. Two completely unrelated humans will not have as much gene variation as two chimpanzees born of the same parents.
3) Brain size
The brain volume of a chimpanzee is on average 370 ml, while that of a human being is 1350 ml. However, brain size alone does not indicate intelligence. Some owners Nobel Prize had a brain volume from 900 ml to 2000 ml. The structure and organization of different parts of the brain better determines the level of intelligence. The human brain has a higher surface area and is more tortuous than the chimpanzee brain. Comparatively larger frontal lobes allow us to reason logically and think more abstractly.
4) Sociality
5) Language and facial expressions
Chimpanzees have a complex system of greetings and communication, which depends on the social status of the individual. They can communicate verbally, that is, use different sounds - screams, grunts, snorts, yells, pants, and so on. Many of these sounds are accompanied by gestures and facial expressions. Facial expressions - surprise, smirk, prayer, consolation - are the same as ours, people. However, people smile showing their teeth, when, as for chimpanzees and other animals, showing teeth is a sign of aggression or danger. For communication, a person most of all uses vocalization, that is, speech. Humans have unique vocal cords that allow us to produce big variety different sounds, but we can't drink and breathe at the same time, like chimpanzees.
A person has a rather muscular tongue and lips, which allows us to perform virtuoso manipulations with sounds. That is why we have a pointed chin, when, like a chimpanzee, it is slightly cut off. Chimpanzees do not have as many facial muscles as humans do.
6) Nutrition
Man and chimpanzee are omnivorous creatures, so we eat both plants and meat. However, humans are more carnivorous than chimpanzees, and our digestive system is designed to digest enough meat. Chimpanzees sometimes kill and eat other animals, often monkeys of other species, but much more often prefer fruits and sometimes eat insects. People are much more dependent on meat, as the vitamin B12 we need can only be obtained from meat products.
Based on studies of the digestive systems and lifestyles of some ancient tribes, scientists believe that people have adapted to eat meat at least once every few days. People prefer to eat at certain times and do not spend the whole day eating - this is another feature of carnivorous creatures. This is due to the nutritional properties of the product, as well as the fact that in order to obtain it, you need to go hunting.
7) Sex
Bonobos are famous for their sexual appetites. Common chimpanzees can become enraged and use force in some situations, when, like bonobos, they prefer to resolve everything peacefully through sexual pleasure. They also greet each other and express affection through sexual stimulation. Common chimpanzees do not have sex for fun, and their mating lasts no more than 10-15 seconds, while they can eat or do something else.
Friendship or emotional attachment does not matter in the choice of mating partners, and a female in estrus usually mates with several partners who patiently wait for their turn.
Humans are known to experience sexual pleasure, as are bonobos, and procreative sex can last quite a long time with a lot of effort. Moreover, people often start long-term relationships with partners. Unlike humans, chimpanzees have no concept of sexual jealousy or rivalry, as they are not prone to long-term relationships with the same sexual partner.
8) Body structure
Both humans and chimpanzees can walk on two legs. Chimpanzees stand up only when they need to look into the distance, but usually move on four legs. Humans begin walking at an early age and have a bowl-shaped pelvis that supports all of the internal organs. Chimpanzees do not need to support internal organs, as they do not normally walk on their hind legs. Childbirth in chimpanzees is much easier than in humans, since our pelvis is perpendicular to the birth canal. The toes on the human foot are all located on one side, which allows you to push off while walking, when, like a chimpanzee, the big toe stands separately, like on the hand, which makes the legs look like hands. The chimpanzee uses all of its limbs to climb trees or move on the ground.
9) Eyes
Humans have white eyeballs that are visible around the pupils, while chimps are dark brown. Looking at a person, you can understand where he is looking, and there are several theories about why this is necessary. This may be an adaptation to more complex social situations when it is important for us to understand the direction of the other person's gaze. It can also help a person hunting in groups when eye direction is a vital ability for communication. Or it's just a mutation with no particular purpose - some chimpanzees can also see white eyeballs.
Both humans and chimpanzees are able to distinguish colors, which allows us to choose ripe fruits and plants for food, and we also have binocular vision - that is, the eyes look in the same direction. This allows you to see the depth of objects, which is very important for hunting. It would be very inconvenient if our eyes were located on both sides of the head, as in many animals that do not need to hunt, such as rabbits.
10) Use of tools
For many years it was believed that only a person knows how to use tools. However, observations of chimpanzees in the 1960s showed that this was not the case - monkeys could use pointed branches to catch termites. Both humans and chimpanzees can change environment in order to obtain items - tools - that help solve pressing problems.
Chimpanzees can make darts, use rocks as a hammer and anvil, and roll leaves to make homemade washcloths. It is believed that when a person began to walk straight, he needed to use tools more, and it was we who began to turn these tools into objects of art. Today we are surrounded by objects that were created by us out of necessity.
In 1739, the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae classified man - Homo sapiens - as one of the primates. In this system, primates are an order in the mammal class. Linnaeus divided this order into two suborders: the semi-monkeys (they include lemurs and tarsiers) and the higher primates. The latter include marmosets, gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans. Primates share many specific features that distinguish them from other mammals.
It is generally accepted that Man, as a species, separated from the animal world within the framework of geological time quite recently - approximately 1.8-2 million years ago at the beginning of the Quaternary period. This is evidenced by the finds of bones in the Olduvai Gorge in western Africa.
Charles Darwin argued that the ancestral species of Man was one of the ancient species of great apes that lived in trees and most of all resembled modern chimpanzees.
F. Engels formulated the thesis that the ancient anthropoid ape turned into a Homo sapiens due to labor – “labor created Man”.
Similarities between humans and monkeys
The relationship between man and animals is especially convincing when comparing their embryonic development. In its early stages, the human embryo is difficult to distinguish from the embryos of other vertebrates. At the age of 1.5 - 3 months, it has gill slits, and the spine ends in a tail. For a very long time, the similarity of human embryos and monkeys remains. Specific (species) human features appear only at the latest stages of development. Rudiments and atavisms serve as important evidence of the kinship of man with animals. There are about 90 rudiments in the human body: coccygeal bone (remainder of a reduced tail); crease in the corner of the eye (remnant of the nictitating membrane); thin hair on the body (the rest of the wool); a process of the caecum - appendix, etc. Atavisms (unusually highly developed rudiments) include an external tail, with which very rarely, but people are born; abundant hair on the face and body; polynipple, strongly developed fangs, etc.
A striking similarity of the chromosomal apparatus was found. The diploid number of chromosomes (2n) in all great apes is 48, in humans - 46. The difference in chromosome numbers is due to the fact that one human chromosome is formed by the fusion of two chromosomes homologous to those of chimpanzees. A comparison of human and chimpanzee proteins showed that in 44 proteins, the amino acid sequences differ by only 1%. Many human and chimpanzee proteins, such as growth hormone, are interchangeable.
Human and chimpanzee DNA contain at least 90% of similar genes.
Differences between humans and monkeys
- true upright posture and related structural features of the body;
- S-shaped spine with distinct cervical and lumbar curves;
- low extended pelvis;
- flattened in the anteroposterior direction of the chest;
- elongated compared to the arms of the legs;
- arched foot with a massive and adducted thumb;
- many features of the muscles and the location of the internal organs;
- the brush is capable of performing a wide variety of high-precision movements;
- the skull is higher and rounded, does not have continuous superciliary arches;
- the brain part of the skull to a large extent predominates over the front (the forehead is high, the jaws are weak);
- small fangs;
- the chin protrusion is distinctly expressed;
- the human brain is approximately 2.5 times larger than the brain of great apes in terms of volume and 3-4 times in mass;
- a person has a highly developed cerebral cortex, in which the most important centers of the psyche and speech are located;
- only a person has articulate speech, in connection with this, the development of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes of the brain is characteristic of him;
- the presence of a special head muscle in the larynx.
Walking on two legs
Walking upright is the most important feature of a person. The rest of the primates, with a few exceptions, live primarily in trees and are quadrupedal or, as is sometimes said, "four-armed."
Some marmosets (baboons) have adapted to a terrestrial existence, but they move on all fours like the vast majority of mammalian species.
Great apes (gorillas) mostly live on the ground, walking in a partially erect position, but often leaning on the back of their hands.
The vertical position of the human body is associated with many secondary adaptive changes: the arms are shorter relative to the legs, the wide flat foot and short toes, the peculiarity of the sacroiliac joint, the S-shaped shock-absorbing curve of the spine when walking, the special shock-absorbing connection of the head with the spinal column.
brain enlargement
The enlarged brain puts Man in a special position in relation to other primates. Compared to the average brain size of a chimpanzee, the modern human brain is three times larger. Homo habilis, the first of the hominids, had twice the size of a chimpanzee. A Human has much more nerve cells and their arrangement has changed. Unfortunately, skull fossils do not provide sufficient comparative material to evaluate many of these structural changes. It is likely that there is an indirect relationship between the increase in the brain and its development and upright posture.
The structure of the teeth
The transformations that have taken place in the structure of the teeth are usually associated with changes in the way of eating. ancient man. These include: a decrease in the volume and length of the fangs; closure of the diastema, i.e. a gap that includes protruding fangs in primates; changes in the shape, inclination and chewing surface of different teeth; the development of a parabolic dental arch, in which the anterior is rounded and the lateral ones widen outward, in contrast to the U-shaped dental arch of monkeys.
In the course of hominin evolution, brain enlargement, changes in cranial joints, and transformation of teeth were accompanied by significant changes in the structure of various elements of the skull and face and their proportions.
Differences at the biomolecular level
The use of molecular biological methods has made it possible to take a new approach to determining both the time of the appearance of hominids and their kinship with other families of primates. Methods used include: immunoassay, ie. comparison of the immune response of different species of primates to the introduction of the same protein (albumin) - the more similar the reaction, the closer the relationship; DNA hybridization, which makes it possible to assess the degree of relationship by the degree of correspondence of paired bases in double strands of DNA taken from different types;
electrophoretic analysis, in which the degree of similarity of proteins of different animal species and, consequently, the proximity of these species is estimated by the mobility of the isolated proteins in an electric field;
protein sequencing, namely the comparison of the amino acid sequences of a protein in different animal species, which makes it possible to determine the number of changes in the coding DNA responsible for the identified differences in the structure of this protein. These methods have shown a very close relationship of species such as gorilla, chimpanzee and man. For example, in one study on protein sequencing, it was found that differences in the structure of chimpanzee and human DNA are only 1%.
The traditional explanation of anthropogenesis
The common ancestors of great apes and humans - herd narrow-nosed monkeys - lived on trees in tropical forests. Their transition to a terrestrial way of life, caused by a cooling of the climate and the displacement of forests by steppes, led to upright walking. The straightened position of the body and the transfer of the center of gravity caused the restructuring of the skeleton and the formation of an arched spinal column in an S-shape, which gave it flexibility and the ability to cushion. An arched springy foot was formed, which was also a method of depreciation during upright walking. The pelvis expanded, which ensured greater stability of the body when walking upright (reducing the center of gravity). The chest has become wider and shorter. The jaw apparatus became lighter from the use of food processed on fire. The forelimbs were freed from the need to support the body, their movements became freer and more varied, their functions became more complicated.
The transition from the use of objects to the manufacture of tools is the boundary between ape and man. The evolution of the hand went through the natural selection of mutations that are useful for work. The first tools were tools for hunting and fishing. Along with vegetable, more high-calorie meat food has become more widely used. Food cooked on fire reduced the load on the chewing and digestive apparatus, and therefore lost its significance and gradually disappeared in the process of selection of the parietal crest, to which the chewing muscles are attached in monkeys. The intestines became shorter.
The herd way of life, with the development of labor activity and the need to exchange signals, led to the development of articulate speech. Slow selection of mutations transformed the undeveloped larynx and mouthparts of monkeys into human speech organs. The origin of the language was the social labor process. Work, and then articulate speech, are the factors that controlled the genetically determined evolution of the human brain and sense organs. Concrete ideas about the surrounding objects and phenomena were generalized into abstract concepts, mental and speech abilities developed. Higher nervous activity was formed, and articulate speech developed.
The transition to upright posture, a herd lifestyle, a high level of development of the brain and psyche, the use of objects as tools for hunting and protection - these are the prerequisites for humanization, on the basis of which they developed and improved labor activity, speech and thought.
Australopithecus afarensis - probably evolved from some late Dryopithecus about 4 million years ago. Fossil remains of the Afar Australopithecus have been found in Omo (Ethiopia) and in Laetoli (Tanzania). This creature looked like a small but upright chimpanzee weighing 30 kg. Their brains were slightly larger than those of chimpanzees. The face was the same as in great apes: with a low forehead, supraorbital ridge, flat nose, cut off chin, but protruding jaws with massive molars. The front teeth were chipped, apparently because they were used as grasping tools.
Australopithecus africanus settled on Earth about 3 million years ago and ceased to exist about a million years ago. He probably descended from Australopithecus afarensis, and some authors have suggested that he was the ancestor of the chimpanzee. Height 1 - 1.3 m. Weight 20-40 kg. Bottom part the face protruded forward, but not as much as in the great apes. Some skulls show traces of an occipital crest to which strong neck muscles were attached. The brain was no larger than that of a gorilla, but the casts show that the structure of the brain was somewhat different from the brain of great apes. According to the comparative ratio of the size of the brain and body, Africanus occupies an intermediate position between modern great apes and ancient people. The structure of the teeth and jaws suggests that this ape-man chewed plant food, but possibly also gnawed the meat of animals killed by predators. Experts dispute its ability to make tools. The oldest Africanus find is a 5.5 million-year-old jaw fragment from Lotegam in Kenya, while the youngest specimen is 700,000 years old. Finds suggest that Africanus also lived in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania.
Australopithecus gobustus (Mighty Australopithecus) had a height of 1.5-1.7 m and a weight of about 50 kg. It was larger and better developed physically than the African Australopithecus. As we have said, some authors believe that both of these "southern monkeys" are respectively male and female of the same species, but most experts do not support this assumption. Compared to the Africanus, he had a larger and flatter skull, containing a larger brain - about 550 cc. cm, and a wider face. Powerful muscles were attached to the high cranial crest, which set in motion massive jaws. The front teeth were the same as those of the Africanus, and the molars were larger. At the same time, the molars in most specimens known to us are usually heavily worn, despite the fact that they were covered with a thick layer of durable enamel. This may indicate that the animals ate solid, tough food, in particular cereal grains.
Apparently, the mighty Australopithecus appeared about 2.5 million years ago. All the remains of representatives of this species were found in South Africa, in caves, where they were probably dragged by predatory animals. This species became extinct about 1.5 million years ago. Boyce's Australopithecus may have originated from him. The structure of the skull of the mighty Australopithecus suggests that he was the ancestor of the gorilla.
Australopithecus boisei had a height of 1.6-1.78 m and a weight of 60-80 kg., Small incisors designed for biting off and huge molars capable of grinding food. The time of its existence is from 2.5 to 1 million years ago.
Their brain was the same size as that of the mighty Australopithecus, that is, about three times smaller than our brain. These creatures walked straight. With their powerful physique, they resembled a gorilla. Like gorillas, males appear to be significantly larger than females. Like the gorilla, Boyce's Australopithecus had a large skull with supraorbital ridges and a central bony ridge that served to attach powerful jaw muscles. But compared to the gorilla, the crest of Australopithecus Boyce was smaller and more advanced, the face was flatter, and the fangs were less developed. Because of the huge molars and premolars, this animal was nicknamed the "nutcracker". But these teeth could not exert much pressure on food and were adapted for chewing not very hard material, such as leaves. Since broken pebbles were found along with the bones of Australopithecus Boyce, which are 1.8 million years old, it can be assumed that these creatures could use the stone for practical purposes. However, it is possible that representatives of this species of monkeys fell victim to their contemporary - a man who succeeded in the use of stone tools.
A little criticism of the classical ideas about the origin of Man
If man's ancestors were hunters and ate meat, then why are his jaws and teeth weak for raw meat, and his intestines relative to the body are almost twice as long as those of carnivores? The jaws were already significantly reduced among the prezinjantrops, although they did not use fire and could not soften food on it. What did human ancestors eat?
In case of danger, birds soar into the air, ungulates run away, monkeys take refuge on trees or rocks. How did the animal ancestors of people, with the slowness of movement and the absence of tools, except miserable sticks and stones, escape from predators?
M.F. Nesturkh and B.F. Porshnev frankly also refer to the unresolved problems of anthropogenesis as the mysterious reasons for the loss of hair by people. After all, even in the tropics it is cold at night and all monkeys keep their hair. Why did our ancestors lose it?
Why did a head of hair remain on the head of a person, while on most of the body they were reduced?
Why does a person's chin and nose protrude forward with nostrils turned down for some reason?
Incredible for evolution is the speed (as is usually believed, in 4-5 millennia) of the transformation of Pithecanthropus into modern man (Homo sapiens). Biologically, this is inexplicable.
A number of anthropologists believe that our distant ancestors were Australopithecus, who lived on the planet 1.5-3 million years ago, but Australopithecus were terrestrial monkeys, and like modern chimpanzees lived in the savannas. They could not be the ancestors of Man, since they lived at the same time with him. There is evidence that Australopithecus living in West Africa 2 million years ago, were the objects of hunting of ancient people.
Education
Great apes and man - similarities and differences. Types and signs of modern great apes
Great apes (anthropomorphids, or hominoids) belong to the superfamily of narrow-nosed primates. These, in particular, include two families: hominids and gibbons. The body structure of narrow-nosed primates is similar to that of humans. This similarity between humans and great apes is the main one, allowing them to be assigned to the same taxon.
Evolution
For the first time great apes appeared at the end of the Oligocene in the Old World. This was about thirty million years ago. Among the ancestors of these primates, the most famous are primitive gibbon-like individuals - propliopithecus, from the tropics of Egypt. It was from them that dryopithecus, gibbons and pliopithecus further arose. In the Miocene, there was a sharp increase in the number and diversity of species of the then existing great apes.
In that era, there was an active resettlement of driopithecus and other hominoids throughout Europe and Asia. Among the Asian individuals were the predecessors of orangutans. In accordance with the data of molecular biology, man and great apes split into two trunks about 8-6 million years ago.
fossil finds
The oldest known humanoids are considered to be Rukwapithecus, Kamoyapithecus, Morotopithecus, Limnopithecus, Ugandapithecus and Ramapithecus.
Some scientists are of the opinion that modern great apes are descendants of parapithecus.
Differences between humans and monkeys.
But this point of view has insufficient justification due to the scarcity of the remains of the latter. As a relic hominoid, this refers to a mythical creature - Bigfoot.
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Description of primates
Great apes have a larger body than monkey-like individuals. Narrow-nosed primates do not have a tail, ischial calluses (only gibbons have small ones), and cheek pouches.
A characteristic feature of hominoids is the way they move. Instead of moving on all limbs along the branches, they move under the branches mainly on their hands. This mode of locomotion is called brachiation. Adaptation to its use provoked some anatomical changes: more flexible and longer arms, a flattened chest in the anterior-posterior direction.
All great apes are able to stand on their hind limbs, while freeing their front ones. All types of hominoids are characterized by a developed facial expression, the ability to think and analyze. 
The difference between humans and apes
Narrow-nosed primates have significantly more hair, which covers almost the entire body, with the exception of small areas. Despite the similarity of humans and great apes in skeletal structure, human hands are not so strongly developed and have a much shorter length.
At the same time, the legs of narrow-nosed primates are less developed, weaker and shorter. Great apes easily move through the trees. Often individuals swing on branches. During walking, as a rule, all limbs are used.
Some individuals prefer the "walking on fists" method of movement. In this case, the body weight is transferred to the fingers, which are gathered into a fist. Differences between humans and great apes are also manifested in the level of intelligence. Despite the fact that narrow-nosed individuals are considered one of the most intelligent primates, their mental inclinations are not as developed as in humans.
However, almost everyone has the ability to learn.
Habitat
Great apes inhabit the tropical forests of Asia and Africa. All existing species of primates are characterized by their habitat and lifestyle. Chimpanzees, for example, including pygmy ones, live on the ground and in trees. These representatives of primates are common in African forests of almost all types and in open savannahs.
However, some species (bonobos, for example) are found only in the humid tropics of the Congo Basin. Subspecies of the gorilla: eastern and western lowland - are more common in humid African forests, and representatives of the mountain species prefer a forest with a temperate climate.
These primates rarely climb trees due to their massiveness and spend almost all the time on the ground. Gorillas live in groups, with the number of members constantly changing. Orangutans, on the other hand, are usually solitary. They inhabit swampy and humid forests, climb trees perfectly, move from branch to branch somewhat slowly, but quite dexterously. Their arms are very long - reaching to the very ankles.
Speech
Since ancient times, people have sought to establish contact with animals.
Many scientists have dealt with the teaching of great apes speech. However, the work did not give the expected results. Primates can only make individual sounds that bear little resemblance to words, and vocabulary in general, very limited, especially in comparison with talking parrots.
The fact is that narrow-nosed primates lack certain sound-producing elements in the organs corresponding to human ones in the oral cavity. This explains the inability of individuals to develop the skills of pronunciation of modulated sounds. The expression of their emotions is carried out by monkeys in different ways. So, for example, a call to pay attention to them - with the sound "uh", passionate desire is manifested by puffing, a threat or fear - by a piercing, sharp cry.
One individual recognizes the mood of another, looks at the expression of emotions, adopting certain manifestations. To transmit any information, facial expressions, gestures, posture act as the main mechanisms. With this in mind, the researchers tried to start talking to the monkeys using sign language, which is used by deaf and dumb people.
Young monkeys quickly learn signs. After a fairly short period, people got the opportunity to talk with animals.
Perception of beauty
The researchers, not without pleasure, noted that the monkeys are very fond of drawing. In this case, the primates will act quite carefully. If you give a monkey paper, a brush and paints, then in the process of depicting something, he will try not to go beyond the edge of the sheet.
In addition, animals quite skillfully divide the paper plane into several parts. Many scientists consider the paintings of primates to be strikingly dynamic, rhythmic, full of harmony both in color and in form.
More than once it was possible to show the work of animals at art exhibitions. Researchers of primate behavior note that monkeys have an aesthetic sense, although it manifests itself in a rudimentary form. For example, watching animals living in the wild, they saw how individuals sat during sunset on the forest edge and watched the sunset in fascination.
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Greater primates or monkeys
Representatives of this order, which also includes the family of upright primates (hominids), the only modern representative of which is Homo sapiens, are characterized by a strong development of the cerebral hemispheres with a cortex complicated by numerous furrows and convolutions. The sense of smell is poorly developed, so the noses have shortened, the main sense organ is three-dimensional color vision.
Many monkeys have no hair on the facial part of the skull and the facial muscles are highly developed, which provides very expressive facial expressions.
Golden marmoset is decorated with bright fur and lush mane
broad-nosed monkeys
Monkeys living in America are called broad-nosed monkeys because of the structure of the nasal septum.
They lead an arboreal lifestyle, have a long prehensile tail, which they use as a “fifth” limb. The smallest and most primitive of the broad-nosed monkeys are marmosets, weighing only 400-500 g. They spend their whole lives on trees, eating fruits and insects. There are about 30 species of marmosets, due to their bright appearance they are often caught for zoos and private collections.
With a cry, the howler asserts its right to a certain territory
The largest broad-nosed monkeys are howler monkeys, weighing 6-8 kg.
Howler monkeys live in the crowns of trees in large herds of 20-40 individuals. They got their name for their ability to make a very loud roar, reminiscent of the roar of predatory animals. A herd of howler monkeys creates a noise that can be heard for many kilometers.
narrow-nosed monkeys
The female orangutan gives birth to 1 cub every 6 years, and feeds him with milk until the age of 4
Narrow-nosed monkeys live in Asia and Africa.
This group includes 2 superfamilies: marmosets and hominoids (humanoids). Hominoids include gibbons standing apart, higher narrow-nosed monkeys (gorillas, orangutans and chimpanzees), as well as hominids, or people, with a single representative - a reasonable person. Monkeys are the smallest of the narrow-nosed monkeys.
In search of food, they often descend from trees to the ground, they can visit plantations. Monkeys do well in captivity.
Gorillas are the largest great apes (the height of adult males reaches 2 m, and their weight is more than 300 kg). Two species of gorillas live in the forest and mountain regions of Equatorial Africa. Gorillas are strict vegetarians, they feed on the stems and roots of plants, in search of which they constantly wander through the forest. They live in family groups consisting of females with newborn cubs and adolescents and an adult male - a leader with gray hair on his back.
Despite their formidable appearance, gorillas have a calm and peaceful disposition.
Chimpanzees are closer in intelligence to humans than gorillas and orangutans.
Two species of these monkeys (common and pygmy chimpanzees) are common in Equatorial Africa. They lead a terrestrial lifestyle, but climb trees well. They eat both plant and animal foods. They live in large groups led by a leader.
Chimpanzees can use the simplest tools: pick out termites with a stick, make a kind of sponge out of leaves to collect water for drinking. Chimpanzees have very developed facial expressions, they can smile and laugh. They communicate with each other with a variety of gestures and sounds.
Darwin's theory
Ch. Darwin in his work "The Origin of Man and Natural Selection" suggested that the ancestor of man are the great apes that inhabited our planet many millions of years ago.
Despite numerous findings supporting Darwin's theory, not all mysteries of our origins have been solved. In 1974, the fossilized remains of a very ancient representative of hominids were discovered in Ethiopia. It was a female named Lucy.
Write in the words that define the difference between a person and a monkey in terms of body structure.Urgent!!!
She lived 3.5 million years ago, her height was only 105 cm, her brain was very small, but she moved on her hind legs.
Before the discovery of Lucy, it was believed that our ancestors switched to upright posture at a higher stage of development in order to free their hands to use tools. Lucy's find proved that the oldest hominids lived in the savannas, led a terrestrial lifestyle and stood up to have a better view.
Comparative human anatomy
and great apes
"The Cambridge Guide to Prehistoric Man"
by David Lambert and the Diagram Group, 1991
Comparison of anatomical features convincingly speaks in favor of the fact that the human body is nothing more than the body of an anthropoid ape, specially adapted for walking on two legs.
Our arms and shoulders are not much different from those of a chimpanzee. However, unlike the great apes, our legs are longer than our arms, and our pelvis, spine, hips, legs, feet, and toes have undergone changes that have allowed us to stand and walk with our bodies upright.
(Large great apes can only stand on two legs with knees bent and walk on their feet while staggering from side to side.)
The adaptation of the feet to the new function meant that we could no longer use our big toes like our thumbs. The thumbs of our hands are comparatively longer than those of the great apes, and can, by bending over the palm, touch their tips to the tips of other fingers, which provides the precision of grasping that we need in the manufacture and use of tools.
Walking on two legs, a more developed intellect and a varied diet - all this contributed to the emergence of differences in the skull, brain, jaws and teeth in humans and monkeys.
Compared to the size of the body, the brain and cranium of a person is much larger than that of a monkey; in addition, the human brain is more highly organized, and its relatively larger frontal, parietal and temporal lobes jointly carry out the functions of thinking, control public behavior and human speech.
The jaws of modern omnivorous humans are much shorter and weaker than those of the great apes, which eat a mostly vegetarian diet.
the difference between humans and monkeys in body structure
Monkeys have shock-absorbing supraorbital ridges and bony cranial ridges to which powerful jaw muscles are attached. Humans lack the thick neck muscles that, in adult monkeys, support the protruding muzzle. The rows of our teeth are arranged in the form of a parabola, differing in this from the dentitions of great apes arranged in the form of a Latin letter U; in addition, the fangs of monkeys are much larger, and the crowns of molars are much higher than ours.
But on the other hand, human molars are covered with a thicker layer of enamel, which makes them more wear-resistant and allows you to chew harder food.
Differences in the structure of the tongue and throat between humans and chimpanzees allow us to make more diverse sounds, although facial features can take on different expressions in both humans and chimpanzees.