Leading Science Magazine Nature announced the discovery of a second genetic code - a kind of "code within a code", which was recently cracked by molecular biologists and computer programmers. Moreover, in order to reveal it, they did not use evolutionary theory, but information technology.
The new code is called the Splicing Code. It is within the DNA. This code controls the underlying genetic code in a very complex yet predictable way. The splicing code controls how and when genes and regulatory elements are assembled. Revealing this code within a code helps shed light on some of the long-standing mysteries of genetics that have surfaced since the Complete Human Genome Sequencing Project. One such mystery was why there are only 20,000 genes in an organism as complex as the human being? (Scientists expected to find a lot more.) Why are genes broken into segments (exons) that are separated by non-coding elements (introns) and then joined together (i.e., spliced) after transcription? And why are genes turned on in some cells and tissues and not in others? For two decades, molecular biologists have tried to elucidate the mechanisms of genetic regulation. This article points to a very important point in understanding what is really going on. It doesn't answer every question, but it does demonstrate that the internal code exists. This code is a communication system that can be deciphered so clearly that scientists could predict how a genome might behave in certain situations and with inexplicable accuracy.
Imagine that you hear an orchestra in the next room. You open the door, look inside and see three or four musicians in the room playing the musical instruments. This is what Brandon Frey, who helped break the code, says the human genome looks like. He says: “We were only able to detect 20,000 genes, but we knew that they form a huge number of protein products and regulatory elements. How? One of the methods is called alternative splicing". Different exons (parts of genes) can be assembled in different ways. “For example, three genes for the neurexin protein can create over 3,000 genetic messages that help control the brain’s wiring system.” Frey says. Right there in the article, it says that scientists know that 95% of our genes have alternative splicing, and in most cases, transcripts (RNA molecules resulting from transcription) are expressed differently in different types of cells and tissues. There must be something that controls how these thousands of combinations are assembled and expressed. This is the task of the Splicing Code.
Readers who want a quick overview of the discovery can read the article at Science Daily entitled "Researchers who cracked the 'Splicing Code' unravel the mystery behind biological complexity". The article says: “Scientists at the University of Toronto have gained a fundamental new understanding of how living cells use a limited number of genes to form incredibly complex organs like the brain.”. Nature magazine itself begins with Heidi Ledford's "Code Within Code." This was followed by a paper by Tejedor and Valcarcel titled “Gene Regulation: Breaking the Second Genetic Code. Finally, a paper by a group of researchers from the University of Toronto led by Benjamin D. Blencoe and Brandon D. Frey, "Deciphering the Splicing Code," was decisive.
This article is an information science victory that reminds us of codebreakers from World War II. Their methods included algebra, geometry, probability theory, vector calculus, information theory, program code optimization, and other advanced techniques. What they didn't need was evolutionary theory which was never mentioned in scientific articles. Reading this article, you can see how much tension the authors of this overture are under:
“We describe a ‘splicing code’ scheme that uses combinations of hundreds of RNA properties to predict tissue-mediated changes in alternative splicing of thousands of exons. The code establishes new classes of splicing patterns, recognizes different regulatory programs in different tissues, and establishes mutation-controlled regulatory sequences. We have uncovered widely used regulatory strategies, including: using unexpectedly large property pools; detection of low levels of exon inclusion, which are attenuated by the properties of specific tissues; the manifestation of properties in introns is deeper than previously thought; and modulation of the levels of the splice variant by the structural characteristics of the transcript. The code helped establish a class of exons whose inclusion mutes expression in adult tissues, activating mRNA degradation, and whose exclusion promotes expression during embryogenesis. The code facilitates disclosure and detailed description genome-wide regulated alternative splicing events.
The team that cracked the code included specialists from the Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering, as well as from the Department of Molecular Genetics. (Frey himself works for Microsoft Research, a division of Microsoft Corporation) Like the decoders of the past, Frey and Barash developed "a new computer-assisted biological analysis that detects 'code words' hidden within the genome". With the help of a huge amount of data created by molecular geneticists, a group of researchers carried out "reverse engineering" of the splicing code until they could predict how he would act. Once the researchers got the hang of it, they tested the code for mutations and saw how exons were inserted or removed. They found that the code could even cause tissue-specific changes or act differently depending on whether it was an adult mouse or an embryo. One gene, Xpo4, is associated with cancer; The researchers noted: “These data support the conclusion that Xpo4 gene expression must be tightly controlled to avoid potential detrimental effects, including oncogenesis (cancer), since it is active during embryogenesis but is reduced in adult tissues. It turns out that they were absolutely surprised by the level of control they saw. Intentionally or not, Frey did not use random variation and selection as a clue, but the language of intelligent design. He noted: "Understanding a complex biological system is like understanding a complex electronic circuit."
Heidi Ledford said that the apparent simplicity of Watson-Crick's genetic code, with its four bases, triplet codons, 20 amino acids, and 64 DNA "characters" - hides a whole world of complexity. Encapsulated within this simpler code, the splicing code is much more complex.
But between DNA and proteins lies RNA, a separate world of complexity. RNA is a transformer that sometimes carries genetic messages, and sometimes controls them, while using many structures that can influence its function. In a paper published in the same issue, a team of researchers led by Benjamin D. Blencow and Brandon D. Frey at the University of Toronto in Ontario, Canada, report attempts to unravel a second genetic code that can predict how messenger RNA segments are transcribed from a particular genes can mix and match to form a variety of products in different tissues. This process is known as alternative splicing. This time there is no simple table - instead, algorithms that combine more than 200 different properties of DNA with definitions of the structure of RNA.
The work of these researchers points to the rapid progress that computational methods have made in modeling RNA. In addition to understanding alternative splicing, computer science is helping scientists predict RNA structures and identify small regulatory fragments of RNA that do not code for proteins. "It's a wonderful time", says Christopher Berg, a computer biologist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge. “In the future, we will have a huge success”.
Computer science, computer biology, algorithms, and codes were not part of Darwin's vocabulary when he developed his theory. Mendel had a very simplified model of how traits are distributed during inheritance. In addition, the idea that features are encoded was only introduced in 1953. We see that the original genetic code is regulated by an even more complex code included in it. These are revolutionary ideas.. Moreover, there are all indications that this level of control is not the last. Ledford reminds us that, for example, RNA and proteins have a three-dimensional structure. The function of molecules can change when their shape changes. There must be something that controls folding so that the three-dimensional structure does what the function requires. In addition, access to genes appears to be controlled another code, histone code. This code is encoded by molecular markers or "tails" on histone proteins that serve as centers for DNA coiling and supercoiling. Describing our time, Ledford speaks of "permanent renaissance in RNC informatics".
Tejedor and Valcarcel agree that complexity lies behind simplicity. “In theory, everything looks very simple: DNA forms RNA, which then creates a protein”, - they begin their article. “But the reality is much more complicated.”. In the 1950s, we learned that all living organisms, from bacteria to humans, have a basic genetic code. But we soon realized that complex organisms (eukaryotes) have some unnatural and difficult to understand property: their genomes have peculiar sections, introns, that must be removed so that exons can join together. Why? The fog is clearing today “The main advantage of this mechanism is that it allows different cells to choose alternative ways of splicing the messenger RNA precursor (pre-mRNA) and thus one gene generates different messages,” they explain, "and then different mRNAs can code for different proteins with different functions". From less code you get more information, provided that inside the code there is this other code that knows how to do it.
What makes cracking the splicing code so difficult is that the factors that control exon assembly are set by many other factors: sequences near exon boundaries, intron sequences, and regulatory factors that either aid or inhibit the splicing mechanism. Besides, "the effects of a certain sequence or factor may vary depending on its location relative to the boundaries of the intron-exon or other regulatory motifs", - Tejedor and Valcarcel explain. “Therefore, the most difficult task in predicting tissue-specific splicing is to compute the algebra of the myriad of motifs and the relationships between the regulatory factors that recognize them.”.
To solve this problem, a team of researchers entered into the computer a huge amount of data about the RNA sequences and the conditions under which they were formed. "The computer was then given the task of identifying the combination of properties that would best explain the experimentally established tissue-specific exon selection.". In other words, the researchers reverse engineered the code. Like World War II codebreakers, once scientists know the algorithm, they can make predictions: "It correctly and accurately identified alternative exons and predicted their differential regulation between pairs of tissue types." And just like any good scientific theory, the discovery gave a new understanding: “This allowed us to re-explain previously established regulatory motivations and pointed to previously unknown properties of known regulators, as well as unexpected functional relationships between them.”, the researchers noted. “For example, the code implies that the inclusion of exons leading to processed proteins is a general mechanism for controlling the process of gene expression during the transition from embryonic tissue to adult tissue.”.
Tejedor and Valcarcel consider the publication of their paper an important first step: "The work... is better seen as the discovery of the first fragment of the much larger Rosetta Stone needed to decipher the alternative messages of our genome." According to these scientists, future research will undoubtedly improve their knowledge of this new code. At the end of their article, they mention evolution in passing, and they do it in a very unusual way. They say, “That doesn't mean that evolution created these codes. This means that progress will require an understanding of how the codes interact. Another surprise was that the degree of conservation observed to date raises the question of the possible existence of "species-specific codes".
The code probably works in every single cell, and therefore must be responsible for more than 200 types of mammalian cells. It also has to cope with a huge variety of alternative splicing schemes, not to mention simple solutions on the inclusion or skipping of a single exon. The limited evolutionary retention of regulation of alternative splicing (estimated to be about 20% between humans and mice) raises the question of the existence of species-specific codes. Moreover, the relationship between DNA processing and gene transcription influences alternative splicing, and recent evidence points to the packaging of DNA by histone proteins and histone covalent modifications (the so-called epigenetic code) in the regulation of splicing. Therefore, future methods will have to establish the exact interaction between the histone code and the splicing code. The same applies to the still little understood influence of complex RNA structures on alternative splicing.
Codes, codes and more codes. The fact that scientists say almost nothing about Darwinism in these papers indicates that evolutionary theorists, adherents of old ideas and traditions, have a lot to think about after they read these papers. But those who are enthusiastic about the biology of codes will be at the forefront. They have a great opportunity to take advantage of the exciting web application that the codebreakers have created to encourage further exploration. It can be found on the University of Toronto website called "Alternative Splicing Prediction Website". Visitors will look in vain for mention of evolution here, despite the old axiom that nothing in biology makes sense without it. The new 2010 version of this expression might sound like this: "Nothing in biology makes sense unless viewed in the light of computer science" .
Links and notes
We're glad we were able to tell you about this story on the day it was published. Perhaps this is one of the most significant scientific articles of the year. (Of course, every big discovery, made by other groups of scientists, as the discovery of Watson and Crick.) The only thing we can say to this is: “Wow!” This discovery is a remarkable confirmation of Designed Creation and a huge challenge to the Darwinian empire. It is interesting how evolutionists will try to correct their simplified history of random mutations and natural selection, which was invented back in the 19th century, in the light of these new data.
Do you understand what Tejedor and Valcarcel are talking about? Views can have their own code specific to those views. “Therefore, future methods will have to establish the exact interaction between the histone [epigenetic] code and the splicing code,” they note. In translation, this means: “Darwinists have nothing to do with it. They just can't handle it." If the simple genetic code of Watson-Crick was a problem for the Darwinists, then what do they say now about the splicing code, which creates thousands of transcripts from the same genes? And how will they deal with the epigenetic code that controls gene expression? And who knows, maybe in this incredible “interaction” that we are just beginning to learn about, other codes are involved, reminiscent of the Rosetta Stone, just beginning to emerge from the sand?
Now that we're thinking about codes and computer science, we're starting to think about different paradigms for new research. What if the genome partially acts as a storage network? What if cryptography takes place in it or compression algorithms occur? We should remember about modern information systems and information storage technologies. Maybe we will even find elements of steganography. Undoubtedly, there are additional resistance mechanisms, such as duplications and corrections, that may help explain the existence of pseudogenes. Whole genome copying may be a response to stress. Some of these phenomena may prove to be useful indicators of historical events that have nothing to do with the universal common ancestor, but help explore comparative genomics within informatics and resistance design, and help understand the cause of disease.
Evolutionists find themselves in a major quandary. The researchers tried to modify the code, but got only cancer and mutations. How are they going to navigate the field of fitness when it's all mined with catastrophes waiting in the wings as soon as someone starts tampering with these inextricably linked codes? We know there is some built-in resilience and portability, but the whole picture is an incredibly complex, designed, optimized information system, not a jumble of pieces that can be played around endlessly. The whole idea of code is the concept of intelligent design.
A. E. Wilder-Smith gave it special meaning. The code assumes an agreement between the two parts. An agreement is an agreement in advance. It implies planning and purpose. The SOS symbol, as Wilder-Smith would say, we use by convention as a distress signal. SOS does not look like a disaster. It doesn't smell like a disaster. It doesn't feel like a disaster. People would not understand that these letters stand for disaster if they did not understand the essence of the agreement itself. Similarly, an alanine codon, HCC, does not look, smell, or feel like alanine. A codon would have nothing to do with alanine unless there was a pre-established agreement between the two coding systems (protein code and DNA code) that "GCC should stand for alanine." To convey this agreement, a family of transducers, aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, are used, which translate one code into another.
This was to strengthen the theory of design in the 1950s, and many creationists preached it effectively. But evolutionists are like eloquent salesmen. They made up their tales about the Tinker Bell fairy, who deciphers the code and creates new species through mutation and selection, and convinced many people that miracles can still happen today. Well, well, today is the 21st century outside the window and we know the epigenetic code and the splicing code - two codes that are much more complex and dynamic than the simple code of DNA. We know about codes within codes, about codes above codes and below codes - we know a whole hierarchy of codes. This time, evolutionists can't just put their finger in a gun and bluff us with their beautiful speeches when guns are placed on both sides - a whole arsenal aimed at their main structural elements. All this is a game. A whole era of computer science has grown around them, they have long gone out of fashion and look like the Greeks, who are trying to climb modern tanks and helicopters with spears.
Sad to admit, evolutionists don't understand this, or even if they do, they're not going to give up. Incidentally, this week, just as the article on the Splicing Code was published, the most vicious and hateful anti-creation and intelligent design rhetoric in recent memory has been pouring from the pages of pro-Darwinian magazines and newspapers. We are yet to hear of many more such examples. And as long as they hold the microphones in their hands and control the institutions, many people will fall for them, thinking that science continues to give them a good reason. We are telling you all this so that you will read this material, study it, understand it, and stock up on the information you need in order to combat this fanatical, misleading nonsense with the truth. Now, go ahead!
Every living organism has a special set of proteins. Certain compounds of nucleotides and their sequence in the DNA molecule form the genetic code. It conveys information about the structure of the protein. In genetics, a certain concept has been adopted. According to her, one gene corresponded to one enzyme (polypeptide). It should be said that research on nucleic acids and proteins has been carried out for a fairly long period. Further in the article, we will take a closer look at the genetic code and its properties. A brief chronology of research will also be given.
Terminology
The genetic code is a way of encoding the amino acid protein sequence using the nucleotide sequence. This method of forming information is characteristic of all living organisms. Proteins - natural organic matter with high molecular weight. These compounds are also present in living organisms. They consist of 20 types of amino acids, which are called canonical. Amino acids are arranged in a chain and connected in a strictly established sequence. It determines the structure of the protein and its biological properties. There are also several chains of amino acids in the protein.
DNA and RNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid is a macromolecule. She is responsible for the transmission, storage and implementation of hereditary information. DNA uses four nitrogenous bases. These include adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine. RNA consists of the same nucleotides, except for the one that contains thymine. Instead, a nucleotide containing uracil (U) is present. RNA and DNA molecules are nucleotide chains. Thanks to this structure, sequences are formed - the "genetic alphabet".
Implementation of information
The synthesis of a protein encoded by a gene is realized by combining mRNA on a DNA template (transcription). There is also a transfer of the genetic code into a sequence of amino acids. That is, the synthesis of the polypeptide chain on mRNA takes place. To encode all amino acids and signal the end of the protein sequence, 3 nucleotides are enough. This chain is called a triplet.
Research History
The study of protein and nucleic acids was carried out long time. In the middle of the 20th century, the first ideas about the nature of the genetic code finally appeared. In 1953, it was found that some proteins are made up of sequences of amino acids. True, at that time they could not yet determine their exact number, and there were numerous disputes about this. In 1953, Watson and Crick published two papers. The first one announced secondary structure DNA, the second spoke about its admissible copying by means of matrix synthesis. In addition, emphasis was placed on the fact that a particular sequence of bases is a code that carries hereditary information. American and Soviet physicist Georgy Gamov admitted the coding hypothesis and found a method to test it. In 1954, his work was published, during which he put forward a proposal to establish correspondences between amino acid side chains and diamond-shaped "holes" and use this as a coding mechanism. Then it was called rhombic. Explaining his work, Gamow admitted that the genetic code could be triplet. The work of a physicist was one of the first among those that were considered close to the truth.
Classification
After several years, various models of genetic codes were proposed, representing two types: overlapping and non-overlapping. The first one was based on the occurrence of one nucleotide in the composition of several codons. The triangular, sequential and major-minor genetic code belongs to it. The second model assumes two types. Non-overlapping include combinational and "code without commas". The first variant is based on the encoding of an amino acid by nucleotide triplets, and its composition is the main one. According to the "no comma code", certain triplets correspond to amino acids, while the rest do not. In this case, it was believed that if any significant triplets were arranged sequentially, others located in a different reading frame would turn out to be unnecessary. Scientists believed that it was possible to select a nucleotide sequence that would meet these requirements, and that there were exactly 20 triplets.
Although Gamow et al questioned this model, it was considered the most correct over the next five years. At the beginning of the second half of the 20th century, new data appeared that made it possible to detect some shortcomings in the "comma-free code". Codons have been found to be able to induce protein synthesis in vitro. Closer to 1965, they comprehended the principle of all 64 triplets. As a result, redundancy of some codons was found. In other words, the sequence of amino acids is encoded by several triplets.
Distinctive features
The properties of the genetic code include:
Variations
For the first time, the deviation of the genetic code from the standard was discovered in 1979 during the study of mitochondrial genes in the human body. Further similar variants were identified, including many alternative mitochondrial codes. These include the deciphering of the stop codon UGA used as the definition of tryptophan in mycoplasmas. GUG and UUG in archaea and bacteria are often used as starting variants. Sometimes genes code for a protein from a start codon that differs from the one normally used by that species. Also, in some proteins, selenocysteine and pyrrolysine, which are non-standard amino acids, are inserted by the ribosome. She reads the stop codon. It depends on the sequences found in the mRNA. Currently, selenocysteine is considered the 21st, pyrrolizan - the 22nd amino acid present in proteins.
General features of the genetic code
However, all exceptions are rare. In living organisms, in general, the genetic code has a number of common features. These include the composition of the codon, which includes three nucleotides (the first two belong to the determining ones), the transfer of codons by tRNA and ribosomes into an amino acid sequence.
They line up in chains and, thus, sequences of genetic letters are obtained.
Genetic code
The proteins of almost all living organisms are built from only 20 types of amino acids. These amino acids are called canonical. Each protein is a chain or several chains of amino acids connected in a strictly defined sequence. This sequence determines the structure of the protein, and therefore all its biological properties.
CUU (Leu/L) Leucine
CUC (Leu/L)Leucine
CUA (Leu/L)Leucine
CUG (Leu/L) Leucine
In some proteins, non-standard amino acids such as selenocysteine and pyrrolysine are inserted by the stop codon-reading ribosome, which depends on the sequences in the mRNA. Selenocysteine is now considered as the 21st, and pyrrolysine as the 22nd amino acid that makes up proteins.
Despite these exceptions, the genetic code of all living organisms has common features: a codon consists of three nucleotides, where the first two are defining, codons are translated by tRNA and ribosomes into a sequence of amino acids.
| Example | codon | Usual value | Reads like: |
|---|---|---|---|
| Some types of yeast of the genus Candida | CUG | Leucine | Serene |
| Mitochondria, in particular Saccharomyces cerevisiae | CU(U, C, A, G) | Leucine | Serene |
| Mitochondria of higher plants | CGG | Arginine | tryptophan |
| Mitochondria (in all studied organisms without exception) | UGA | Stop | tryptophan |
| Mammalian mitochondria, Drosophila, S.cerevisiae and many simple | AUA | Isoleucine | Methionine = Start |
| prokaryotes | GUG | Valine | Start |
| Eukaryotes (rare) | CUG | Leucine | Start |
| Eukaryotes (rare) | GUG | Valine | Start |
| Prokaryotes (rare) | UUG | Leucine | Start |
| Eukaryotes (rare) | ACG | Threonine | Start |
| Mammalian mitochondria | AGC, AGU | Serene | Stop |
| Drosophila mitochondria | AGA | Arginine | Stop |
| Mammalian mitochondria | AG(A,G) | Arginine | Stop |
The history of ideas about the genetic code
Nevertheless, in the early 1960s, new data revealed the failure of the "comma-free code" hypothesis. Then experiments showed that codons, considered by Crick to be meaningless, can provoke protein synthesis in a test tube, and by 1965 the meaning of all 64 triplets was established. It turned out that some codons are simply redundant, that is, a number of amino acids are encoded by two, four or even six triplets.
see also
Notes
- Genetic code supports targeted insertion of two amino acids by one codon. Turanov AA, Lobanov AV, Fomenko DE, Morrison HG, Sogin ML, Klobutcher LA, Hatfield DL, Gladyshev VN. Science. 2009 Jan 9;323(5911):259-61.
- The AUG codon encodes methionine, but also serves as a start codon - as a rule, translation begins from the first AUG codon of mRNA.
- NCBI: "The Genetic Codes", Compiled by Andrzej (Anjay) Elzanowski and Jim Ostell
- jukes th, osawa s, The genetic code in mitochondria and chloroplasts., Experientia. 1990 Dec 1;46(11-12):1117-26.
- Osawa S, Jukes TH, Watanabe K, Muto A (March 1992). "Recent evidence for evolution of the genetic code". microbiol. Rev. 56 (1): 229–64. PMID 1579111.
- SANGER F. (1952). "The arrangement of amino acids in proteins.". Adv Protein Chem. 7 : 1-67. PMID 14933251 .
- M. Ichas biological code. - World, 1971.
- WATSON JD, CRICK FH. (April 1953). «Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid.". Nature 171 : 737-738. PMID 13054692 .
- WATSON JD, CRICK FH. (May 1953). "Genetical implications of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid.". Nature 171 : 964-967. PMID 13063483 .
- Crick F.H. (April 1966). "The genetic code - yesterday, today, and tomorrow." Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol.: 1-9. PMID 5237190.
- G. GAMOW (February 1954). "Possible Relationship between Deoxyribonucleic Acid and Protein Structures.". Nature 173 : 318. DOI: 10.1038/173318a0 . PMID 13882203 .
- GAMOW G, RICH A, YCAS M. (1956). "The problem of information transfer from the nucleic acids to proteins.". Adv Biol Med Phys. 4 : 23-68. PMID 13354508 .
- Gamow G, Ycas M. (1955). STATISTICAL CORRELATION OF PROTEIN AND RIBONUCLEIC ACID COMPOSITION. ". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 41 : 1011-1019. PMID 16589789 .
- Crick FH, Griffith JS, Orgel LE. (1957). CODES WITHOUT COMMAS. ". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 43 : 416-421. PMID 16590032.
- Hayes B. (1998). "The Invention of the Genetic Code." (PDF reprint). American scientist 86 : 8-14.
Literature
- Azimov A. Genetic code. From the theory of evolution to the decoding of DNA. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2006. - 208 s - ISBN 5-9524-2230-6.
- Ratner V. A. Genetic code as a system - Soros Educational Journal, 2000, 6, No. 3, pp. 17-22.
- Crick FH, Barnett L, Brenner S, Watts-Tobin RJ. General nature of the genetic code for proteins - Nature, 1961 (192), pp. 1227-32
Links
- Genetic code- article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .
Ecology of life. Psychology: At all times, people were interested in their future, so they often turned to fortune-tellers and soothsayers. Influential people in power were especially worried about what fate had in store for them, so they could keep personal prophets with them. In more ancient times, for example, among the Greeks, even the gods themselves depended on fate and obeyed the goddesses of fate.
At all times, people were interested in their future, so they often turned to fortune-tellers and soothsayers. Influential people in power were especially worried about what fate had in store for them, so they could keep personal prophets with them. In more ancient times, for example, among the Greeks, even the gods themselves depended on fate and obeyed the goddesses of fate. In modern times, science and scientists are already involved in fate, there are many interesting discoveries that help us understand our essence and future.
Science has found out that indeed, there is a certain scenario of fate based on the human genetic code, on which depends what temperament he will have, and what abilities he will have.
The genetic code is formed by our parents and contains the qualities and capabilities. But their presence does not always mean their implementation - they can develop under favorable conditions or not develop at all.
Abilities are realized in the maximum number in psychologically healthy people who are constantly trying to develop spiritually and physically. They are always learning and reaching new stages of development. People suffering from various neurotic disorders find many excuses and reasons why they fail to achieve success, they blame fate and life for this.
If temperament is a physiological characteristic and depends on the gene set, then the character is formed in the process of education, with the help and direct participation of parents. While the child is still dependent, mom and dad and how they behave play a big role in his life. Education plays a very important role, it is like a sculptor - he creates a finished work from the base.
Two children raised in the same family will differ in character and behavior, because they have a different genetic code and temperament, so as a result, brothers and sisters may not be at all alike. Character is a system of persistent, almost constant individual personality traits that reflect her attitude and behavior towards herself, people and work. The character has several basic qualities - integrity, activity, hardness, stability and plasticity.
Quantitative parameters
Integrity- this is the absence of contradictions in relation to people, oneself, the world around and work. Integrity is expressed in balance, in the totality of all the traits and interests of the individual, in the compatibility of attitudes to different aspects of life. I believe that most characters are integral, in the sense that a person's outward behavior reflects him. internal system relations.
This means that if a person behaves duplicitously, then inside he also has sharp contradictions in his content. So women often unsuccessfully choose their partners, being psychologically unprepared and not knowing what the compliments and declarations of love of their chosen ones mean.
You need to listen carefully and weigh every word. If a man tells a girl that there is no one more beautiful than her, that she is kinder and better than anyone, then you have a womanizer in front of you. He has someone to compare with, and so he can soon be carried away by another, and each next one will also be the most beautiful.
If a young man assures that he does not see the meaning of life without his beloved, that without her he will be lost and completely disappear, then most likely he is an alcoholic or someone who will definitely become one in the future. It is extremely important to know these behavioral points, the wider your horizons, the less likely you are to have unhappy personal stories in your life.
Activity expressed in the ability to counteract adverse circumstances and the amount of energy that goes into the fight against obstacles. Depending on the activity, the characters are strong and weak. The strength of character directly depends on the sociogen - the personality complex. A person with a weak character can also fulfill the requirements dictated by the sociogen, because the implementation of activity is determined by character. And if the direction of activity is combined with fate, then a person will have enough energy.
Hardness manifests itself in the perseverance and perseverance of a person in the process of achieving a goal and defending his opinion. At times, being too strong of character can become stubbornness. Stability determines the invariability of our character, despite the variability of the world, events and our position in society. Character is a fairly stable characteristic, so it is extremely difficult to change it. Individuals with an unstable character are likely to have a lot of psychological problems, and one of the main ones is instability.
Plastic- the ability to adapt to the changing world, the ability to change and adapt to a completely unusual reality, in stressful situations. If even with fundamental changes the character is unchanged, this indicates its rigidity.
Quantitative parameters
The famous psychotherapist Bern, taking into account the huge variety of character traits, identified three main parameters by which character can be determined: relationships with oneself are “I”, relationships with loved ones are “You”, relationships with all people in general are “They” .
Berne suggested that these qualities, instilled in a person by parents in childhood, can have both positive and negative connotations, and determine his behavior and behavior in the future. life path called "scenario". Often people do not understand why such events happen to them, and do not connect them with their childhood. I added a fourth parameter to the Bern system - "Labor".
If a person's childhood went well and he received a good upbringing, then all parameters will be positive, with a plus sign. But if parents made mistakes in upbringing, then, accordingly, some or all parameters acquire a minus sign, and a complex can form - a sociogen, which will greatly influence the behavior and fate of a person.
The individual is harmonious and healthy personality with the parameter "I" with "+". This means that he has the right upbringing, he adequately evaluates himself and realizes he is successful. Do not confuse attitude with self-esteem. The position is practically not realized by a person and is formed under the influence of parents in childhood, its direction is quite difficult to change.
Self-esteem may depend on the situation. If a person has too high requirements for himself and for events, then self-esteem is low. No success and good luck will satisfy a person, he will always want even better, always see shortcomings and minuses.
At positions "You" with "+" relationships with close and surrounding people are prosperous, friendly, and bring joy. A person is always ready to help his loved ones, to support, he considers them successful people. If “-” prevails in the “You” parameter, this means that the person’s mood is initially hostile and conflicting with respect to close people. Often such personalities are distinguished by sharp humor, criticism of everything and everyone, captiousness and discontent. To build relationships with such people, you have to constantly give in to them.
When communicating, they often choose the role of the Persecutor, but there are also Redeemers. In this role, aggression is not visible at first glance. For example, these are leaders who take on all the important issues and challenging tasks, thereby inhibiting the growth of their colleagues.
When parameter "They" is set to "+"- a person likes to communicate with people, meet and make new friends. In people, he sees a lot of positive, interesting and worthy. If the parameter “They” is with “-”, then the person first notices flaws in people, and only then their virtues. At the same time, he himself is extremely shy, difficult to communicate and reluctant to make contact and make new acquaintances.
When "Labor" for an individual in "+", then he enjoys the process of work, prefers to solve complex problems for self-development and professional growth, he enjoys finding creative solutions to issues. The material component is not so important for him, but he achieves high performance and success.
If "Labor" has a "-" sign, then the person has a clear focus on material gain. Money, not development, is his primary concern in any job. Therefore, he is constantly chasing large sums and a better life, in the pursuit of forgetting to live here and now.
If "-" is present in one of the parameters, then the positive value of the others is doubly enhanced, for example, if "You" is with "-", then the positive value of "I" may be too exaggerated.
Now it is clear to us that a person can be harmonious, healthy and prosperous only with all positive values. Only such a person will correctly and adequately perceive himself, his victories and defeats, his loved ones and their shortcomings and pluses. He will successfully communicate with people, expand his circle of acquaintances, succeed in work and his favorite business, experience life's upheavals with wisdom and calmness.
This will be of interest to you:
There are such people and there are many of them. And in order to increase the number of such personalities, young parents should raise their children more carefully, without interfering with their development and learning about the world. Support, but do not interfere, do not dictate your own rules and do not break the psyche of children.
After all, no one bothers the tree to grow and it grows strong and healthy, and so do children - you just need to help a little, but do not try to impose your life plan. The child himself knows what he wants and what he is interested in, and it is best not to interfere in his choice, because this is his destiny. published
Ministry of Education and Science Russian Federation federal agency of Education
State educational institution higher vocational education"Altai State Technical University them. I.I. Polzunov"
Department of Natural Science and system analysis"
Essay on the topic "Genetic code"
1. The concept of the genetic code
3. Genetic information
Bibliography
1. The concept of the genetic code
The genetic code is a single system for recording hereditary information in nucleic acid molecules in the form of a sequence of nucleotides, characteristic of living organisms. Each nucleotide is denoted by a capital letter, which begins the name of the nitrogenous base that is part of it: - A (A) adenine; - G (G) guanine; - C (C) cytosine; - T (T) thymine (in DNA) or U (U) uracil (in mRNA).
The implementation of the genetic code in the cell occurs in two stages: transcription and translation.
The first of these takes place in the nucleus; it consists in the synthesis of mRNA molecules on the corresponding sections of DNA. In this case, the DNA nucleotide sequence is "rewritten" into the RNA nucleotide sequence. The second stage takes place in the cytoplasm, on ribosomes; in this case, the nucleotide sequence of the i-RNA is translated into the sequence of amino acids in the protein: this stage proceeds with the participation of transfer RNA (t-RNA) and the corresponding enzymes.
2. Properties of the genetic code
1. Tripletity
Each amino acid is encoded by a sequence of 3 nucleotides.
A triplet or codon is a sequence of three nucleotides that codes for one amino acid.
The code cannot be monopleth, since 4 (the number of different nucleotides in DNA) is less than 20. The code cannot be doublet, because 16 (the number of combinations and permutations of 4 nucleotides by 2) is less than 20. The code can be triplet, because 64 (the number of combinations and permutations from 4 to 3) is greater than 20.
2. Degeneracy.
All amino acids except methionine and tryptophan are encoded by more than one triplet: 2 amino acids 1 triplet = 2 9 amino acids 2 triplets each = 18 1 amino acid 3 triplets = 3 5 amino acids 4 triplets each = 20 3 amino acids 6 triplets each = 18 Total 61 triplet codes for 20 amino acids.
3. The presence of intergenic punctuation marks.
A gene is a section of DNA that codes for one polypeptide chain or one molecule of tRNA, rRNA, or sRNA.
The tRNA, rRNA, and sRNA genes do not code for proteins.
At the end of each gene encoding a polypeptide, there is at least one of 3 termination codons, or stop signals: UAA, UAG, UGA. They terminate the broadcast.
Conventionally, the AUG codon also belongs to punctuation marks - the first after the leader sequence. It performs the function of a capital letter. In this position, it codes for formylmethionine (in prokaryotes).
4. Uniqueness.
Each triplet encodes only one amino acid or is a translation terminator.
The exception is the AUG codon. In prokaryotes in the first position ( capital letter) it codes for formylmethionine, and in any other it codes for methionine.
5. Compactness, or the absence of intragenic punctuation marks.
Within a gene, each nucleotide is part of a significant codon.
In 1961 Seymour Benzer and Francis Crick experimentally proved that the code is triplet and compact.
The essence of the experiment: "+" mutation - the insertion of one nucleotide. "-" mutation - loss of one nucleotide. A single "+" or "-" mutation at the beginning of a gene corrupts the entire gene. A double "+" or "-" mutation also spoils the entire gene. A triple "+" or "-" mutation at the beginning of the gene spoils only part of it. A quadruple "+" or "-" mutation again spoils the entire gene.
The experiment proves that the code is triplet and there are no punctuation marks inside the gene. The experiment was carried out on two adjacent phage genes and showed, in addition, the presence of punctuation marks between the genes.
3. Genetic information
Genetic information is a program of the properties of an organism, received from ancestors and embedded in hereditary structures in the form of a genetic code.
It is assumed that the formation of genetic information proceeded according to the scheme: geochemical processes - mineral formation - evolutionary catalysis (autocatalysis).
It is possible that the first primitive genes were microcrystalline crystals of clay, and each new layer of clay lines up in accordance with the structural features of the previous one, as if receiving information about the structure from it.
Realization of genetic information occurs in the process of synthesis of protein molecules with the help of three RNAs: informational (mRNA), transport (tRNA) and ribosomal (rRNA). The process of information transfer goes: - through the channel of direct communication: DNA - RNA - protein; and - by channel feedback: medium - protein - DNA.
Living organisms are able to receive, store and transmit information. Moreover, living organisms tend to use the information received about themselves and the world around them as efficiently as possible. Hereditary information embedded in genes and necessary for a living organism for existence, development and reproduction is transmitted from each individual to his descendants. This information determines the direction of development of the organism, and in the process of its interaction with the environment, the reaction to its individual can be distorted, thereby ensuring the evolution of the development of descendants. In the process of evolution of a living organism, new information arises and is remembered, including the value of information for it increases.
In the course of the implementation of hereditary information in certain environmental conditions, the phenotype of organisms of a given species.
Genetic information determines the morphological structure, growth, development, metabolism, mental warehouse, predisposition to diseases and genetic defects of the body.
Many scientists, rightly emphasizing the role of information in the formation and evolution of living things, noted this circumstance as one of the main criteria of life. So, V.I. Karagodin believes: "The living is such a form of existence of information and the structures encoded by it, which ensures the reproduction of this information in suitable environmental conditions." The connection of information with life is also noted by A.A. Lyapunov: "Life is a highly ordered state of matter that uses information encoded by the states of individual molecules to develop persistent reactions." Our well-known astrophysicist N.S. Kardashev also emphasizes the information component of life: “Life arises due to the possibility of synthesizing a special kind of molecules that are able to remember and use at first the simplest information about environment and their own structure, which they use for self-preservation, for reproduction, and, which is especially important for us, for obtaining even more information. ”The ecologist S.S. Chetverikov on population genetics, in which it was shown that not individual traits and individuals are subjected to selection, but the genotype of the entire population, but it is carried out through the phenotypic traits of individual individuals. This leads to the spread of beneficial changes in the entire population. Thus, the mechanism of evolution is realized as through random mutations at the genetic level, and through the inheritance of the most valuable traits (the value of information!), which determine the adaptation of mutational traits to the environment, providing the most viable offspring.
Seasonal climate changes, various natural or man-made disasters, on the one hand, lead to a change in the frequency of gene repetition in populations and, as a result, to a decrease hereditary variability. This process is sometimes called genetic drift. And on the other hand, to changes in the concentration of various mutations and a decrease in the diversity of genotypes contained in the population, which can lead to changes in the direction and intensity of selection.
4. Deciphering the human genetic code
In May 2006, scientists working to decipher the human genome published a complete genetic map of chromosome 1, which was the last incompletely sequenced human chromosome.
A preliminary human genetic map was published in 2003, marking the formal end of the Human Genome Project. Within its framework, genome fragments containing 99% of human genes were sequenced. The accuracy of gene identification was 99.99%. However, at the end of the project, only four of the 24 chromosomes had been fully sequenced. The fact is that in addition to genes, chromosomes contain fragments that do not encode any traits and are not involved in protein synthesis. The role that these fragments play in the life of the organism is still unknown, but more and more researchers are inclined to believe that their study requires the closest attention.