Military collegium (body of military control). Political reforms of Peter I of the State Military Collegium

PRESIDENT OF THE MILITARY BOARD

In May 1774, Potemkin received the rank of general-in-chief and was appointed vice-president of the Military Collegium, commander of all light cavalry and all irregular troops, and then in 1784, president of this collegium. Having passed the brilliant school of the outstanding Russian commander P.A. Rumyantsev, Potemkin made full use of the experience gained to strengthen the Russian army, increase its combat power, and provide military means of security for the southern borders of Russia. All aspects of army life were subjected to significant improvement by the head of the Russian military department, from the organization of troops to uniforms. At the same time, Potemkin followed the same principle as when organizing a civil system in the provinces subordinate to him - to personally consider all problems and questions, to develop reform projects.

In the autumn of 1774, on the instructions of Catherine II, he conducted an inspection check of the troops located in the capital and its environs, examining the regiments: Kazan cuirassier, Vologda and Kexholm infantry. The result of this check was Potemkin's report, in which he made several rather critical remarks. So, for example, speaking about the Kazan cuirassier regiment, Potemkin speaks approvingly about the state of people, horses and ammunition. “But what belongs to those military appeals,” he continues, “with which this regiment acted at the review, they have so far departed from direct cavalry perfection that swiftness and harmony, which is not separated anywhere from it, are like the only heavy cavalry force, without which neither she cannot act at the slightest turn before the enemy, she is not at all in the mentioned regiment, and thus such a regiment cannot fight with an equal number of irregular troops. Here Potemkin not only characterizes the state of the regiments, but also expresses programmatic provisions about changes in the troops, remembering that heavy cavalry is inferior against light Turkish cavalry. The vice-president realized his views later, when, at his insistence, the number of irregular troops was increased. In this report, Potemkin also expresses his attitude to the soldier's life, he will try to change it throughout his life. Having received an approving resolution to his report, Potemkin sent an order on October 27, 1774 to the Kazan cuirassier regiment to correct the situation: commanders, so that they teach everything written above, avoiding as much as possible inhuman and customary beatings that create a disgusting service; but by an affectionate and patient interpretation of everything, having learned the firmness of what they are obliged to teach their subordinates, they will avoid the opportunity to make unintentional mistakes themselves and thereby acquire their full power of attorney, love and respect, and turn the service into a respectable and pleasant exercise for them, performing it as a direct benefit of the service and the philanthropic intention of Her Imperial Majesty.”

Potemkin strove to follow these principles in organizing military training and commanding the army as president of the Military Collegium, constantly taking care of the thousands of servicemen subordinate to him. In January 1775, Potemkin presented a report to Catherine II, the purpose of which was to clear the regiments "of all uncommon redundancies and put each branch of the army on such a foot of perfection that all decency in it was in accordance with its swift movement." He proposed to train dragoons both on horseback and on foot, so that they could operate without needing reinforcements from either infantry or heavy cavalry.

In the same report, Potemkin pointed out the need to increase the number of hussar regiments needed for intelligence services and rapid movements. Based on Potemkin's considerations, five dragoon regiments (of ten squadrons each) and seven Russian hussar regiments (of six squadrons each) were formed; in 1777, special cavalry chasseur battalions were organized with all cuirassier regiments, and in 1785 the number of grenadiers was ordered to be increased to forty battalions and six jaeger corps (four battalions each) and musketeer four-battalion regiments were formed. Jaegers were selected infantry, accustomed to loose formation, marksmanship and individual combat. They had no analogues in foreign armies, their faint resemblance can be found only in the Prussian troops of Frederick II. Jaegers in battle were built in a square and covered the flanks, and, if necessary, turned around to fire. As a result of the shift in emphasis made by Potemkin in favor of light cavalry, only 5 cuirassier regiments remained in the Russian army, but the number of dragoons was brought to 10, hussars to 16.

Wanting to create a large group of its supporters among the Cossacks and taking into account the experience of the Pugachev uprising, Catherine's government went to the fact that many previously selected "on the circle" "initial people" began to receive patents for officer ranks. This idea belonged to Potemkin, who highly appreciated the combat effectiveness of the Cossack troops and even called on the soldiers and officers of the regular cavalry to learn to "sit in the saddle with the freedom that the Cossacks have." Your pleasure Cossack troops Potemkin stated in the warrant to Colonel M. Platov. “How pleased I was to see the quick fruits of this newly established army,” he wrote in 1788, “and this was multiplied by the appearance of vigorous warriors that they have ... they have already acquired a posture decent for knights.” Potemkin's admiration was shared by Russia's ally in the second Russo-Turkish war, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II. In May 1787, traveling with the Empress through the southern regions of Russia, he shared with his famous commander Lassi his observations about Don Cossacks: “The dexterity of these people and the kind of formation that they know how to observe in the very mess really interested me ... If you launch such an army in the rear of a frustrated cavalry, it has disappeared forever.”

An important task for Potemkin as president of the Military Collegium was to change the staffing of the army, especially in the face of increased foreign policy activity in Russia. Russian regular army since the time of Peter I, it was built on recruitment sets of the taxable population, Potemkin for the first time extended recruitment sets to Ukraine and Belarus and at the same time introduced new principles of the regular system and drawing of lots. IN specified areas a 15-year term of service was established, the conscription was limited to 2 months, the population was divided into parts and queues of 500 people. Each part had a certain queue, within which recruits were called by lot without being replaced by mercenaries. Potemkin made an attempt to extend these principles to Great Russia, but met with fierce resistance from the landowners, which prevented him from completing the recruitment reform. Pointing out the consequences of this incompleteness, Potemkin wrote to Catherine II at the end of 1788: “The recruits who are given are weak and with diseases, many of them are chronic, so that they die in large numbers, not even reaching the place. How many of them disappear because of their unaccustomed to the climate and because of their steep training for soldier life and service, this is terrible ... The term for recruitment in the state was put just at the wrong time, that recruits do not have time to be soldiers for the future campaign ... "Already during the second Russian-Turkish war 1787–1791 Potemkin came to the conclusion that it was necessary to replace the then indefinite service with an urgent one. To stop the frequent escapes of soldiers to Poland, Potemkin "ordered the infantry and cuirassiers to release a portion, which stopped, saying that the sovereign's will to do military service after the war." He reported this in a letter to Count A.A. Bezborodko and added: “This had the most effect. The Poles are beckoning. She needs to set a deadline, at least starting with the state (peasants. - N.B.)”. This proposal, progressive for its time, to save soldiers from exhausting service to the point of death or disability could not only lead to private benefits, but the army would also become younger and more combat-ready. In the future, military service was introduced in Russia.

The need for improvements in the principles of recruitment was also recognized by one of the closest advisers to Catherine II, A.A. Bezborodko, turning to Potemkin: "It would be highly desirable that for the benefit of the state and its most faithful defense, your plan for military service be put into action and that, although at the end of the war, this would be done." In the course of the reforms of the Russian cavalry carried out by Potemkin in 1783-1786, the settled regiments were transformed into field regiments, which undoubtedly strengthened the armed forces on the eve of the war.

An integral part of the reforms carried out by Potemkin in the army was a change in the uniforms associated with the improvement of soldier's life. No wonder the soldiers composed songs about him, and after his death one of them confessed to General G.G. Engelhardt: “The late His Grace was our father, facilitated our service, contenting us with all needs; in a word, we were his spoiled children ... "

Describing the state of the Russian army in 1764, General A.I. Khrushchev spoke of the harsh and cruel treatment of soldiers, beatings, the burdensome methods used on the march to "keep your knees from breaking", and many other shortcomings. Rumyantsev was the first to draw attention to this. Potemkin, having assimilated his views and seen all the hardships of a soldier's life, managed to carry out a series of consistent reforms.

The experience of the war showed that the army must first of all be required not for ostentatious cleanliness, but for the ability to move quickly and change combat forms. Only at the zenith of favor, having taken the post of vice president, on November 16, 1774, Potemkin sent a note to the Military Collegium about Catherine's oral command, which marked the beginning of a change in the uniform of the army. It said: “1st, that the boots laid down by the state in the entire infantry of the Flemish linen are now forever destroyed ... 2nd. Instead of two pairs of shoes, which are equal in price to boots, as prescribed by the same states for each person, one more pair of boots is to be issued for each person. I announce this for the execution of this State Military Collegium.

In an order to Lieutenant General Tekeli dated June 18, 1775, Potemkin ordered in all light troops corps in the regiments of hussar non-commissioned officers and privates “from now on, do not curl or powder your hair in boucles, do not have braids wrapped in ribbons ... pikemen cut their hair in a circle and no bucol, no braids to wear. In June 1776, even in the midst of Catherine's explanations with Potemkin, she did not allow him to get offended and forget about the duties of a statesman, including those in the military department. Having received a letter from Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich from Riga about the state of the regiments suffering there “in need of shoes and clothes”, the Empress orders the favorite to “visit”, what is the reason for such a plight of the soldiers, and make appropriate orders.

In the keynote report “On Clothing and Armament of the Forces” (1783), Potemkin’s views on uniform reform were fully developed: “When regularity was introduced into Russia, foreign officers entered with the pedantry of that time. And ours, not knowing the direct price of the things of a military shell, considered everything sacred and, as it were, mysterious. It seemed to them that regularity consisted in braids, hats, flaps, cuffs, gun tricks, and so on. Occupying themselves with such rubbish, and to this day they still do not know well the most important things, such as: marching, various formations and revolutions ... They almost don’t know how to shoot ... In a word, our troops’ clothes and ammunition are such that it’s almost impossible to think of a better way to oppress a soldier , all the more so because, being taken from the peasants, at almost 30 years of age he recognizes boots, a lot of garters, a tight underdress and an abyss of things that shorten the age.

Having expressed critical remarks, Potemkin proposed a whole plan for changing the appearance of a soldier. “The beauty of military clothing,” he believed, “is in the equality and in accordance with things with their use: the dress is to be a soldier’s clothing, and not a burden. All panache must be destroyed, for it is the fruit of luxury ... ". For each item of uniform, Potemkin proposed his own changes aimed at freeing the soldier from burdensome, from his point of view, excesses in clothing:

A hat is an unnecessary headdress, because it does not cover the head, and the ends of the cocked hat sticking out in all directions “threat the soldier forever with danger”, “prevents putting his head down ... prevents her from turning, and also does not close her ears from frost.” The prince believed that a helmet is much more acceptable than a hat, and "there is a characteristic military outfit."

A caftan and a camisole with sleeves - "the cut of the caftan gives a lot of reasons to make it diverse, therefore, there can be no equation."

Leggings trousers in the cavalry should be replaced with cloth ones, which will lead to a reduction in the costs of military personnel, who often bought additional cloth ones at their own expense. In addition, in autumn and rainy weather, according to Potemkin, elk pants cause a lot of inconvenience; they are cold in winter and hot in summer.

Narrow boots should be changed to spacious ones, and stockings to onuchi or footcloths. Their soldiers will be able to throw them off at any moment, wipe their feet with a footcloth and wrap them with a dry end, “put on shoes in speed and thus protect them from dampness and chills.”

Potemkin considered the best of the saddles to be Hungarian, which was distinguished by its lightness and convenience for both the rider and the horse. In addition, they were cheaper than the old ones.

"Hair cleaning" brightest gave Special attention. “Curling, powdering, weaving braids, is this a soldier’s business? - the prince was indignant. - They have no valets ... Everyone must agree that it is more useful to wash and scratch your head than to weigh it down with powder, lard, flour, hairpins, braids. The soldier's toilet should be such that he got up, then he is ready.

Potemkin introduced a simple, comfortable uniform in the cavalry and infantry, which remained in the main elements for a long time. Braids, curls, powder, hairpins - "all panache" that burdened the soldier was destroyed.

Having studied Potemkin's report "On Clothing and Armament of the Forces", Catherine II on April 4, 1783 signed a rescript on putting the prince's ideas into action, highly appreciating his proposals. The Empress wrote: “The idea of ​​changing the image of clothing and weapons of our troops, made by you at our will, we accept with great pleasure, since we find that by this means, having overcome all the former prejudices, the excesses that have hitherto burdened the warrior are exterminated ... instead of benefit and relief are delivered to him with no small benefit to our treasury.”

His Serene Highness was an opponent of useless drill, he argued that soldiers should be taught not only the parade formation, but most importantly, to act correctly in various battle formations, not only to keep weapons clean, but also to be able to shoot from them. Demanding simplicity and freedom of action from the military service, Potemkin wrote on March 24, 1787 to Prince Dolgorukov: so that the march is not feigned, but the most natural; to teach people to close up and to know the division of parts, like platoons, divisions and other things; so that the rows were somewhat denser, they entered as quickly as possible; with a gun so that they do it smoothly and evenly; to stand under it more vigorously, but not ossified, as it used to be in fashion.

Even very influential people, such as Count A.A. Bezborodko, who participated in solving many political issues along with Potemkin, critically assessed the activities of the prince in the military department. Perhaps this was due to their low awareness of the private orders of the Serene Highness, or perhaps constant competition was the reason. Undoubtedly, at different stages, Potemkin had to concentrate all his attention and strength on solving quite specific, important tasks for the country. So, on the eve of the decisive events in the annexation of the Crimea on March 15, 1784, Bezborodko wrote to Sergei Romanovich Vorontsov in England about the prince: “According to the Military Collegium, he does not deal with except the secret and most important matters, giving a speedy flow to others.” The same nobleman, a month earlier, called his Serene Highness his benefactor and said that "Prince Potemkin treated me in an excellently commendable manner."

The views of the head of the Military Collegium on soldier's uniforms were far ahead of his time. Equally revolutionary was Potemkin's mitigation of the punishments of the soldiers: the prince rebelled against the beatings of the recruits and demanded that they limit themselves to "six sticks" as a last resort. During training, the recruit Potemkin adhered to the method of strict sequence, bringing them "in an insensitive way to the first knowledge of the soldier's rank." Potemkin repeatedly wrote to the chiefs of units, ordering them to treat the soldiers more humanely and not to exceed a certain measure in punishment: just as I do, for I love them like children."

Under pain of severe punishment, Potemkin forbade the use of soldiers for the private work of commanders. “I let you know,” he wrote to General Nashchokin, “that 60 hussars were found in Major General Neranchich’s wagon train, and all, on my order, were taken away. I ordered to collect this with such severity that if I find people in your convoy of military or non-combatants belonging to the army, then I will exact ten recruits for each, and maybe it will be even worse. For Potemkin, it was obvious that "it is better to have a mediocre number of real soldiers than a great number of such warriors who, according to old examples, would only correct commander's work."

The prince personally monitored the correct and timely supply of soldiers with food and clothing, demanded compliance with the sanitary rules “Notes on the Causes of Diseases”, published by him and put into effect in 1788, and for the second time after Peter I established the positions of inspectors in the army. They were supposed to control the execution of all orders for cavalry and infantry. Delving into all the little things of a soldier's life, Potemkin was engaged in setting up infirmaries - when building new cities, it was mandatory to set up hospitals and quarantines, even controlling the diet of the wounded. Questions of the functioning of hospitals were constantly present in Potemkin's orders to subordinates. In 1788, the worried governor of Yekaterinoslav Sinelnikov proposed changing the route of the recruit, since the former one was longer and more burdensome. The new way would save the army replenishment from complaints, and if you wait out the spring "mud and hollow waters", then this would help to reduce the sick among the recruits. Severe fevers were the scourge of the army, the government of the region liberated state and private houses, "palaces" to convert them into hospitals and accommodate patients, healers and medical officers, medicines were collected from everywhere.

Unfortunately, the state of medicine at that time was still far behind the needs of the army and the civilian population, which prompted the government to attract a significant number of foreigners, as well as to create a network of special educational institutions. Back in December 1783, the Medical College reported to Empress Catherine II about problems in the medical support of the army, the small number of medical and surgical schools and the need in connection with this "to write out doctors and assistant doctors from foreign lands." The official document said:

“As according to the current movement of the army of Your Imperial Majesty, at the beginning of this year 1783, a lot of medical ranks were required from the Military Collegium in excess of the usual set, and the collegium in its department, due to its position in the state, does not have a single person for such extraordinary business trips, it was forced to collect from other places for needs in the army; and, taking from everywhere, she could only recruit 80 doctors, staff doctors, doctors and assistant doctors. Medical and surgical schools are so few in number that, even without extraordinary needs, the Medical College could never equip the army and navy of Your Imperial Majesty with both doctors and assistant doctors, about which from the Medical College in 1780 a most humble report was submitted to Your Imperial Majesty, in which the multiplication of medical-surgical schools is requested. And as now a lot of medical ranks are still required from the army of Your Imperial Majesty, then do not be pleased, Most Gracious Empress! the highest command for a real need, for the army of Your Imperial Majesty, how many doctors and assistant doctors are required to be ordered from foreign lands, following the example of the past war with the Ottoman Porte. And for the constant staffing of both the army and the navy, multiply the schools at the general hospitals with an increase in students according to the report submitted by Your Imperial Majesty in 1780 and determine the amount for that.

And about this, Your Imperial Majesty, most submissively, the Medical College asks for the highest decree.

Venezuelan Francisco de Miranda, finding himself in 1786, on the eve of new war with Turkey, in Kherson, visited the local hospital. According to him, it was well planned and built, but because of the disgusting smell felt everywhere, the air seemed fetid to the visiting guest. “Cleanliness and order,” Miranda wrote in his diary, “the hospital is no different. As I was informed, soldiers from each regiment are sent here who do not have enough space in the barracks, and today there are, in addition to the sick, from 300 to 400 people.

With the outbreak of hostilities on the Russian-Turkish front, the shortage of medical personnel and medicines was felt more and more acutely. Potemkin constantly demanded from the Medical Board doctors for the army, leading grueling battles in difficult climatic conditions. On December 1, 1788, the director of the Medical College, Privy Councilor von Vietinghoff, sent a report to Empress Catherine II about a small number of "a noble number of doctors and assistant doctors" in the armies and fleets, in which he rightly wrote: "I find the most important thing that is most important with the armies and fleets of your Imperial Majesty lacks a noble number of doctors and assistant doctors, as shown in the list attached to this. Therefore, in order to satisfy in some way with armies and fleets, now the real extreme in medical ranks need, I do not find any other means than by agreements, for no more than three or a quarter of a year, to accept skillful doctors and assistant doctors from foreign lands, while determining them, to agree in such a way that without contradiction they follow to all places where only they, after consideration by the collegium of the need for them, can be sent. According to Fitinghoff's report, a corresponding decree was issued on the same day.

A wide range of reforms in Russian army, carried out by Potemkin as vice president, and then president of the Military Collegium, was most directly connected with the management of the new provinces. It was the troops that performed the functions of border protection, reconnaissance, and participated in the economic development of land. At the same time, it is rather difficult to agree with the prevailing opinion that the main goal of Potemkin's reforms was only to gain popularity in the army. The essence of the transformation is deeper. Undoubtedly, military reform is an internal matter, but it also served in the most direct way to achieve the goals of foreign policy.

Contemporaries assessed Potemkin's activity in the field of the head of the military department in different ways. Foreigners were especially interested in the state of the Russian army. Emperor Joseph II, in his letters to Field Marshal Lassi, characterized the armed forces of Russia in great detail, and not in the best way. He constantly repeated that the external brilliance of the army and navy, successfully demonstrated by Potemkin during the trip to Catherine, did not match the internal strength and strength. The troops were dressed in new and very elegant uniforms, but the cavalry, according to Joseph II, the sabers were not suitable. He found the clothes of the soldiers inappropriate for the conditions of the climate, which is why they often get sick with a fever. With the terrible high cost in the south, officers were in need and often suffered hunger, and soldiers often went without shirts. The set of regiments was incomplete, and Joseph II believed that out of the 100,000 people declared by Potemkin who made up the troops in his governorships, in fact there were no more than 40,000, of which many were sick, while others were engaged in construction in new cities. The emperor also criticized the state of the defensive structures in Kherson, Kinburn, also went to the Black Sea Fleet and vocational training sailors. The skeptical remarks of Joseph II were probably largely due to the fact that Austria quite reasonably competed on the world stage with the Russian Empire and pursued an active foreign policy. It was the gaze of a fierce rival.

The foreigner Francisco de Miranda, who came to Russia from afar and was not bound by political ambitions, was more objective in his assessments. He was very interested in the quantitative and qualitative indicators of the Russian army, he asked a lot and talked on these topics with both Potemkin and military officials during his stay in Russia. A professional military man, endowed with remarkable abilities, an inquisitive mind and determination, was more fair in assessing the state of troops in southern Russia on the eve of the war. Almost all politicians were convinced that sooner or later Russia would not avoid a clash with Turkey. In her diary, Miranda constantly returns to the theme of the army, which is so close and familiar to him. On November 18, 1786, he recorded that one of Potemkin's employees, Korsakov, showed him a soldier in artillery uniform, which the Venezuelan liked very much: “a Greek-style helmet or cap made of brass in order to withstand saber blows, as well as fuses on the shoulder . A short sword with a wide blade and point, which serve the soldier for various purposes. And the conclusion of a professional military man: "In general, these troops are equipped with great taste, military elegance and in accordance with the climate (in the English manner)." After that, Miranda and Korsakov continued their conversation, and the stranger found the interlocutor well versed in the art of war. On December 13, the amiable Major Korsakov led the foreigner to an "artillery park" consisting of 30 guns. “The cleanliness, smart appearance and strong build of the local soldiers certainly attract special attention,” Miranda wrote in the evening. “The sentries over their uniforms wore ordinary sheepskin coats, cloth capes, and gloves on their hands (as is customary in this country), without which it would be impossible to endure the cold.” He managed to obtain from the Russian military the information “on the current state of the army”, which he was so interested in, which he carefully recorded in his diary:

Number of persons

Cavalry? 61819

Infantry, minus guards regiments, artillery and garrison battalions? 213 002

Total? 274 821

A tough and severe test for the reformed G.A. The second Russian-Turkish war, which began in 1787, became the Potemkin of the army. Anticipating a significant increase in office work associated with the expected war, Potemkin decided to improve his system and personally drew up the corresponding instruction addressed to Vasily Popov:

“As the time comes in which cares and deeds will multiply, then for the speedy flow and immediate resolutions, it is necessary to establish such an order in my office so that everything has an uninterrupted flow:

1. Commissariat and provisions expedition. Whoever will rule over them must always have a ready answer to give when I ask.

2. Expedition on incoming reports from the commanders of the units on the affairs of the ordinary course, to which the answer should not hesitate to compose and bring to my signing.

3. To the third will belong all the cases of the Cossack troops and volunteer teams.

4. This includes cases in the provinces entrusted to me. All offices are in your exact command,

and the expedition, the secret treasury of extraordinary sums, as well as the admiralty with the fleet in your special and your own jurisdiction.

In August 1787, the flight effendi summoned the Russian ambassador in Istanbul, Yakov Bulgakov, and in an ultimatum demanded that the Moldavian ruler Mavrocordato, who had fled to Russia, be extradited; recognize the Imeretian king Erekle II as a Turkish subject; recall Russian consuls from Iasi, Bucharest and Alexandria, and allow Turkish consuls to all Russian harbors and trading cities in the Northern Black Sea region. The Russian diplomat, who once sat on the same bench with Potemkin at Moscow University and maintained friendly relations with him for many years, resolutely rejected the Turkish government's ultimatum. On August 5, he was arrested and imprisoned in the famous Seven-Tower Castle. The experienced Bulgakov reported to the capital: “No matter how soon they seized me, I managed to hide the most important papers, numbers (ciphers for coding reports. - N.B.), archive of my time, expensive things and so on. The treasury is also intact, although not large. Events developed rapidly. Following the suggestions of the English, Prussian and Swedish ministers, on August 13, 1787, the vizier of the Ottoman Porte declared war on Russia. This happened just a few months after Catherine’s brilliant journey to the territory of the lands that once belonged to Turkey and the birth of the myth of the “Potemkin villages”.

According to A.A. Bezborodko, who was in charge of foreign policy issues, the Russian Empire was ready for the expected fight: "everything is ready and ready for us than in 1768." For Russia, this was the seventh war for access to the Black Sea in a hundred years. Grigory Potemkin was appointed commander of the Yekaterinoslav army, Count P.A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky - Ukrainian. The heavy burden of responsibility for the lives of hundreds and thousands of people, the territorial integrity of the Russian Empire, and finally, for the prestige of the country on the world stage, fell on the shoulders of His Serene Highness. On August 21, he writes to Catherine: “War has been declared ... I am in extremes. Shelves with a quarter will not be able to approach soon. There is a terrible number of patients in Kherson. In the Crimea, too, quite. Ships withdrawn - it is difficult to protect on Liman. God alone is able to help. All transports will become bread. If my life could satisfy everything, then I would give it. Order to make a large recruiting set and add a double number to the remaining regiments in Russia. It is difficult for our people to hold on until some help arrives. In pursuit with a courier, another letter flies to the capital about problems in the south, in the army; the brightest again persistently talks about a large recruiting set and complains of very poor health. “I can hardly walk, after the illness I was still weak,” Potemkin ends his message to Catherine, “and now the fever is starting to show. Mother, I'm sorry, I can't write anymore. Who was more likely to know whether Russia was ready for the expected war, a dignitary in the capital, or Potemkin on the spot? Maybe he lacked a month, two, six months? And perhaps the brightest is a doubting person, keenly aware of his unprecedented responsibility, feeling a breakdown after illness and endless, continuous work. Even great figures have the right to feelings, fears and experiences. The image of a person is made up of many fragments; he cannot and should not be only good, without flaws, active and active. The man of the past and the man of the present are different, multifaceted, and this is precisely what is beautiful. For many years, looking back into our past, we saw images of either geniuses or anti-heroes. Black and white, no halftones. Now we can recognize the real, not invented people of the past centuries, who sometimes decided the fate of people, and sometimes were a toy in the wrong hands. Potemkin's life is not a phantasmagoria. He really loved, suffered, fought, thought, doubted, spent cheerful evenings at a rich table and long days in solving pressing problems. He lived.

The 48-year-old Potemkin, who took command for the first time, with every failure, with every failure, was worried, nervous, discouraged, about which he frankly wrote to the Empress. Catherine answered him: “From many of your letters, it might seem to me that you hesitate in carrying out the plan you have outlined and already begun in the reasoning of the Turks. But I don't allow myself to think like that. There is no glory, no honor, no profit, having undertaken some business and fervently led it, then, having not done it, willfully distort it. You carried out the defense of the borders with perfect success; God grant health, my friend, you will lead with success and offensive actions. Potemkin perked up, felt a surge of strength, now his main task is to solve the question: where will the enemy strike the main blow? The most dangerous direction to Kherson was covered by the fortress of Kinburn, erected on a sandy spit opposite Ochakov. It was this combat sector that the brightest instructed Suvorov. “My dear friend, you are more than ten thousand in person,” Potemkin wrote to him on the eve of the declaration of war. - I respect you so much and, by the way, I speak sincerely. God delivers from the evil ones, He was always my helper. My hope does not weaken, but the confluence of various worries oppresses my soul. The tension in this sector of hostilities was growing, Russian troops were being pulled up here. In the fall, the Turks subjected Kinburn to a brutal bombardment, as a result of retaliatory firing, significant damage was inflicted on the enemy. Potemkin is pleased with the actions of Suvorov, he justified all his expectations and showed himself to be an excellent commander. His Serene Highness with sincere pleasure informs Catherine: “Above all of them in Kherson and here Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov. The truth must be told: here is a man who serves both with sweat and with blood. I will rejoice in the opportunity where God will give me to recommend him. No envy, no signs of enmity and misunderstanding, about which both contemporaries and descendants wrote so much and with pleasure. Potemkin and Suvorov, who is under his command, are still comrades-in-arms, they have common goals and one war.

The autumn of 1787 brought a terrible shock to the Serene Highness: the Sevastopol fleet was shattered by a storm. The tragedy broke Potemkin's resurrected spirit, undermined his faith in God's help and his strength. He again writes to "mother", this letter horrifies Catherine. Never before had her dear friend been so exhausted by circumstances and illnesses, had never been so confused and weak. “Mother Empress, I have become unhappy ... During my illness, I am stricken to the extreme, there is neither mind nor spirit. I asked for an assignment from the authorities to another. Believe what I feel; do not let things endure through this. Hey, I'm almost dead; I throw down all the favors and possessions that I received from your generosity, and I want to end my life in solitude and obscurity, which, I think, will not last ... I lay down everything from myself and remain a simple person. But that I was devoted to you, God is my witness.” But Catherine and the former commander of Potemkin P.A. Rumyantsev supports the staggering colossus with letters, the brightest one comes to his senses. Unit commanders follow orders, the fleet dispersed by a storm gathers in Sevastopol. And, oh miracle! The fleet is intact, suffered significantly, but it exists and is combat-ready.

In January 1788, an officer of the French royal guard, a representative of an old aristocratic family, Count Roger de Dama, arrived in the army. Making an exception for him, the empress allowed the foreigner to volunteer in the Russian army. There were many foreign volunteers in the army, and especially in the flotilla, during this war, they witnessed all the most important battles, as well as the luxurious life of Potemkin at headquarters. With passion, Roger de Dame plunged into his native element - war. He clearly sympathized with the brightest and, as an unbiased eyewitness, enthusiastically described his image at the end of his life. Almost every day the Frenchman, among five or six persons, dined at the prince's table, which was served independently of the large table. In the evenings, the prince's inner circle (a French guard entered him with ease) would certainly spend at Potemkin's, and everyone forgot that they were in Tataria, thanks to various pleasures and the society there.

Potemkin, according to the recollections of the memoirist, had a broad nature, combining the most diverse shades of manifestations of the human character, ranging from tenderness, courtesy, commitment to a person? high society and ending with the severity, arrogance and cruelty of the most perfect despot. Possessing extraordinary tact and giving vent to all the movements of his soul, he oppressed those who offended him or did not like him, and at the same time flattered and showered favors on those whom he distinguished and respected. He did not hesitate in means to develop his plans, he worked with ease and was resourceful during entertainment; could seem like an empty person and at the same time be busy with various issues, giving a wide variety of orders. So, he kept in his head the project of the destruction of the Ottoman Empire next to the project of building a palace in St. Petersburg, or the project of changing the uniform of the entire army and the order to prepare a basket of flowers for his nieces. And meanwhile, his thoughts were never confused, and he did not confuse those to whom he expounded them.

The course of his thoughts, which seemed illogical, was in fact correct and strictly adhered to the intended path. He managed to learn all the ways to the satisfaction of ambition and to pleasures; he knew how to step over in time, rise, descend or evade in order to achieve the goal - to control undividedly and to have fun at ease. Prince Potemkin, as Roger de Dame wrote, subordinated to his personal passions military art, politics and government. He did not know anything in the root, but he had a comprehensive superficial knowledge and a special wonderful instinct. His will and mind markedly surpassed his knowledge, but the activity and firmness of the former deceived the lack of the latter, and he seemed to rule by the right of the conqueror; he despised his compatriots and irritated them with his arrogance, but he loved foreigners and captivated them with affectionateness and the most refined attention; in the end, he subjugated the entire state, displaying arbitrary European refinement along with Asiatic rudeness.

Welcoming Potemkin's measures to improve recruitment, Bezborodko, in a personal message in 1788 to the Russian representative in London, Sergei Vorontsov, spoke out more categorically. In his opinion, military power did not correspond to well-being in the financial support of military operations, which was quite enough without resorting to taxes. “Having taken a recruit from a hundred souls,” Bezborodko continued criticizing the military authorities, “they filled only the army, and more than 30,000 are missing in the border garrisons alone. Now we are still preparing gunpowder and shells ... ". He also complained about the slowness of Potemkin in delivering fresh data from the Novorossiysk province, which delayed decision-making. “Time is moving towards the expulsion of the fleet, and it’s up to the troops and the general” - this is how Bezborodko described the situation in the capital. And the leitmotif through many letters and memoirs of this time is the theme of court intrigues. The Count speaks directly about this: “In case of failure, I probably expect that there will be indignation at us, and most importantly at me, with the help of all sorts of insidious intrigues, which again began to multiply here.”

In April 1788, Potemkin, worried about the intensification of intrigues, decided to leave the army and go to the capital, but his opponents at court tried to keep the brightest in the army. It was decided to start a new military campaign with the siege of Ochakov. After long, exhausting and heavy naval battles with the Turkish fleet in the Liman, near Kinburn, the enemy ships were pushed back. In July 1788, the main forces of the Russian army moved towards Ochakovo. It seemed that here it is, a close victory, but the Turkish fortress withstood a five-month siege. Volunteer Frenchman Roger de Dama perceived the military operations around Ochakov with the interest of an outside observer. Once he and Prince de Ligne, who was also in Potemkin's camp, decided to make a sortie towards Ochakovo and try their luck on the other side of the outposts. “Bold and ardent, as they are at 20 years old,” a stranger wrote about the prince and a joint adventure, “he wanted to see the Turks with the same impatience as I did ... Combining his sweet childishness with an interest in me, he expressed a desire that I see enemy on land for the first time with him. Fascinated by his proposal, I mount a horse, and we set off side by side ... ". The adventurers, accompanied by only three people, drove past the Cossack outposts and already made out the minarets of Ochakov, the gardens surrounding the city, the riders prancing around the walls of the fortress. Carried away by the observation of the Turks, Roger de Dame and the Prince de Ligne got too close, they were noticed, and the Turkish cavalry, which had come into greater movement than fruit trees from a hurricane, rushed after them. Having safely returned, the foreigners promised each other to avoid walking to the gardens of Ochakov.

Time passed, the siege dragged on, and the murmur of misunderstanding sounded not only in the capital, but also in the trenches. In November 1788, Count Branitsky, the husband of Potemkin's niece Alexandra, who supplied provisions and everything necessary for his noble relative from his own estates, left the army. In this regard, the brightest had to limit himself in pleasures. Foreigners were surprised at the inaction of the prince. They believed that in Europe the general-in-chief would be responsible for the time he lost, for the disasters that he so uselessly forced to endure, for the many people who died daily from want and disease. "Oh, unknown Russia!" - exclaimed strangers. They saw that “Prince Potemkin was inviolable, he personified the soul, conscience, and power of the Empress, and because of this was not subject to any rules of duty or justice. No one dared to open the eyes of the empress for fear of compromising himself. Everyone endured, though grumbling and cursing fate.

The foreigners who were in the Russian camp were lost in conjecture about the plans of the most illustrious regarding further hostilities. He was frank only in letters to Catherine, to whom he informed about all the actions of the teams entrusted to him, the maneuvers of the fleet, and the attacks of the enemy. On October 17, 1788, Potemkin wrote to the empress about the failure of the second conspiracy in Ochakovo in favor of the Russian army and the execution of its participants. The President of the Military Collegium proposed a new plan: after the intelligence report that the enemy was not planning sorties, he proposed to strengthen the "cannonade" and force the retreat. In the same letter, His Serene Highness thanked Catherine for the "fur coat", sent, as he wrote, "from maternal care." Perhaps it was with her that a curious story was connected, which struck the great Pushkin years later. Prince D.E. Tsitsianov, who served on the staff of Potemkin, told it to his cousin A.O. Smirnova-Rosset: “I was,” he says (Tsitsianov. - N.B.), favorite of Potemkin. He says to me: “Tsitsianov, I want to surprise the empress so that she drank coffee with kalach every morning, you alone are much of a hand, go with a hot kalach.” - "Ready, Your Excellency." So I arranged a box of camphor, laid the kalach and rushed off, the sword only hit the poles all the time, spending, tra, tra, and for breakfast I presented the kalach with my own hands. I deigned to thank and sent Potemkin a fur coat. I arrived and said: “Your Excellency, the Empress, as a token of gratitude, sent you a sable fur coat, which is the best.” "Tell them to open the chest." - "No need, she's in my bosom." The prince was surprised. The fur coat flew like fluff, and it was impossible to catch it ... ".

A month later, on November 17, Potemkin writes to Catherine that heavy snow prevented the assault, but promises that in three days "the breach battery will end and, despite the cold and winter, I will begin to storm, calling on God to help." The French volunteer Roger de Dama recalled that on November 18, 1788, Potemkin staged a truly theatrical spectacle from the attack on the island of Berezan by the “Cossacks”, but these were no longer the same free residents of the Zaporizhzhya Sich, but Don Cossacks devoted to the service of the Empress.

On December 6, 1788, at 4 o'clock in the morning, Russian troops gathered in front of the front of the camp and received the blessing of the priests. All the soldiers were allowed to step out of line and venerate the cross, while each one lowered a copper coin onto the dish and only then returned to his comrades. Formed in columns, the soldiers in complete silence moved from the trenches to the trenches of Ochakov. Three bombs served as a signal for the assault, their action set the entire huge mass of troops in motion. When the first one burst, the soldiers had to throw off their winter clothes: fur coats and fur boots. To cross the moat, each column received a sufficient number of boards, and the fifth (last) - stairs to storm the fortress walls. Traditional shouts of "Hurrah!" warned the Turks about the start of the attack. This greatly surprised the foreigners, who were accustomed to advancing in silence, which greatly contributed to the unexpectedness of the moment. A few hours later, the fortress, which had been besieged for so long, was taken, the saraskir (commander of the troops) was captured. For several days, the inhabitants of Ochakovo, who had escaped the massacre, carried the dead to the middle of the Liman, so that with the spring thaw they would be carried away to the Black Sea. Roger de Dama, who fought bravely near the walls of the fortress, recalled: “The sight of these terrible bodies on the surface of the Liman, preserved by frost in the positions in which they died, was the most terrible thing you can imagine.”

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Following the example of foreign powers to control the military ground forces.

presidents

1. Menshikov, Alexander Danilovich (1719-1724), Veide, Adam Adamovich (1719-1720), joint presidency in 1719-1720.
2. Repnin, Anikita Ivanovich (1724-1726)
3. Menshikov, Alexander Danilovich, again (1726-1727)
4. Golitsyn, Mikhail Mikhailovich (1728-1730)
5. Dolgorukov, Vasily Vladimirovich (1730-1731)
6. Minich, Burchard Christoph (1732-1741)
7. Dolgorukov, Vasily Vladimirovich, again (1741-1746)
8. Trubetskoy, Nikita Yurievich (1760-1763)
9. Chernyshev, Zakhar Grigorievich (1763-1774)
10. Potemkin, Grigory Alexandrovich (1784-1791)
11. Saltykov, Nikolai Ivanovich (1791-1802)

Vice Presidents

• G. I. Bon (1727-1731)
• B. K. Minich (1731-1732)

• G. A. Potemkin (1774-1784)

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Notes

Literature

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
• Pisarkova, L. F. Public administration Russia from the end of the 17th to the end of the 18th century. M., 2007. S. 146, 180–182, 184, 190, 234

An excerpt characterizing the Military Collegium

He closed his eyes, but at the same instant, cannonade, firing, the sound of carriage wheels crackled in his ears, and here again the musketeers stretched by a string descend from the mountain, and the French fire, and he feels his heart tremble, and he rides forward next to Schmitt, and the bullets whistle merrily around him, and he experiences that feeling of tenfold joy in life, which he has not experienced since childhood.
He woke up...
“Yes, it all happened!…” he said happily, smiling childishly to himself, and fell into a sound, young sleep.

The next day he woke up late. Resuming the impressions of the past, he remembered, first of all, that today he had to introduce himself to Emperor Franz, remembered the Minister of War, the courteous Austrian adjutant's wing, Bilibin, and the conversation of the previous evening. Dressed in full dress uniform, which he had not put on for a long time, for a trip to the palace, he, fresh, lively and handsome, with a bandaged hand, entered Bilibin's office. There were four gentlemen of the diplomatic corps in the office. With Prince Ippolit Kuragin, who was the secretary of the embassy, ​​Bolkonsky was familiar; Bilibin introduced him to others.
The gentlemen who visited Bilibin, secular, young, rich and cheerful people, made up a separate circle both in Vienna and here, which Bilibin, who was the head of this circle, called ours, les nеtres. This circle, which consisted almost exclusively of diplomats, apparently had its own interests of high society, relations with certain women, and the clerical side of the service, which had nothing to do with war and politics. These gentlemen, apparently, willingly, as their own (an honor that they did to a few), accepted Prince Andrei into their circle. Out of courtesy, and as a subject for entering into conversation, several questions were put to him about the army and the battle, and the conversation again crumbled into inconsistent, merry jokes and gossip.
“But it’s especially good,” one said, describing the failure of a fellow diplomat, “it’s especially good that the chancellor told him directly that his appointment to London was a promotion, and that he should look at it that way. Do you see his figure at the same time? ...
"But what's worse, gentlemen, I betray Kuragin to you: a man is in misfortune, and this Don Juan, this terrible man, is taking advantage of this!"
Prince Hippolyte was lying in a Voltaire chair, with his legs over the handle. He laughed.
- Parlez moi de ca, [Well, well, well,] - he said.
Oh, Don Juan! Oh snake! voices were heard.
“You don’t know, Bolkonsky,” Bilibin turned to Prince Andrei, “that all the horrors of the French army (I almost said the Russian army) are nothing compared to what this man did between women.
- La femme est la compagne de l "homme, [A woman is a man's friend,] - said Prince Hippolyte and began to look at his raised legs through a lorgnette.
Bilibin and ours burst out laughing, looking into Ippolit's eyes. Prince Andrei saw that this Ippolit, whom he (he had to confess) was almost jealous of his wife, was a jester in this society.
“No, I have to treat you with Kuragins,” Bilibin said quietly to Bolkonsky. - He is charming when he talks about politics, you need to see this importance.
He sat down next to Hippolyte and, gathering his folds on his forehead, started a conversation with him about politics. Prince Andrei and others surrounded them both.

Colleges under Peter the Great began to be created in 1717. All of them had a single management system: 1 president, 1 vice president, 4 advisers (generals) and 4 assessors (colonels). Each board had broad powers. In particular, they were allowed to act as a legislative body. Under Peter 1, 12 colleges were created: military, admiralty, foreign affairs, berg, manufactories, chief magistrate, patrimonial, justice, chambers, state offices, revision, commerce. Since 1721, the patriarchate has been liquidated. Instead, the 13th collegium is being created - the Spiritual. Later it was transformed into the Synod.

By creating a new system of governing the country, Peter actually eliminated the system of Orders that had previously functioned. At the same time, Peter was doing what he loved - he carried out reforms in a Western manner. Most colleges were created not out of urgent need, but out of a desire to learn something else from the West. For example, 3 financial institutions (chambers, state offices and revision) were a complete copy of similar Swedish colleges. Nevertheless, most colleges have existed for a long time. They disappeared only as a result of the reform activities of Catherine 2 and Alexander 1.

Table 1: Boards under Peter 1 and their functions

Name	Functions and tasks	Years of existence
	Ground Army Management	1719-1802
	fleet management	1717-1827
	Interaction with other states	1718-1832
	heavy industry	1719-1807
	Light industry	1719-1805
	Trade issues	1719-1805
	Government revenues (taxes)	1718-1801 (did not work from 1785 to 1797)
	Government spending	1717-1780
	Financial control	1717-1788
	Litigation	1718-1780
	Land management, resolution of land issues	1721-1786
	City management	1720-1796

Let us consider in more detail each board, its tasks and leaders.

Military board

The decree on the creation of the Military Collegium was signed by Peter 1 at the end of 1719, and the department began to work from the beginning of 1720. The total number of departments under the decree was 530 people, including 454 soldiers assigned to the collegium. At the same time, 83 places were vacant, since there was an acute shortage of professional officers in Russia. The military department was divided into 3 structures:

1. Army - active land army.
2. Artillery - was in charge of artillery affairs.
3. Garrison - troops who carried garrison guard duty.

The leaders of the VK under Peter the Great were:

• Menshikov Alexander Danilovich (1719-1724)
• Repin Anikita Ivanovich (1724-1726)

The department was abolished by decree of 1802 of September 7. It ceased independent existence and transferred its functions to the Ministry.

Admiralty board

The Admiralty Board was established in 1717. The basis was the decree of December 22, 1717. The department controlled the entire fleet of Russia, both civilian and military. From the moment the college was formed, until the death of Peter 1, Apraksin Fedor Matveevich was in charge of it. His deputy was a Norwegian, Kruys Cornelius.

Since 1723, the Admiralty was subdivided into 12 offices: admiralty (issues of work of shipyards), zeihmeister (artillery), commissariat (solving problems of employees), contractor (contracting), provisions (food issues), treasury (financial issues), calmeister (salary) ), controller (supervision of finances), uniform (issues of uniforms), Ober-Sarvaer (direct shipbuilding and the receipt of materials for this), Waldmeister (forest management for the needs of the fleet), Moscow.

The board ended its independent existence in 1802, when it came under the control of the Naval Ministry. The final termination of existence refers to 1827, when the body became deliberative and did not solve any practical problems.

College of Foreign Affairs

The College of Foreign (Foreign) Affairs was established in 1718. It was converted from the Posolsky order. From 1717 to 1734 (during the reign of Peter the Great, Catherine 1, Peter 2 and Anna Ioannovna) the department was managed by Gavrila Ivanovich Golovkin. The Board was an analogue of the modern Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It is this state structure resolved all issues related to relations with other (foreign) states.

The collegium existed until 1802, when the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was created, which took over many of the functions of the collegium. The final abolition took place in 1832.

Berg College

The Berg College was formed in 1719 and was responsible for the mining industry of the Russian Empire. That is, the department managed heavy industry. The specifics of its work was regulated by tasks, so the main centers of work were concentrated in the Urals and Siberia. During the life of Peter 1, the collegium was managed by Bruce Yakov Vilimovich. It is important to note that under Peter the Berg College worked together with the Manufactory College, so Bruce was in charge of both departments. The main task of this body is to try to expand and increase the number of industrial enterprises, primarily in the Ural region. The board worked intermittently. Continuous work was carried out in the periods 1719-1731 (closed by Anna Ioannovna), 1742-1783 (closed by Catherine 2), 1797-1807 (liquidated by Alexander 1).

Manufactory College

Manufactory College was founded in 1719. Its main task was to create manufactories. That is, the main area of ​​responsibility is light industry.

Leaders under Peter 1:

• Bruce Yakov Vilimovich (1719-1722) - combined the post with the presidency of the Berg College.
• Novosiltsev Vasily Yakovlevich (1722-1731).

After the death of Peter, in 17272, the Manufactory College was liquidated. It was restored only in 1742. In 1779, the liquidation took place again, but in 1796 it was restored again. The administration was finally abolished in 1805. The closing order was signed by manufactur802.

College of Commerce

The Collegium of Commerce was founded by Peter the Great in 1716. Initially, it was led by Apraksin, but after the leaders were approved by decree of 1717, Tolstoy Petr Andreevich (1718-1722) was appointed manager. Buturlin Ivan Fedorovich, who held the post from 1722 to 1725, was approved as the next president. The main task of management is to resolve all issues one way or another related to trading activities.

Since 1731, this structure was given the functions of three colleges, which temporarily stopped working: berg, manufactory, chief magistrate. The functions of the first two were performed until 1742, and those of the magistrate until 1743.

September 27, 1796 Catherine 2 signs a decree on the closure of the College of Commerce. This required a certain time, but already on November 2, Catherine 2 died, and Paul 1, who took the throne after her, was preserved by the merchant by decree of November 30, 1796. The liberal reforms of Alexander created the Ministry of Finance, under which the collegium worked temporarily, but with a significant limitation of powers. Its final abolition dates back to 1824, when a corresponding decree was signed on January 8.

Board of Chambers

Chamber College The Chamber College was founded in 1718. It was Peter's favorite brainchild, since this department dealt with taxes, to which the tsar-emperor was extremely supportive.

In the era of Peter the Great, 3 people changed as president of the Chamber Office:

• Golitsyn Dmitry Mikhailovich - in office 1718-1722
• Koshelev Gerasim Ivanovich - in office 1722
• Pleshcheev Alexey Lvovich - in office 1723-1725

The collegium existed until 1785 without major changes in functions, after which it was temporarily closed. The last period of her work, 1797 - 1801, is connected with the control over farming.

State-offices-collegium

The state-office-collegium was created by Peter in 1717 to perform the functions of managing public expenditures. Here, Peter copied the Swedish model, where the financial institutions of the same name functioned (chambers - profits, state office - losses, revision - control).

Even during the life of Peter, the staff-offices-collegium passed under the authority of the Senate. It happened in 1723. Independence of the organ was returned by Anna Ioannovna in 1730. In this form, the collegium existed until 1780, when Catherine II liquidated it.

Revision Board

The Revision Board was established in 1717 to oversee the country's finances. Until 1723, the organ was managed by Dolgorukov Yakov Fedorovich. Later, Revision lost its independence status for 2 years. From 1723 to 1725 the collegium was placed under the control of the Senate. With the return of independence, the collegium was headed by Bibikov Ivan Ivanovich.

The board existed until 1788, when it was liquidated by the reforms of Catherine 2. It should also be noted that during the short reign of Peter 2, the Revision worked in Moscow.

Justice College

The decree on the creation of the College of Justice was signed by Peter the Great in 1717, and its work began a year later, in 1718. The body performed the functions of the Supreme Court of Russia in all types of cases. The board was also responsible for the work of the courts. In the Petrine era, this body was controlled by 2 people:

1. Matveev Andrey Artamonovich (1718-1722)
2. Apraksin Petr Matveyevich (1722-1727)

Already after the death of Peter 1, the College of Justice was endowed with additional powers. The “serf office” was transferred to its jurisdiction (until 1740 and the detective order (1730-1763). The implementation of reforms by Catherine 2 stopped the existence of the justices of the collegium. It was liquidated in 1780.

patrimonial board

The patrimonial board arose in 1721 on the basis of the Local Order. She was responsible for all matters related to the land issue (registration of estates, the transfer of land between people, the issuance of land, confiscation, and so on. Initially, the collegium worked in Moscow, but after 1727 moved to St. Petersburg.

From 1717 to 1721, the justice college was in charge of land issues. In the future, the patrimonial office functioned without major upheavals and changes until the reforms of Catherine II, according to which the patrimonial department was created, and the collegium was closed in 1786.

Chief Magistrate

It was created as a single body that manages all the magistrates of the cities of the Russian Empire. The main magistrate began work in 1720. In addition to the direct management of cities, its functions included the approval of all court decisions in cities: both civil and criminal. There was also control over the collection of taxes in the cities.

Presidents of the college under Peter:

• Trubetskoy Yuri Yurievich (1720-1723)
• Dolgorukov Alexey Georgievich (1723-1727)

After the death of Peter 1, the magistrate was renamed the City Hall (1727). In 1743, the name of the Chief Magistrate was returned to the body, but it was transferred from St. Petersburg to Moscow. The magistrate was abolished in 1796.

The highest link in the system (subsystem) of military courts in relation to all military courts is the Supreme Court (SC) of the Russian Federation, which includes Military board.

The military collegium considers cases as a court of first instance, in cassation and supervisory procedures.

By first instance The military board considers:

– civil cases on contesting non-normative acts of the President of the Russian Federation, normative acts of the Government of the Russian Federation, the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, other federal executive bodies in which military service is provided for by federal law, concerning the rights, freedoms and legally protected interests of military personnel, citizens undergoing military training;

– criminal proceedings about crimes of which a judge of a military court or a member of the Federation Council or a deputy of the State Duma of the Russian Federation who is in military service is accused;

- cases of crimes of special complexity or special social significance.

As court of second (cassation) instance The military collegium checks the legality, validity and fairness of the judicial acts of the district (naval) military courts, adopted by them in the first instance and not entered into force.

IN supervisory procedure The Military Collegium verifies the judicial acts that have entered into force of all lower military courts, and also considers cases in view of new or newly discovered circumstances regarding decisions and sentences of the Military Collegium that have entered into force.

Decisions, sentences, rulings and sentences of the Military Collegium that have entered into force may be reviewed by the Presidium of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation in the manner of supervision; The Cassation Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation may review the judicial acts of the Military Collegium, adopted by it in the first instance and which have not entered into force.

The military collegium is composed of the chairman, his deputy, chairmen of the judiciary and other judges of the Supreme Court. Judicial compositions can be formed in it.

The military collegium considers cases under the jurisdiction of military courts in the following composition:

- in the first instance, civil and administrative cases are considered by a single judge or a panel consisting of three judges, and criminal cases are considered by a panel consisting of three judges, or a judge and a panel of jurors;

- cases on complaints and protests against judicial acts of the district (naval) military courts, adopted by them in the first instance and not entered into force, are considered by a panel consisting of three judges;

- cases on protests against judicial acts that have entered into force are considered by a panel consisting of three judges (Article 10 of the Law on Military Courts). Heading the Military Collegium, its chairman is at the same time Deputy Chairman of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation and is appointed to the position by the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation on the proposal of the President of the Russian Federation.

The apparatus ensures the administration of justice by the Military Collegium, the generalization of judicial practice, the analysis of judicial statistics, the systematization of legislation and the performance of other functions.

A significant role in the performance of support functions in relation to all military courts is assigned to the Main Directorate for Supporting the Activities of Military Courts of the Judicial Department.

E. Falcone. Monument to Peter I

All the activities of Peter I were aimed at creating a strong independent state. The realization of this goal could be realized, according to Peter, only through an absolute monarchy. For the formation of absolutism in Russia, a combination of historical, economic, social, internal and external political reasons was necessary. Thus, all the reforms he carried out can be considered political, since the result of their implementation was to become a powerful Russian state.

There is an opinion that Peter's reforms were spontaneous, thoughtless and often inconsistent. It can be objected that it is impossible in a living society to calculate everything with absolute accuracy for decades to come. Of course, in the process of implementing the transformations, life made its own adjustments, so plans changed and new ideas appeared. The order of the reforms and their features were dictated by the course of the protracted Northern War, as well as the political and financial capabilities of the state in a certain period of time.

Historians distinguish three stages of Peter's reforms:

1. 1699-1710 Changes are taking place in the system of state institutions, new ones are being created. The system of local self-government is being reformed. A recruiting system is being set up.
2. 1710-1719 The old institutions are liquidated and the Senate is created. The first regional reform is being carried out. The new military policy leads to the construction of a powerful fleet. A new legal system is being approved. State institutions are transferred from Moscow to St. Petersburg.
3. 1719-1725 New institutions are beginning to operate and the old ones are finally liquidated. The second regional reform is being carried out. The army is being expanded and reorganized. Church and financial reforms are being carried out. A new system of taxation and civil service is being introduced.

Soldiers of Peter I. Reconstruction

All the reforms of Peter I were fixed in the form of statutes, regulations, decrees that have the same legal force. And when, on October 22, 1721, Peter I was given the title of "Father of the Fatherland", "Emperor of the All-Russian", "Peter the Great", this already corresponded to the legal formalization of an absolute monarchy. The monarch was not limited in powers and rights by any administrative authorities and management. The power of the emperor was wide and strong to such an extent that Peter I violated the customs relating to the person of the monarch. In the military charter of 1716. and in maritime charter 1720 proclaimed: “ His Majesty is an autocratic monarch, who should not give an answer to anyone in his affairs, but has his own states and lands, like a Christian sovereign, to rule by his own will and goodwill.. « Monarchic power is autocratic power, which God himself commands for conscience to obey". The monarch was the head of state, church, supreme commander, the supreme judge, it was exclusively within his competence to declare war, conclude peace, sign treaties with foreign states. The monarch was the bearer of legislative and executive power.

In 1722, Peter I issued a Decree on the succession to the throne, according to which the monarch determined his successor "recognizing convenient", but had the right to deprive him of the throne, seeing "lewdness in the heir", "seeing a worthy one." Legislation defined actions against the tsar and the state as the most serious crimes. Anyone “who will contemplate what evil”, and those who “helped or gave advice or, knowing, did not inform”, were punished with the death penalty, tearing out their nostrils or deportation to the galleys, depending on the severity of the crime.

Activities of the Senate

Senate under Peter I

On February 22, 1711, a new state body was formed - the Governing Senate. Members of the Senate were appointed by the king from among his inner circle (at first, 8 people). These were the biggest figures of the time. Appointments and dismissals of senators took place according to the decrees of the king. The Senate was a permanent state collegial body. His competence included:

• the administration of justice;
• solving financial issues;
• general issues of management of trade and other sectors of the economy.

In the Decree of April 27, 1722 “On the position of the Senate”, Peter I gave detailed instructions on the activities of the Senate, regulated the composition, rights and duties of senators; the rules for the relationship of the Senate with the collegiums, provincial authorities and the prosecutor general are established. But the normative acts of the Senate did not have the highest legal force of law. The Senate only took part in the discussion of bills and interpreted the law. But in relation to all other organs, the Senate was the highest authority. The structure of the Senate did not take shape immediately. At first, the Senate consisted of senators and the office, and then two departments were formed: the Punishment Chamber (as a special department before the advent of the Justice College) and the Senate Office (which dealt with management issues). The Senate had its own chancellery, which was divided into several tables: provincial, secret, rank, order and fiscal.

The reprisal chamber consisted of two senators and judges appointed by the Senate, who regularly (monthly) submitted reports to the Senate on cases, fines and searches. The verdict of the Punishment Chamber could be canceled by the general presence of the Senate.

The main task of the Senate Office was to prevent the current affairs of Moscow institutions from the Governing Senate, the execution of decrees of the Senate, and control over the execution of senatorial decrees in the provinces. The Senate had auxiliary bodies: the racket master, the king of arms, provincial commissars. On April 9, 1720, the Senate established the position of "reception of petitions" (since 1722 - requetmaster), which received complaints about the collegiums and chancelleries. The duties of the king of arms included compiling lists in the state, nobles, observing that there was no more than 1/3 of each noble family in the civil service.

Provincial commissars oversaw local, military, financial affairs, recruitment, maintenance of regiments. The Senate was an obedient tool of autocracy: senators were personally responsible to the monarch, in case of violation of the oath, they were subjected to the death penalty or fell into disgrace, were dismissed from office, and were punished with fines.

Fiscality

With the development of absolutism, the institution of fiscals and prosecutors was established. Fiscality was a special branch of Senate administration. The chief fiscal (head of the fiscals) was attached to the Senate, but at the same time the fiscals were confidants of the tsar. The tsar appointed a chief fiscal who took an oath to the tsar and was responsible to him. The competence of the fiscals was indicated in the Decree of March 17, 1714: to inspect everything that “may be to the detriment of the state interest”; to report “on malicious intent against the person of His Majesty or treason, on indignation or rebellion”, “do not spies creep into the state”, the fight against bribery and embezzlement. The network of fiscals constantly began to be formed according to territorial and departmental principles. The provincial fiscal supervised the city fiscals and once a year "performed" control over them. In the ecclesiastical department, the fiscals were headed by the proto-inquisitor, in the dioceses by the provincial fiscals, and in the monasteries by the inquisitors. With the creation of the College of Justice, fiscal affairs came under its jurisdiction and control of the Senate, and after the establishment of the post of Prosecutor General, the fiscals began to obey him. In 1723 a general-fiscal is appointed - the highest body for fiscals. He had the right to demand any business. His assistant was the Chief Fiscal.

Organization of the Prosecutor's Office

By decree of January 12, 1722, the Prosecutor's Office was organized. Then, by subsequent decrees, prosecutors were established in the provinces and in the courts of the courts. The Prosecutor General and Chief Prosecutors were subject to the court of the Emperor himself. Prosecutorial oversight extended even to the Senate. The decree of April 27, 1722 established his competence: presence in the Senate (“look firmly so that the Senate keeps his position”), control over fiscals (“if something bad happens, immediately report to the Senate”).

In 1717-1719. - the period of formation of new institutions - colleges. Most colleges were created on the basis of orders and were their successors. The system of colleges did not take shape immediately. On December 14, 1717, 9 colleges were created: Military, Ingstranny, Berg, Revision, Admiralteyskaya, Yustits, Chambers, State Offices, Manufactories. A few years later there were already 13 of them. The presence of the board: president, vice president, 4-5 advisers, 4 assessors. Collegiate staff: secretary, notary, translator, actuary, copyist, registrar and clerk. The collegiums consisted of a fiscal (later a prosecutor), who exercised control over the activities of the collegiums and was subordinate to the prosecutor general. Colleges received decrees only from the monarch and the Senate, having the right not to execute the decrees of the Senate if they contradicted the decrees of the king.

Board activities

College of Foreign Affairs she was in charge of "all sorts of foreign and embassy affairs", coordinated the activities of diplomats, managed relations and negotiations with foreign ambassadors, carried out diplomatic correspondence.

Military board managed "all military affairs": recruiting the regular army, managing the affairs of the Cossacks, arranging hospitals, and providing the army. Military justice was in the system of the Military Collegium.

Admiralty board managed "the fleet with all naval military servants, to that belonging to maritime affairs and administrations." It included the Naval and Admiralty offices, as well as the Uniform, Waldmeister, Academic, Canal offices and Particular shipyard.

Board of Chambers she was supposed to carry out "higher supervision" of all types of fees (customs, drinking), watched the arable farming, collected data on the market and prices, controlled the salt mines and the monetary business.

Board of Chambers exercised control over public spending, constituted the state staff (the staff of the emperor, the states of all colleges, provinces, provinces). It had its own provincial bodies - renters, which were local treasuries.

Revision Board exercised financial control over the use of public funds by central and local authorities.

Berg College supervised the issues of the metallurgical industry, the management of mints and money yards, supervised the purchase of gold and silver abroad, judicial functions within its competence. A network of local Berg Collegiums was created.

Manufactory College dealt with issues of industry, in addition to mining, managed the manufactories of the Moscow province, the central and northeastern parts of the Volga region and Siberia; gave permission to open manufactories, regulated the execution of state orders, and provided benefits. Her competence also included: the exile of those convicted in criminal cases in manufactories, production control, and the supply of enterprises with materials. It did not have its own bodies in the provinces and provinces.

College of Commerce promoted the development of all branches of trade, especially foreign trade, carried out customs supervision, drew up customs charters and tariffs, monitored the correctness of measures and weights, was engaged in the construction and equipment of merchant ships, and performed judicial functions.

Justice College supervised the activities of provincial court courts; exercised judicial functions in criminal offenses, civil and fiscal cases; she headed an extensive judicial system, consisting of provincial lower and city courts, as well as court courts; acted as a court of first instance in "important and contentious" cases. Its decisions could be appealed to the Senate.

patrimonial board resolved land disputes and litigation, issued new land grants, considered complaints about “wrong decisions” in local and patrimonial cases.

secret office engaged in the investigation and prosecution of political crimes (for example, the case of Tsarevich Alexei). There were other central institutions (old surviving orders, medical office).

The building of the Senate and the Holy Synod

Activities of the Synod

The synod is the main central institution for ecclesiastical matters. The synod appointed bishops, exercised financial control, administered its fiefdoms, and exercised judicial functions in relation to heresies, blasphemy, schisms, and so on. Particularly important decisions were made by the general meeting - the conference.

Administrative-territorial division

Decree of December 18, 1708. introduced a new administrative-territorial division. Initially, 8 provinces were formed: Moscow, Ingermanland, Smolensk, Kiev, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberian provinces. In 1713-1714. three more: Nizhny Novgorod and Astrakhan provinces were separated from Kazan, and Riga province from Smolensk. At the head of the provinces were governors, governors-general, who exercised administrative, military and judicial power.

Governors were appointed by royal decrees only from among the nobles close to Peter I. The governors had assistants: the chief commandant regulated the military administration, the chief commissar and the chief provisions master - provincial and other fees, the landrichter - provincial justice, financial boundary and search affairs, the chief inspector - tax collection from cities and counties.

The province was divided into provinces (headed by the chief commandant), provinces into counties (headed by the commandant).

The commandants were subordinate to the chief commandant, the commandant to the governor, and the latter to the Senate. In the counties of cities where there were no fortresses and garrisons, landarts were the governing body.

50 provinces were created, which were divided into districts - districts. The provincial governors were subordinate to the governors only in military matters, otherwise they were independent of the governors. The governors were engaged in the search for runaway peasants and soldiers, the construction of fortresses, the collection of income from state-owned factories, they took care of the external security of the provinces, and from 1722. performed judicial functions.

The voevodas were appointed by the Senate and were subordinate to the boards. The main feature of local governments was that they performed both administrative and police functions.

The Burmister Chamber (Town Hall) was created with subordinate zemstvo huts. They were in charge of the commercial and industrial population of cities in terms of collecting taxes, duties and duties. But in the 20s. XVIII century city ​​government takes the form of magistrates. The Chief Magistrate and local magistrates were formed with the direct participation of governors and governors. The magistrates were subordinate to them in matters of court and trade. Provincial magistrates and magistrates of the cities included in the province were one of the links of the bureaucratic apparatus with the subordination of lower bodies to higher ones. Elections to the magistrates of the burmisters and ratmans were entrusted to the governor.

Creation of the army and navy

Peter I turned separate sets of "subjective people" into annual recruitment sets and created a permanent trained army in which the soldiers served for life.

petrovsky fleet

The creation of a recruiting system took place from 1699 to 1705. from the Decree of 1699 "On admission to the service of soldiers from all free people." The system was based on the class principle: officers were recruited from the nobility, soldiers from the peasants and other tax-paying population. For the period 1699-1725. 53 recruitments were carried out, which amounted to 284187 people. Decree of February 20, 1705. garrison internal troops were created, which ensured order within the country. The created Russian regular army showed itself in the battles of Lesnaya, Poltava and in other battles. The reorganization of the army was carried out by the Discharge Order, the Order of Military Affairs, the Order of the Commissar General, the Order of Artillery, etc. Subsequently, the Discharge Table and the Commissariat were formed, and in 1717. created the Military Board. The recruiting system made it possible to have a large combat-ready army.

Peter and Menshikov

The Russian fleet was also formed from drafted recruits. At the same time, the Marine Corps was created. The navy was created during the wars with Turkey and Sweden. With the help of the Russian fleet, Russia established itself on the shores of the Baltic, which raised its international prestige and made it a maritime power.

Judicial reform

It was held in 1719 and streamlined, centralized and strengthened the entire judicial system of Russia. The main task of the reform is to separate the court from the administration. At the head of the judicial system was the monarch, he decided the most important state affairs. The monarch, as the supreme judge, dealt with and decided many cases on his own. On his initiative, the Office of Investigative Affairs arose on his initiative, they helped him to carry out judicial functions. The Prosecutor General and the Chief Prosecutor were subject to the court of the king, and the Senate was the court of appeal. Senators were subject to trial by the Senate (for malfeasance). The Justice Collegium was the court of appeal in relation to the court courts, it was the governing body over all the courts. Regional courts consisted of court courts and lower courts.

The presidents of court courts were governors and vice-governors. Cases moved from the lower court to the court court on appeal.

Chamberlains judged cases concerning the treasury; governors and zemstvo commissars tried peasants for the escape. Judicial functions were performed by almost all collegiums, excluding the Collegium of Foreign Affairs.

Political cases were considered by the Preobrazhensky Prikaz and the Secret Chancellery. But since the order of passing cases through the instances was confused, governors and voivodes interfered in court cases, and judges in administrative ones, a new reorganization of the judiciary was carried out: the lower courts were replaced by provincial ones and passed to the voivodes and assessors, court courts and their functions were eliminated were given to the governors.

Thus, the court and the administration again merged into one body. Court cases were most often resolved slowly, accompanied by red tape and bribery.

The adversarial principle was replaced by the investigative one. In general, the judicial reform was especially unplanned and chaotic. The judicial system of the period of Peter's reforms was characterized by the process of strengthening centralization and bureaucratization, the development of estate justice and served the interests of the nobility.

The historian N. Ya. Danilevsky noted two aspects of the activity of Peter I: state and reform (“changes in everyday life, mores, customs and concepts”). In his opinion, "the first activity deserves eternal grateful, reverent memory and the blessing of posterity." By the activities of the second kind, Peter brought "the greatest harm to the future of Russia": "Life was forcibly turned upside down in a foreign way."

Monument to Peter I in Voronezh