Our account of military losses continues the account of casualties in the wars of the Napoleonic period.
These wars stand apart, because in terms of the number of victims they surpassed all the conflicts that were before in Europe. France at that time was at war with almost all European countries. The longest was the war with England (1803-1814), after a short break it resumed in 1815. With Austria - 1805, 1809, 1813-1815. With Prussia - 1806-1807, 1813-1815. With Russia - 1805-1807, 1812-1815. With Sweden - 1805-1807, 1812-1814. In addition, Napoleon fought with Spain, Portugal, Saxony, Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Sardinia, Holland, the Kingdom of Naples. Of all European countries France did not fight only with Denmark, which was her ally.
There are no exact data on losses for any country. However, the approximate losses can be determined (see table).

The number of soldiers and officers of the French and allied armies killed (including those who died from wounds) and wounded during the Napoleonic Wars

France suffered the greatest losses in wars with Russia.
And now we give a table of losses (total) in the largest battles of the Napoleonic wars.

Of all the countries that fought against Napoleon, Russia suffered the greatest losses. Only in the battle of Borodino, 9,252 people were killed, 19,226 were wounded, 10,028 were missing; total - 38 506 people.

Battle of Borodino

And here is a table of the total losses of the Russian army in the wars with Napoleon.

Second after Russian losses are the German states; followed by: Spain; Austria; England; Italian states; Portugal; Poland + Lithuania; Sweden + Denmark + Holland; Switzerland.
If we bring together all the data on those killed, we get the following table:

Thus, we can see that France accounts for 40% of all those killed.
During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia also fought other wars.

Russian-Swedish (1898-1809)

The most bloody battles: at Orovais (Finland) - the Russians lost 400 people killed, 700 people wounded; under Sevar (Bulgaria): Russians: killed and wounded - 1.5 thousand, Swedes: killed and wounded - 2 thousand. In total, Russia lost 7 thousand people killed and wounded in this war. Sweden has been defeated. Finland was annexed to Russia.
Russian-Turkish (1806-1812)
Russian losses (killed and wounded) - 24.7 thousand people; Turks (killed and wounded) - 29.6 thousand people. The war ended with the defeat of Turkey. Bessarabia was annexed to Russia.

The results of the Russian-Turkish war

In addition, Russia waged wars with Persia, England, undertook Caucasian campaigns.
England was at war with the USA.
The Spanish-Portuguese, Anglo-Danish, Austro-Neapolitan wars were also fought.
Total in the wars of 1800-1815. (not counting the Napoleonic ones) 93 thousand people were killed.
During this period there were national liberation wars: the war of the Serbs against the Turks (1804-1816); uprising in Calabria (Italy) 1805-1807. The total number of those killed in the national liberation wars was approximately 25 thousand people.
The total number of those killed in all wars of this period was. Approximately 680 thousand people.

Died of wounds

Military medicine of that time was still at a low level. There are few medical personnel, their low qualification, poorly organized delivery to infirmaries. The mortality rate was 10-11%. If we compare different sources and derive the average figure of the wounded, it will be approximately 2 million 100 thousand people. With the indicated mortality rate, the number of deaths from wounds will be approximately 220 thousand people. Thus, the total amount of irretrievable losses of the wars of the Napoleonic period, taking into account the number of those killed - 680 thousand, - amounted to 900 thousand people.

Non-combat losses

As in the previous century, epidemics accounted for a large percentage of non-combat casualties. In particular, epidemics of typhus.
During the Napoleonic campaign against Moscow, French troops mowed down epidemics of dysentery, and then typhus. In addition, French soldiers were dying from the cold (the winter was harsh that year), and food shortages and death from starvation even led to cannibalism.
Here is what French sources say about Napoleon's losses in Russia: 100 thousand were killed in battle and died of wounds, 200 thousand died of starvation, exhaustion, cold and disease, 100 thousand were captured, and 50 were in hospitals. thousand, deserted - 50 thousand; total - 500 thousand people.
During the retreat from Russia, the French army, pursued by Russian troops, also suffered heavy losses.
A high mortality rate was registered in hospitals located in Germany (see table).

Of course, in addition to Germany, French soldiers also died in hospitals in other countries. In addition, it is worth considering the colonial campaigns of Napoleon. After analyzing the materials on French sanitary losses in all wars, we can draw the following conclusions:

At the same time there was a war between Sweden against Russia and Denmark (1808-1809). Losses from diseases in this war amounted to 20 thousand people.
The Russian army suffered especially badly from diseases in the war with Turkey, which was largely facilitated by the unusual southern climate. The soldiers suffered from swamp fever (malaria), dysentery, and typhus.
For reference
Malaria- a group of infectious diseases transmitted to humans when bitten by female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles ("malarial mosquitoes") and accompanied by fever, chills, an increase in the size of the spleen, an increase in the size of the liver, and anemia.

Losses of the Russian army during the Russo-Turkish war of 1810

Turkish losses were even greater. The number of deaths from diseases amounted to 90 thousand, which was three times the number of those killed.
Finally, some more statistics.

Comparison of the number of wounded with the number of those killed in the Napoleonic army (by officers)

Thus, the number of wounded exceeds the number of those killed and those who died from wounds by 220%.

Comparison of the number of wounded with the number of those killed in the Napoleonic army by individual officer ranks

Losses among the officers of the Napoleonic army by individual branches of service

The table shows that two-thirds of all losses were in infantry.

Losses of generals in the battles of the Napoleonic wars compared with the losses of privates

In terms of the number of battles during this period, the following wars are leading:
- the war of France with Austria - 34 battles (11 battles per month);
- war of the 3rd coalition - 27 battles (7 battles per month);
- War of the 6th coalition - 86 battles (6 battles per month);
- Napoleon's campaign against Moscow - 31 battles (5.2 battles per month);
- the war of France against Russia and Prussia - 46 battles (5 battles per month);
- War of the "Hundred Days" period - 12 battles (3.6 battles per month);
- the war of France in Spain - 95 battles (1.26 battles per month);
- Russian-Turkish war - 20 battles (0.33 battles per month).

The total number of soldiers and officers killed and died in the wars of the Napoleonic period

The total losses during the period of the Napoleonic wars were as follows: wars between states - 3 million 295 thousand, national liberation and civil wars- 60 thousand, colonial wars - 102 thousand; total - 3 million 457 thousand people.

This is a brief digression into the history of military losses in the wars of the Napoleonic period. The following material will focus on the losses in the wars of the XIX (after the Napoleonic) - the beginning of the XX (before the First World War) centuries.

To be continued

There is this observation:
Generals are always preparing for the last war

In the 19th century there were two world wars: the Napoleonic Wars, which ended in the Patriotic War of 1812 and the entry of the Russians into Paris in 1814, and Crimean War 1853 - 1856.

There were also two world wars in the 20th century: the First (1911-1914) and the Second (1938-1945).

Thus, in the current history we have four large-scale world wars, to which four parts of this material are devoted.

The Napoleonic Wars are one of the stages in the development of the Western project, during which the era of the “gold standard” was opened, Switzerland became eternally neutral, and another attempt was made to resolve the “Russian question”. About this - in our material.

THE FRENCH AS A MEANS

DESTRUCTION OF EMPIRES

Anti-French coalitions are temporary military-political alliances of European states that sought to restore the Bourbon monarchy in France, which fell during the French Revolution of 1789-1799. A total of 7 coalitions were created. In fact, the Napoleonic Wars are the First World War XIX century, which ended in Paris in 1814. Waterloo, on the other hand, is a more internal police operation of the West against Napoleon, who has already “won back his own”.

In the scientific literature, the first two coalitions are called "anti-revolutionary", which were the reaction of European monarchies to the changes in global politics that marked the bourgeois revolution in France. However, in the course of the actions of these seemingly “anti-revolutionary” coalitions, they broke up in Europe and disappeared from the political map:

sacred The Roman Empire,

Prussian kingdom,

french empire Napoleon

also happened palace coup in Russia, which abruptly changed its course (it came to the performance of the Decembrists in 1825).

And the stage of spreading the ideology of liberalism at the global level began. However, starting from the third - these coalitions were called "anti-Napoleonic". Why? Let's look further.

I anti-French coalition (1791-1797)

It consisted of: England, Prussia, Naples, Tuscany, Austria, Spain, Holland, Russia.

In 1789, a bourgeois revolution took place in France. On July 14, the rebels seized the Bastille with a roar. The bourgeois system was established in the country. In St. Petersburg, the revolution that had begun was considered at first an everyday rebellion caused by temporary financial difficulties and the personal qualities of King Louis XVI. With the growth of the revolution in St. Petersburg, they began to fear the spread of the revolution to all the feudal-absolutist countries of Europe. The fears of the Russian court were shared by the kings of Prussia and Austria.

In 1790, an alliance was concluded between Austria and Prussia with the aim of military intervention in the internal affairs of France, but they limited themselves to developing plans for intervention and providing material assistance to French emigration and the counter-revolutionary nobility inside the country (Catherine loaned 2 million rubles to create a mercenary army).

In March 1793, a convention was signed between Russia and England on a mutual obligation to assist each other in the fight against France: to close their ports to French ships and prevent France from trading with neutral countries (Catherine II sent Russian warships to England to blockade the French coast).

At the end of 1795, a counter-revolutionary tripartite alliance was concluded between Russia, England and Austria (in Russia, preparations began for a 60,000-strong expeditionary corps for operations against France).

Paul I did not send a corps equipped in August 1796 to help Austria, and declared to his allies (Austria, England and Prussia) that Russia was exhausted by previous wars. Russia left the coalition. Paul I at the diplomatic level tried to limit the military successes of France.

In 1797, Napoleon captured Malta, an island under the personal protection of Paul I, which prompted Paul to declare war. The history of the capture of Malta is very interesting in itself, so we advise you to read - https://www.proza.ru/2013/03/30/2371.

French landing in Malta

Napoleon himself later wrote in his memoirs that

“decisive for the fate of the Order was that he surrendered himself under the patronage of Emperor Paul - the enemy of France ... Russia sought to dominate this island, which has such great importance by virtue of its position, the convenience and security of its port and the strength of its fortifications. Seeking patronage in the North, the Order did not take into account and jeopardized the interests of the powers of the South ... ".

The capture of Malta was fatal for Napoleon, because he thereby involved Paul in the Napoleonic wars and predetermined Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. But these events were also fatal for Paul, because during the Napoleonic wars he began to draw closer to Napoleon, dooming himself to death.

II anti-French coalition (1798-1800)

It consisted of: Great Britain, the Ottoman Empire, the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Naples.

II anti-French coalition was created in 1798 as part of Austria, Ottoman Empire, England and the Kingdom of Naples. The military forces of Russia participated in military operations at sea (in alliance with the Ottoman fleet) and on land (together with Austria).

The Black Sea squadron under the command of F.F. Ushakova in the fall of 1798 through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles entered the Mediterranean Sea, and then into the Adriatic Sea, where, together with the Turkish fleet, she captured the Ionian Islands and stormed the fortress of Corfu.

The capture of the fortress of Corfu by a united Russian-Turkish squadron under the command of F.F. Ushakov

The offensive of the Russian-Austrian army under the command of Suvorov (about 43 thousand people) to Genoa, followed by the complete expulsion of the French army from Italy, seemed like a natural next step. The command of the combined Russian-Austrian troops was entrusted to A. V. Suvorov.

On April 15-17, 1799, Suvorov defeated the French at the Adda River. After that, in 5 weeks it was possible to expel the French from Northern Italy. Milan and Turin were liberated without a fight.

The Austrians did not provide Suvorov troops with food, provided incorrect maps of the area and, without waiting for the troops to approach Switzerland, left Rimsky-Korsakov's corps alone in front of superior enemy forces.

Hurrying to the rescue, Suvorov chose the shortest and most dangerous path - through the Alps, the Saint Gotthard Pass (September 24, 1799 - the battle for the Devil's Bridge).

Suvorov crossing the Devil's Bridge. Artist A. E. Kotzebue

But help to Rimsky-Korsakov came too late - he was defeated.

Fifteen thousand grenadiers descend from the Alps and Pavel returns them to Russia.

England and Austria took advantage of Russian victories. Due to the fact that England, like Austria, did not show due concern for the Russian auxiliary corps, located in Holland and operating against the French, and due to the fact that the British occupied after the release of Fr. Malta, and the Austrians occupied Northern Italy left by Suvorov, Paul I breaks off relations with them and concludes new alliances.

Peace is made with France and an alliance is signed with Prussia against Austria and simultaneously with Prussia, Sweden and Denmark against England.

On December 4-6, 1800, at the initiative of Paul I, a convention on armed neutrality was concluded between Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Denmark.

On January 12, 1801, Paul I gave an order according to which 22.5 thousand Cossacks with 24 guns under the command of Vasily Petrovich Orlov (1745-1801), the military ataman of the Don Cossack army, were to make the Indian campaign - to reach Khiva and Bukhara and capture the British India. The Cossacks set out on a campaign on February 28.

February 9 and March 11, 1801- decrees were issued prohibiting the release of Russian goods from British ports and along the entire western border, not only to England, but also to Prussia. An embargo was imposed on British merchant ships in Russian ports.

The conspirators wanted to date the denouement to March 15 - the "Ides of March" that brought death to the tyrant Caesar, but third-party events accelerated the decision, since the emperor came to the conclusion by the evening or night of March 8 that "they want to repeat 1762". The conspirators fussed.

Fonvizin in his notes describes the reaction of his subjects as follows:

“In the midst of the many assembled courtiers, the conspirators and murderers of Paul boldly paced. They, who did not sleep the night, half-drunk, disheveled, as if proud of their crime, dreamed that they would reign with Alexander.
Decent people in Russia, disapproving of the means by which they got rid of Paul's tyranny, rejoiced at his fall. Historiographer Karamzin says that the news of this event was a message of redemption throughout the state: in houses, on the streets, people cried, hugged each other, as on the day of the Holy Resurrection. However, this enthusiasm was expressed by one nobility, other estates accepted this news rather indifferently.».

Alexander I came to the throne, as a result of which the general atmosphere in the country immediately changed. Nevertheless, Alexander himself was deeply traumatized by the assassination, which may have prompted his turn to mysticism late in life. Fonvizin describes his reaction to the news of the murder:

“When it was all over, and he learned the terrible truth, his grief was inexpressible and reached despair. The memory of that terrible night haunted him all his life and poisoned him with secret sadness.

On the eve of the death of Paul, Napoleon came close to concluding an alliance with Russia. The assassination of Paul I in March 1801 postponed this possibility for a long time - until the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807. Relations with England, on the contrary, were renewed.

III anti-French coalition (1805)

Unlike the first two, it was exclusively defensive in nature. It consisted of: Russia, England, Austria, Sweden. Russian diplomacy took part in the formation of a coalition consisting of England, Austria, Sweden and Sicily.

The goal of restoring the Bourbons was not set. The coalition was created to stop the further spread of French expansion in Europe and protect the rights of Prussia, Switzerland, Holland and Italy. England was especially interested in creating a coalition, since 200,000 French soldiers stood on the English Channel, ready to land on Foggy Albion.

September 9, 1805 - The Austrian army invades Bavaria. However, already on September 25-26, she was defeated by the French army and began to retreat, having heavy losses. And on October 20, the Austrian army capitulated. And on November 13, Vienna was taken.

On November 10, 1805, Russian troops united with Austrian reinforcements and occupied the Olshansky positions.

On November 20, 1805, in the "Battle of the Three Emperors" - Napoleon, Alexander I and Franz II - near Austerlitz, the combined Russian-Austrian troops were defeated by the French.

Cuadro de François Gérard, 1810, neoclasicismo. Batalla de Austerlitz

On December 26, 1805, Austria signed a peace treaty with France in Pressburg, leaving the war with major territorial and political losses. The Holy Roman Empire of the German nation ceased to exist.

IV anti-French coalition (1806-1807)

It consisted of: Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Saxony, Sweden.

On June 19 and July 12, secret allied declarations were signed between Russia and Prussia. In the autumn of 1806, a coalition was formed consisting of England, Sweden, Prussia, Saxony and Russia.

October 14, 1806 - the battle of Jena and Auerstedt, in which the Prussian army was completely defeated by the French. The army as an organized force of Prussia ceased to exist in one day. Following this the collapse of the Prussian kingdom, which was conquered by the French army within three weeks.

November 21, 1806 in Berlin, Napoleon signed a decree on the "blockade of the British Isles". In 1807, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands joined the continental blockade, after Tilsit - Russia and Prussia, in 1809 - Austria.

On January 26 - 27, 1807, a battle took place near Preussisch-Eylau, where the army of Russian and Prussian soldiers repulsed all the attacks of the French.

On June 9 (21), 1807, a truce was signed and 2 days later it was ratified by Alexander I. On June 13 (25), a meeting of two emperors took place on a raft in the middle of the Neman River opposite the city of Tilsit.

Meeting on the Neman Alexander I and Napoleon. Engraving by Lamo and Miesbach. 1st thurs. 19th century

V Anti-French Coalition (1809)

The anti-French coalition formed after the destruction of Napoleon's Great Army in Russia during the Russian campaign of 1812.

The coalition included: Russia, Sweden, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia (the last two were allies of France until the beginning of 1813).

April 5, 1812 The Treaty of St. Petersburg was signed between Russia and Sweden. After the start of Napoleon's invasion of Russia, on July 6 (18), 1812, the Treaty of Örebrus was signed between Russia and Great Britain, which eliminated the state of war between the two powers that had existed since 1807. On December 18 (30), 1812, in Taurogen, the Prussian General York signed a convention of neutrality with the Russians and withdrew troops to Prussia.

FIRST PATRIOTIC WAR

Russia's participation in the continental blockade, established by Napoleon by a special decree of November 21, 1806, and directed against England, had a detrimental effect on the Russian economy. In particular, the volume foreign trade Russia for 1808 - 1812 decreased by 43%. And France, Russia's new ally under the Tilsit peace treaty, could not compensate for this damage, since Russia's economic ties with France were insignificant.

The continental blockade completely upset Russian finances. Already in 1809, the budget deficit increased by 12.9 times compared to 1801 (from 12.2 million to 157.5 million rubles).

Therefore, the reasons for the Patriotic War of 1812 were Russia's refusal to actively support the continental blockade, in which Napoleon saw the main weapon against Great Britain, as well as Napoleon's policy towards European states, which was carried out without taking into account the interests of Russia, or rather, how they were seen by Alexander, ascended to the throne. I.

Whatever some historians say about Napoleon's aggression in 1812, on the eve of the war, Russia itself was preparing for an attack. And Alexander I, back in the autumn of 1811, offered Prussia to “slay the monster” with a preemptive strike. The Russian army even began to prepare for the next campaign against Napoleon, and only the treachery of Prussia prevented Alexander from starting the war first - Napoleon was ahead of him.

The Russian monarch did not favor Napoleon. For Alexander, the war with him was

“... an act of struggle of his personal pride, regardless of those political reasons who called her, - writes the historian M.V. Dovnar-Zapolsky. - Despite the appearance of friendly relations, the "Byzantine Greek", as Napoleon characterized his Tilsit friend, could never endure the humiliation he experienced.
Alexander never forgot anything and never forgave anything, although he was remarkably able to hide his true feelings. Moreover, Alexander, like his opponent, liked to indulge in dreams of such activities that would pursue world interests.
It is not surprising that the war took on a double meaning in Alexander's eyes: firstly, a sense of pride prompted him to take revenge on his rival, and ambitious dreams took Alexander far beyond the borders of Russia, and the good of Europe occupied the first place in them. Despite the setbacks - and even more so, as the setbacks grew, Alexander grew firmer to continue the war until the enemy was completely destroyed. The very first significant failures exacerbated the feeling of revenge in Alexander.

It is clear that this development of events did not suit some groups in the West (it is clear that most of them were in Great Britain), so the English ambassador was an accomplice in a conspiracy against Paul I.

Far-sighted, I must say, acted British intelligence. Postponed the fall of colonial Britain by almost a hundred years! The story eventually went along the event branch, on which Napoleon invades Russia.

June 22 - 24, 1812. Troops of the Great Army of Napoleon cross the Neman, invading the territory of Russia

According to the calculations of the military historian Clausewitz, the army of the invasion of Russia, together with reinforcements during the war, consisted of 610 thousand soldiers, including 50 thousand soldiers of Austria and Prussia. That is, we can talk about a united European army. With the support or at least non-intervention of the rest of Europe, until March 1813.

On January 18 (30), 1813, an agreement similar to the Taurogen one was signed by the commander of the Austrian corps, General Schwarzenberg (Truce of Zeichen), after which he surrendered Warsaw without a fight and left for Austria.

The official act that secured the formation of the 6th coalition was the Kalisz Union Treaty between Russia and Prussia, signed on February 15 (27), 1813 in Breslau and on February 16 (28), 1813 in Kalisz.

At the beginning of 1813, only Russia waged war against Napoleon in central Europe.. Prussia entered into a coalition with Russia in March 1813, then England, Austria and Sweden joined in the summer of the same year, and after the defeat of Napoleon in the Battle of the Nations near Leipzig in October 1813, the German states of Württemberg and Bavaria joined the coalition. Doesn't remind you of anything, does it?

Spain, Portugal and England fought independently with Napoleon in the Iberian Peninsula. Active fighting were fought for a year from May 1813 to April 1814 with a 2-month truce in the summer of 1813.

In 1813, the war against Napoleon was waged with varying success in Germany, mainly in Prussia and Saxony. In 1814, the fighting moved to the territory of France and ended by April 1814 with the capture of Paris and the abdication of Napoleon from power.

Treaty of Paris 1814- a peace treaty between the participants of the sixth anti-French coalition (Russia, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia), on the one hand, and Louis XVIII, on the other. Signed in Paris on May 30 (May 18, old style). Later, Sweden, Spain and Portugal joined the treaty. The treaty provided for the retention by France of the borders that existed on January 1, 1792, with the addition of only part of the Duchy of Savoy, the former papal possessions of Avignon and Venesesnes, and small strips of land on the northern and eastern border, previously owned by the Austrian Netherlands and various German states (including the purely German town of Saarbrücken with rich coal mines), only about 5 thousand km² and more than one million inhabitants.
Most of the colonial possessions lost during the Napoleonic Wars were returned to France. Sweden and Portugal returned to France all the colonies taken from it; England retained only Tobago and Saint Lucia in the West Indies and the island of St. Mauritius in Africa, but returned Spain Haiti. France was allowed to keep all the objects of art it seized, with the exception of the trophies taken from the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin and the abductions made in the Vienna library. She was not obligated to pay a contribution.
The Netherlands regained its independence and were returned to the House of Orange. Switzerland was declared independent. Italy, with the exception of the Austrian provinces, was to consist of independent states. The German principalities were united in an alliance. Freedom of navigation on the Rhine and Scheldt was declared. France, by special agreement with England, undertook to abolish the slave trade in her colonies. Finally, it was decided that representatives of all the powers that had taken part in the war would convene, within two months, for a congress in Vienna to resolve the still outstanding questions.

As for the war with Russia, which became inevitable, then, having lost it, Napoleon spoke as follows:

“I did not want this famous war, this bold enterprise, I had no desire to fight. Alexander did not have such a desire, but the prevailing circumstances pushed us towards each other: fate did the rest.

But did "rock" do it?

THE ROLE OF FREEMASONRY IN THE ASCENT AND

THE FALL OF NAPOLEON

Once upon a time, the arbitrariness of would-be revolutionaries brought Napoleon Bonaparte to power. Why? Yes, because the Freemasons, who saw that the revolution did not go at all where they wanted, needed a strong hand to suppress the raging revolutionary fanatics and extremists. The famous Austrian statesman and diplomat Prince Clemens von Metternich remarked on this:

“Napoleon, who himself was a Freemason when he was a young officer, was admitted and even supported by this secret power in order to protect himself from a great evil, namely, from the return of the Bourbons.”

In addition, Masons considered Napoleon an effective tool for the destruction of European monarchies and after such a gigantic purge, they hoped that it would be easier for them to carry out their plan to build a world republic.

“Masonry decided to follow Napoleon on its own, and therefore on the 18th day of Brumaire it was helped by the most influential revolutionaries,” the author of the book “The Secret Power of Freemasonry” A.A. Selyaninov explains: “They thought that Napoleon would govern France by their proxy.”

Napoleon with Masonic Hidden Hand

But Napoleon, nominated by the Freemasons, gradually began to crush Freemasonry for himself. First he became consul, then first consul, then consul for life, and then emperor. Finally, the moment came when it became clear to everyone that the interests of Napoleon, who used the Masons for his exaltation, and the Masons, who had high hopes for him, diverged.

The revolutionary dictator turned into an autocratic despot, and the Freemasons changed their attitude towards him.

"Secret societies turned sharply against him when he discovered a desire to restore a staunch, conservative autocracy to his own interests,"

Montaigne de Ponsin testified. By the winter of 1812, it became quite clear that Napoleon had completely lost the campaign.

On October 23, 1812, a rather strange coup attempt took place in Paris, organized by General Male. Of course, the conspirators were arrested and shot, but the behavior of the city authorities that day turned out to be extremely passive. Moreover, one gets the impression that the news inspired by the conspirators that Napoleon died in Russia made many very happy.

In 1813, a series of defeats that began in Russia followed, and in January 1814, the allied armies crossed the Rhine and entered French territory. Louis d'Estamp and Claudio Jeannet, in their book Freemasonry and Revolution, write on this subject:

“From February 1814, realizing that it was impossible to resist the royalist tendencies, the strength of which was growing every day, Freemasonry decided that it was necessary to abandon Napoleon and begin to curry favor with the new regime in order to save at least what was left of the revolution.”

On March 31, 1814, Paris capitulated. When the allied troops entered France, the Parisian Freemasons decided to open the doors to their brothers - Masonic officers of hostile armies.

And already on May 4, 1814, they held a banquet dedicated to the restoration of the Bourbons. The further events of Napoleon's "hundred days" and the Battle of Waterloo are in fact a police operation of the West, and not a continuation of the Napoleonic Wars, which by that time had solved some European problems, without solving, however, the "Russian question".

Early 19th century was a dramatic period in European history. For almost 15 years in a row, battles thundered in Europe, blood was shed, states collapsed and borders were redrawn. Napoleonic France was at the center of the events. She won a number of victories over other powers, but was ultimately defeated and lost all her conquests.

Establishment of the dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte

At the end of 1799, a coup d'etat took place in France, as a result of which the Directory was overthrown, and power actually passed to General Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1804 he became emperor under the name of Napoleon I. The First Republic, proclaimed in 1792, fell and the First Empire was established in France.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was born on the island of Corsica into a poor noble family. After studying at the Paris Military School, he served in the army and became a general at the age of 24. Napoleon worked up to 20 hours a day, read and thought a lot, studied history and literature well. He combined iron will with exorbitant ambition, a thirst for power and glory.

The French emperor wanted to rule the country alone. He established dictatorial rule and became an absolute ruler. Criticism of his policies threatened arrest and even death. For faithful service, Napoleon generously rewarded with lands, castles, ranks and orders.

Napoleon on the St. Bernard Pass, 1801. Jacques Louis David.
The painting was commissioned by the emperor, executed with picturesque brilliance, but cold and pompous
The image of Napoleon is idealized.

Unlike pre-revolutionary royal France, in which the nobility dominated, imperial France was dominated by the big bourgeoisie. Napoleon defended primarily the interests of the bankers, but he was also supported by wealthy peasants. They were afraid that if the overthrown Bourbon dynasty came to power, feudal orders would be restored and the lands acquired during the revolution would be taken away. The emperor was afraid of the workers and did not allow them to go on strike.

In general, Napoleon's policy contributed to the growth of industrial and agricultural production, the preservation and increase of wealth, although a lot of money was spent on military purposes. In 1804, France adopted the "Civil Code" (a set of laws), which provided for the protection of property, large and small, from any encroachment. Subsequently, he served as a model for legislators in many countries.

The main foreign policy goal of the empire was the establishment of French dominance in Europe and throughout the world. No one has yet managed to conquer the whole world. Napoleon was sure that he could defeat everyone by force of arms. For this, a large, well-armed, trained army was formed, talented military leaders were selected.

Wars of 1800 - 1807

By the beginning of the XIX century. the French already ruled in the territory of a number of modern states - Belgium, Luxembourg, Holland, Switzerland, parts of Germany and Italy. Continuing the aggressive policy, Napoleon in 1800 defeated Austria, forced her to recognize all the French conquests and withdraw from the war. Of the great powers, England alone continued the struggle against France. She had the most developed industry and the most powerful fleet, but the British land army was weaker than the French. Therefore, she needed allies to continue the fight against Napoleon. In 1805, Russia and Austria entered into an alliance with England, having large land forces and worried about France's plans for conquest.

Active hostilities resumed at sea and on land.

Napoleon Bonaparte. English caricature, 1810.
“At home and abroad, I rule with the help of fear, which I inspire in everyone,” Napoleon said about himself.

In October 1805, an English squadron under the command of Admiral Nelson almost completely destroyed the French fleet at Cape Trafalgar. But on land, Napoleon was successful. On December 2, he won a major victory over the Russian-Austrian army near Austerlitz (now the city of Slavkov in the Czech Republic). Bonaparte considered her the most brilliant of the forty battles he had won. Austria was forced to make peace and cede Venice and some other possessions to France. Prussia, worried about the victories of Napoleon, entered the war against France.

But Prussia also suffered a crushing defeat, and in October 1806 French troops entered Berlin. Here Napoleon issued a decree on the continental blockade, forbidding the French and countries dependent on France to trade with England. He sought to suffocate his opponent with economic isolation, but France itself also lost by stopping the import of many necessary English products.

Military operations meanwhile moved to East Prussia. Here Napoleon won several victories over the Russian troops, which came at the cost of great effort. The French army was weakened. Therefore, on July 7, 1807, in Tilsit (now the city of Sovetsk in the Kaliningrad region), France signed a treaty of peace and alliance with Russia. From Prussia, Napoleon took more than half of its territory.

From Tilsit to Waterloo

After the signing of the Treaty of Tilsit, French troops entered Spain and Portugal. In Spain, they first encountered popular resistance - a broad partisan movement began here - the guerrilla. Near Baylen in 1808, Spanish partisans captured an entire French division. “It seems that my troops are not commanded by experienced generals, but by postmasters,” Napoleon was indignant. The national liberation movement also intensified in Portugal and Germany.

In the battle of Leipzig, known as the "Battle of the Nations" (October 1813), Napoleon suffered a crushing defeat: 60,000 soldiers from his 190,000-strong army died.

The French emperor first decided to pacify the Spaniards and entered Madrid at the head of a large army. But soon he had to return to Paris, as a new war with Austria was brewing. The conquest of the Iberian Peninsula was never completed.

The Franco-Austrian war of 1809 proved to be short-lived. In July, Napoleon won a decisive victory at Wagram and took away a significant part of Austria's possessions.

The French empire reached the pinnacle of its power and glory. Its borders stretched from the Elbe to the Tiber, and 70 million people lived in it. A number of states were in vassal dependence on France.

Napoleon's next task was to subjugate Russian Empire. The campaign against Russia in 1812 ended in complete disaster for him. Almost the entire French army perished, the emperor himself barely escaped. Exhausted France could not stop the offensive of the troops of its opponents (Russia, Prussia, Austria) - on March 31, 1814 they entered Paris. Napoleon abdicated and was exiled by the victors to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean. In France, the Bourbon dynasty, overthrown by the revolution of the 18th century, was restored, Louis XVIII became king.

A few months later, the reign of Louis XVIII, who sought to revive the pre-revolutionary order, caused strong discontent among the population. Taking advantage of this, Napoleon landed in the south of France with a small detachment of a thousand soldiers and moved to Paris. The peasants greeted him with cries of “Death to the Bourbons! Long live the Emperor!" The soldiers went over to his side.

On March 20, 1815, Napoleon entered Paris and restored the empire. But a military alliance was formed against him, which included many states of Europe. On June 18, 1815, British and Prussian troops inflicted a final defeat on the Napoleonic army at Waterloo in Belgium. After 100 days of reign, Napoleon abdicated a second time and was exiled to Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean. This episode in French history is called the "Hundred Days" period.

On Saint Helena, Napoleon dictated a memoir in which he recognized the invasion of Spain and Russia as his two biggest mistakes. May 5, 1821 Napoleon died. In 1840 his ashes were reburied in Paris.

Results and significance of the Napoleonic wars

The Napoleonic Wars had a controversial impact on European history. Being predatory in nature, they were accompanied by robberies and violence against entire peoples. They killed about 1.7 million people. At the same time, the bourgeois empire of Napoleon pushed the feudal countries of Europe onto the path of capitalist development. In the territories occupied by French troops, feudal orders were partially destroyed, new laws were introduced.

THIS IS INTERESTING TO KNOW

A striking example, testifying to the unusual dependence and obsequiousness of French newspapers. After Napoleon landed in France in March 1815, the tone of the newspaper reports changed every day as he approached Paris. "The Corsican ogre has landed in the Bay of Juan," said the first report. Later newspapers reported: "The tiger arrived at Cannes", "The monster spent the night in Grenoble", "The tyrant passed through Lyon", "The usurper is heading for Dijon" and, finally, "His Imperial Majesty is expected today in his faithful Paris."

References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhehovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / The World History New time XIX - early. XX century., 1998.

Introduction

Napoleonic anti-French coalition war

The Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815) were fought by France during the years of the Consulate and Empire of Napoleon I against coalitions of European states.

Of course, one cannot explore the Napoleonic Wars without the personality of Napoleon himself. He wanted to do the same thing that the Romans wanted to do with the world - to civilize it, erase the borders, turning Europe into one country, with common money, weights, civil laws, local self-government, the flourishing of sciences and crafts ... He took the Great French Revolution with ardor approval. His activities in Corsica and the mastery of the city of Toulon was the beginning of the rapid ascent of Bonaparte in military service.

Bonaparte proved to be a remarkable master of strategy and maneuvering tactics. Fighting against a numerically superior enemy. Victorious wars with coalitions of powers, brilliant victories, a huge expansion of the territory of the empire contributed to the transformation of N. I into the actual ruler of all Western (except Great Britain) and Central Europe.

All Napoleonic wars were fought in the interests of the French bourgeoisie, which sought to establish its military-political and commercial-industrial hegemony in Europe, annex new territories to France and win the fight against Great Britain for world trade and colonial superiority. The Napoleonic wars, which did not stop until the fall of the empire of Napoleon I, were on the whole wars of conquest. They were conducted in the interests of the French bourgeoisie, which sought to consolidate its military-political and commercial-industrial dominance on the continent, pushing the British bourgeoisie into the background. But they also contained progressive elements, tk. objectively contributed to the undermining of the foundations of the feudal system and cleared the way for the development of capitalist relations in a number of European states: (the abolition of dozens of small feudal states in Germany, the introduction of the Napoleonic civil code in some conquered countries, the confiscation and sale of part of the monastic lands, the elimination of a number of privileges of the nobility, etc.). The main opponents of France during the Napoleonic Wars were England, Austria and Russia.

1. Causes and nature of the Napoleonic wars

The Napoleonic era had not only a military-political aspect, in many respects the war acquired a universal character, turned into a war of economies and peoples, something that later became an axiom in the 20th century during the years of two world wars. If earlier the war had the character of military clashes of relatively small professional armies, then in the Napoleonic era, all spheres of public and state life of the participating countries were already permeated by war. The nature of the armed forces also changed; they began to turn into mass armies. This inevitably led to changes in the relationship between state and public institutions.

There are several opinions about the nature of the Napoleonic wars and the reasons that caused them. To name just a few of them: the continuation of the revolutionary wars of the French Republic, the fruit of the exorbitant ambition of one person (Napoleon), the desire of the feudal "old regime" states to destroy this person (Napoleon), the continuation of the centuries-old confrontation between France and England for dominance in the world, the struggle between the ideologies of the new and the old regimes (that is, the clash of young capitalism with feudalism).

2. First anti-French coalition 1793-1797

The revolution that took place in France in 1789 had a strong effect on the states adjacent to it and prompted their governments to resort to decisive measures against the menacing danger. Emperor Leopold II and King Friedrich Wilhelm II of Prussia, at a personal meeting in Pilnitz, agreed to stop the spread of revolutionary principles. They were also encouraged to do so by the insistence of the French emigrants, who made up a corps of troops in Koblenz under the command of the Prince of Condé. Military preparations were begun, but the monarchs for a long time did not dare to open hostilities. The initiative was taken by France, which on April 20, 1792 declared war on Austria for its hostile actions against France. Austria and Prussia entered into a defensive and offensive alliance, which was gradually joined by almost all other German states, as well as Spain, Piedmont and the Kingdom of Naples.

Hostilities began with the invasion of French troops into the possessions of the German states on the Rhine, followed by the invasion of coalition troops into France. Soon the enemies were repulsed and France itself began active military operations against the coalition - it invaded Spain, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Western German states. Soon, in 1793, the battle of Toulon took place, where the young and talented commander Napoleon Bonaparte first showed himself. After a series of victories, the enemies were forced to recognize the French Republic and all its conquests (with the exception of the British), but then, after the deterioration of the situation in France, the war resumed.

3. Second anti-French coalition (1798-1801)

The conditional date of the start of the Napoleonic Wars is considered to be the establishment in France during the coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9), 1799, of the military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte, who became the first consul. At this time, the country was already at war with the 2nd anti-French coalition, which was formed in 1798-99 by England, Russia, Austria, Turkey and the Kingdom of Naples.

Having come to power, Bonaparte directed the English king and to the Austrian emperor an offer to start peace negotiations, which was rejected by them. France began to form a large army on the eastern borders under the command of General Moreau. At the same time, on the Swiss border, in secrecy, the formation of the so-called "reserve" army was going on, which dealt the first blow to the Austrian troops in Italy. Having made a difficult transition through the St. Bernard Pass in the Alps, on June 14, 1800, at the Battle of Marengo, Bonaparte defeated the Austrians operating under the command of Field Marshal Melas. In December 1800 Moreau's army of the Rhine defeated the Austrians at Hohenlinden (Bavaria). In February 1801, Austria was forced to conclude peace with France and recognize her seizures in Belgium and on the left bank of the Rhine. After that, the 2nd coalition actually broke up, England agreed in October 1801 to sign the terms of the preliminary (i.e. preliminary) agreement, and on March 27, 1802, the Treaty of Amiens was concluded between England, on the one hand, and France, Spain and the Batavian Republic - with another.

4. Third anti-French coalition (1805)

However, already in 1803 the war between them resumed, and in 1805 the 3rd anti-French coalition was formed, consisting of England, Russia, Austria and the Kingdom of Naples. Unlike the previous ones, it proclaimed as its goal the struggle not against revolutionary France, but against the aggressive policy of Bonaparte. Becoming Emperor Napoleon I in 1804, he prepared the landing of a French expeditionary army in England. But on October 21, 1805, in the Battle of Trafalgar, the English fleet, led by Admiral Nelson, destroyed the combined Franco-Spanish fleet. However, on the continent, Napoleon's troops won one victory after another: in October 1805, the Austrian army of General Mack capitulated at Ulm without a fight; in November, Napoleon marched victoriously into Vienna; On December 2, 1805, Emperor Napoleon in the battle of Austerlitz defeated the armies of the emperors of Austria, Franz I and Russia, Alexander I. After this battle, the third anti-French coalition broke up, and Austria had to accept the difficult conditions of the Bratislava Peace, which practically meant the loss of Austrian political influence in South Germany and Southern Europe, and France became a powerful land power. Now the biggest opponent of France in the struggle for hegemony in Europe was Great Britain, which, after the Battle of Cape Trafalgar, held unconditional dominance over the seas.

As a result of the war, Austria was completely ousted from Germany and Italy, and France established its hegemony on the European continent. March 15, 1806 Napoleon gave the Grand Duchy of Cleve and Berg into the possession of his brother-in-law I. Murat. He expelled from Naples the local Bourbon dynasty, which fled to Sicily under the protection of the English fleet, and on March 30 he placed his brother Joseph on the Neapolitan throne. On May 24, he transformed the Batavian Republic into the Kingdom of Holland, placing his other brother Louis at the head of it. In Germany, on June 12, the Confederation of the Rhine was formed from 17 states under the protectorate of Napoleon; On August 6, the Austrian emperor Franz II renounced the German crown - the Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist.

5. Fourth (1806-1807) and fifth (1808-1809) anti-French coalitions

The war against Napoleon was continued by England and Russia, which were soon joined by Prussia and Sweden, concerned about the strengthening of French domination in Europe. In September 1806, the 4th anti-French coalition of European states was formed. A month later, during two battles, on the same day, October 14, 1806, the Prussian army was destroyed: near Jena, Napoleon defeated parts of Prince Hohenlohe, and at Auerstedt, Marshal Davout defeated the main Prussian forces of King Friedrich Wilhelm and the Duke of Brunswick. Napoleon solemnly entered Berlin. Prussia was occupied. The Russian army moving to help the Allies met with the French first near Pultusk on December 26, 1806, then at Preussisch-Eylau on February 8, 1807. Despite the bloodshed, these battles did not give an advantage to either side, but in June 1807 Napoleon won the battle of Friedland over the Russian troops commanded by L.L. Benigsen. On July 7, 1807, in the middle of the Neman River, a meeting of the French and Russian emperors took place on a raft, and the Peace of Tilsit was concluded. According to this peace, Russia recognized all the conquests of Napoleon in Europe, and joined the "Continental blockade" of the British Isles proclaimed by him in 1806. In the spring of 1809, England and Austria again united into the 5th anti-French coalition, but already in May 1809 the French entered Vienna, and on July 5-6, the Austrians were again defeated in the battle of Wagram. Austria agreed to pay an indemnity and joined the continental blockade. A significant part of Europe was under the rule of Napoleon.

6. End of the Napoleonic Wars

The national liberation movement, which was growing in Europe, acquired the greatest scope in Spain and Germany. However, the fate of Napoleon's empire was decided during his campaign in Russia. During the Patriotic War of 1812, the strategy of the Russian army, led by Field Marshal M.I. Kutuzov, the partisan movement contributed to the death of more than 400,000 "Great Army". This caused a new upsurge in the national liberation struggle in Europe, in a number of states people's militia began to be created. In 1813, the 6th anti-French coalition was formed, which included Russia, England, Prussia, Sweden, Austria, and a number of other states. In October 1813, as a result of the "battle of the peoples" near Leipzig, the territory of Germany was liberated from the French. The Napoleonic army withdrew to the borders of France, and then was defeated on its own land. On March 31, Allied troops entered Paris. On April 6, Napoleon I signed the abdication of the throne and was expelled from France to the island of Elba.

In 1815, during the famous "Hundred Days" (March 20 - June 22), Napoleon made his last attempt to regain his former power. The defeat in the Battle of Waterloo (Belgium) on June 18, 1815, inflicted on him by the troops of the 7th coalition under the command of the Duke of Wellington and Marshal Blucher, completed the history of the Napoleonic wars. The Congress of Vienna (November 1, 1814 - June 9, 1815) decided the fate of France, fixing the redistribution of the territories of European countries in the interests of the victorious states. The wars of liberation that were waged against Napoleon were inevitably associated with the partial restoration of the feudal-absolutist order in Europe (the “Holy Alliance” of European monarchs, concluded with the aim of suppressing the national liberation and revolutionary movement in Europe).

Results

As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, France's military power was broken and she lost her dominant position in Europe. The main political force on the continent was the Holy Union of Monarchs, led by Russia; The UK has maintained its status as the world's leading maritime power.

The aggressive wars of Napoleonic France threatened the national independence of many European peoples; at the same time, they contributed to the destruction of the feudal-monarchist order on the continent - the French army brought on its bayonets the principles of a new civil society (Civil Code) and the abolition of feudal relations; Napoleon's liquidation of many small feudal states in Germany facilitated the process of its future unification.

Bibliography

1. Bezotosny V.M. Napoleonic Wars. - M.: Veche, 2010.

2. Zalessky K.A. Biographical encyclopedic dictionary. Napoleonic Wars, 1799-1815, M., 2003

3. Easdale C.J. Napoleonic Wars. Rostov-on-Don, 1997

4. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron Napoleonic Wars. - St. Petersburg: Publishing Society "F.A. Brockhaus - I.A. Efron", 1907-1909

5. Chandler D. Napoleon's military campaigns. Triumph and tragedy of the conqueror. M., 2000

6. http://www.krugosvet.ru/

7. http://www.bezmani.ru/spravka/bse/base/3/014204.htm

FRENCH AS A MEANS OF DESTRUCTION OF EMPIRES

Anti-French coalitions are temporary military-political alliances of European states that sought to restore the Bourbon monarchy in France, which fell during the French Revolution of 1789-1799. A total of 7 coalitions were created. In fact, the Napoleonic Wars are the First World War of the 19th century, which ended in Paris in 1814. Waterloo, on the other hand, is a more internal police operation of the West against Napoleon, who has already “won back his own”.

In scientific literature, the first two coalitions are called "anti-revolutionary", which were the reaction of European monarchies to the changes in global politics that were marked by the bourgeois revolution in France. However, in the course of the actions of these seemingly “anti-revolutionary” coalitions, they broke up in Europe and disappeared from the political map:

Holy Roman Empire,
Prussian kingdom,
French Empire Of Napoleon,
in addition, there was a palace coup in Russia, which abruptly changed its course (it came to the performance of the Decembrists in 1825).

And the stage of spreading the ideology of liberalism at the global level began. However, starting from the third - these coalitions were called "anti-Napoleonic". Why? Let's look further.

I anti-French coalition (1791-1797)

It consisted of: England, Prussia, Naples, Tuscany, Austria, Spain, Holland, Russia.

French landing in Malta

Napoleon himself later wrote in his memoirs that

“It was decisive for the fate of the Order that he surrendered himself under the patronage of Emperor Paul, the enemy of France ... Russia sought to dominate this island, which is of such great importance because of its position, the convenience and security of its port and the power of the fortifications. Seeking patronage in the North, the Order did not take into account and jeopardized the interests of the powers of the South ... ".

II anti-French coalition (1798-1800)

It consisted of: Great Britain, the Ottoman Empire, the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Naples.

The II anti-French coalition was created in 1798 as part of Austria, the Ottoman Empire, England and the Kingdom of Naples. The military forces of Russia participated in military operations at sea (in alliance with the Ottoman fleet) and on land (together with Austria).

The capture of the fortress of Corfu by a united Russian-Turkish squadron under the command of F.F. Ushakov

By the end of August 1799, as a result of Suvorov's Italian campaign of 1799 and Ushakov's Mediterranean campaign of 1799-1800, during which Russian troops liberated Naples in June 1799, and Rome in September, almost all of Italy was liberated from French troops. The remnants of the 35,000-strong French army of General Jean Moreau (about 18,000 people) defeated at Novi retreated to Genoa, which remained the last region of Italy under French control. The offensive of the Russian-Austrian army under the command of Suvorov (about 43 thousand people) to Genoa, followed by the complete expulsion of the French army from Italy, seemed like a natural next step. The command of the combined Russian-Austrian troops was entrusted to A. V. Suvorov.

On April 15-17, 1799, Suvorov defeated the French at the Adda River. After that, in 5 weeks it was possible to expel the French from Northern Italy. Milan and Turin were liberated without a fight.

Hurrying to the rescue, Suvorov chose the shortest and most dangerous path - through the Alps, the Saint Gotthard Pass (September 24, 1799 - the battle for the Devil's Bridge).

Suvorov crossing the Devil's Bridge. Artist A. E. Kotzebue

But help to Rimsky-Korsakov came too late - he was defeated.

Fifteen thousand grenadiers descend from the Alps and Pavel returns them to Russia.

Peace is made with France and an alliance is signed with Prussia against Austria and simultaneously with Prussia, Sweden and Denmark against England.

On December 4-6, 1800, at the initiative of Paul I, a convention on armed neutrality was concluded between Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Denmark.

Fonvizin in his notes describes the reaction of his subjects as follows:

“In the midst of the many assembled courtiers, the conspirators and murderers of Paul boldly paced. They, who did not sleep the night, half-drunk, disheveled, as if proud of their crime, dreamed that they would reign with Alexander. Decent people in Russia, disapproving of the means by which they got rid of Paul's tyranny, rejoiced at his fall. Historiographer Karamzin says that the news of this event was a message of redemption throughout the state: in houses, on the streets, people cried, hugged each other, as on the day of the Holy Resurrection. However, this enthusiasm was expressed by one nobility, other estates accepted this news rather indifferently.».

“When it was all over, and he learned the terrible truth, his grief was inexpressible and reached despair. The memory of that terrible night haunted him all his life and poisoned him with secret sadness.

III anti-French coalition (1805)

On November 10, 1805, Russian troops united with Austrian reinforcements and occupied the Olshansky positions.

On November 20, 1805, in the "Battle of the Three Emperors" - Napoleon, Alexander I and Franz II - near Austerlitz, the combined Russian-Austrian troops were defeated by the French.

Cuadro de François Gérard, 1810, neoclasicismo. Batalla de Austerlitz

IV anti-French coalition (1806-1807)

It consisted of: Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Saxony, Sweden.

On June 19 and July 12, secret allied declarations were signed between Russia and Prussia. In the autumn of 1806, a coalition was formed consisting of England, Sweden, Prussia, Saxony and Russia.

On January 26 - 27, 1807, a battle took place near Preussisch-Eylau, where the army of Russian and Prussian soldiers repulsed all the attacks of the French.

Meeting on the Neman Alexander I and Napoleon. Engraving by Lamo and Miesbach. 1st thurs. 19th century

V Anti-French Coalition (1809)

The anti-French coalition formed after the destruction of Napoleon's Great Army in Russia during the Russian campaign of 1812.

The coalition included: Russia, Sweden, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia (the last two were allies of France until the beginning of 1813).

FIRST PATRIOTIC WAR

Russia's participation in the continental blockade, established by Napoleon by a special decree of November 21, 1806, and directed against England, had a detrimental effect on the Russian economy. In particular, the volume of Russia's foreign trade for 1808-1812 decreased by 43%. And France, Russia's new ally under the Tilsit peace treaty, could not compensate for this damage, since Russia's economic ties with France were insignificant.

The continental blockade completely upset Russian finances. Already in 1809, the budget deficit increased by 12.9 times compared to 1801 (from 12.2 million to 157.5 million rubles).

The Russian monarch did not favor Napoleon. For Alexander, the war with him was

“... an act of struggle of his personal pride, regardless of the political reasons that caused it,” writes historian M.V. Dovnar-Zapolsky. - Despite the appearance of friendly relations, the "Byzantine Greek", as Napoleon characterized his Tilsit friend, could never endure the humiliation he experienced. Alexander never forgot anything and never forgave anything, although he was remarkably able to hide his true feelings. Moreover, Alexander, like his opponent, liked to indulge in dreams of such activities that would pursue world interests. It is not surprising that the war took on a double meaning in Alexander's eyes: firstly, a sense of pride prompted him to take revenge on his rival, and ambitious dreams took Alexander far beyond the borders of Russia, and the good of Europe occupied the first place in them. Despite the setbacks - and even more so, as the setbacks grew, Alexander grew firmer to continue the war until the enemy was completely destroyed. The very first significant failures exacerbated the feeling of revenge in Alexander.

Paul I, in our opinion, would have pursued a different policy and, most likely, would have supported the blockade of Great Britain, and then, most likely, there would have been no Patriotic War of 1812, and Great Britain could have replenished the number of empires that disappeared during the Napoleonic Wars. It is clear that this development of events did not suit some groups in the West (it is clear that most of them were in Great Britain), so the English ambassador was an accomplice in a conspiracy against Paul I.

June 22 - 24, 1812. Troops of the Great Army of Napoleon cross the Neman, invading the territory of Russia

Spain, Portugal and England fought independently with Napoleon in the Iberian Peninsula. Active hostilities were fought during the year from May 1813 to April 1814 with a 2-month truce in the summer of 1813.

Treaty of Paris 1814- a peace treaty between the participants of the sixth anti-French coalition (Russia, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia), on the one hand, and Louis XVIII, on the other. Signed in Paris on May 30 (May 18, old style). Later, Sweden, Spain and Portugal joined the treaty. The treaty provided for France to retain the borders that existed on January 1, 1792, with the addition of only part of the Duchy of Savoy, the former papal possessions of Avignon and Venessin and small strips of land on the northern and eastern borders that previously belonged to the Austrian Netherlands and various German states (including purely the German town of Saarbrücken with rich coal mines), only about 5 thousand km² and more than one million inhabitants.

Most of the colonial possessions lost during the Napoleonic Wars were returned to France. Sweden and Portugal returned to France all the colonies taken from it; England retained only Tobago and Saint Lucia in the West Indies and the island of St. Mauritius in Africa, but returned to Spain the island of Haiti. France was allowed to keep all the objects of art it seized, with the exception of the trophies taken from the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin and the abductions made in the Vienna library. She was not obligated to pay a contribution.

The Netherlands regained its independence and were returned to the House of Orange. Switzerland was declared independent. Italy, with the exception of the Austrian provinces, was to consist of independent states. The German principalities were united in an alliance. Freedom of navigation on the Rhine and Scheldt was declared. France, by special agreement with England, undertook to abolish the slave trade in her colonies. Finally, it was decided that representatives of all the powers that had taken part in the war would convene, within two months, for a congress in Vienna to resolve the still outstanding questions.

As for the war with Russia, which became inevitable, then, having lost it, Napoleon spoke as follows:

“I did not want this famous war, this bold enterprise, I had no desire to fight. Alexander did not have such a desire, but the prevailing circumstances pushed us towards each other: fate did the rest.

But did "rock" do it?

THE ROLE OF FREEMASONRY IN THE Rise And Fall Of Napoleon

“Napoleon, who himself was a Freemason when he was a young officer, was admitted and even supported by this secret power in order to protect himself from a great evil, namely, from the return of the Bourbons.”

“Masonry decided to follow Napoleon on its own, and therefore on the 18th day of Brumaire it was helped by the most influential revolutionaries,” the author of the book “The Secret Power of Freemasonry” A.A. Selyaninov explains: “They thought that Napoleon would govern France by their proxy.”

Napoleon with Masonic Hidden Hand

The revolutionary dictator turned into an autocratic despot, and the Freemasons changed their attitude towards him.

"Secret societies turned sharply against him when he discovered a desire to restore a staunch, conservative autocracy to his own interests,"

Montaigne de Ponsin testified. By the winter of 1812, it became quite clear that Napoleon had completely lost the campaign.

“From February 1814, realizing that it was impossible to resist the royalist tendencies, the strength of which was growing every day, Freemasonry decided that it was necessary to abandon Napoleon and begin to curry favor with the new regime in order to save at least what was left of the revolution.”

On March 31, 1814, Paris capitulated. When the allied troops entered France, the Parisian Freemasons decided to open the doors to their brothers - Masonic officers of hostile armies.

THE APPEARANCE OF SWITZERLAND AS A GLOBAL MANAGEMENT "POLYGON"

The cantons located in the valleys of Schwyz (whence the name of the country), Uri and Unterwalden, dissatisfied with the policy of the Habsburgs to abolish the privileges of the communities, began to fight. Having managed to negotiate with the Holy Roman Empire, first Uri in 1231, and then Schwyz in 1240, they received the rights of imperial territories and freed themselves from the claims of petty feudal lords.

The founding year of Switzerland is considered to be 1291, when the inhabitants of the three Alpine valleys entered into an agreement on mutual support in the event of an attack.

A decade and a half later, the Reformation began in Switzerland. There is a spread of Protestant ideas in Zurich and Geneva and a split in Switzerland into two hostile religious camps. Two sectarian wars end with the defeat of the Protestant cantons. Strengthening the regime of domination of the urban nobility (patricians). For the next three centuries, the confrontation between Catholics and Protestants continued, repeatedly turning into bloody wars.

Although, at the same time, the time from 1415 to 1513 is called the "heroic age" of Swiss history. The confederation waged successful wars against the Habsburgs, France, the Holy Roman Empire, the Dukes of Milan, Savoy and Burgundy. Thanks to these victories, the Swiss gained a reputation for excellent warriors, and the confederation expanded to 13 cantons.

In 1648, the signing of the Peace of Westphalia takes place, in which there is a separate “Swiss Article”, which means the completion of a long process that began in 1499 (when, during the “Swabian War” with the Great Roman Empire of the German nation, the actual independence of Switzerland from the empire is established), in as a result of which Switzerland becomes independent not only in fact, but also formally legally.

All-Union Diets were periodically convened to manage the confederation, while in Switzerland there was no common army, government and finance. This system of government lasted until the French Revolution (1798).

From 1798 until Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo, Switzerland was under French rule. Having occupied Switzerland, France imposed a constitution based on the French one. But she encroached on traditional federalism, and many Swiss did not support her. Having come to power, Napoleon in 1802 gave the country a new Constitution, restoring many of the rights of the cantons and expanding their number from 13 to 19. After the defeat of Napoleon, the cantons renounced his constitution and attempted to recreate the former confederation, but the country had already lived for some time under the federal government, which affected the future history of Switzerland.

It was in 1814, after the defeat of Napoleon, that the Treaty of Union was signed in Switzerland, proclaiming the union of 22 cantons. It was then that the great powers recognized eternal neutrality of Switzerland that was fixed Congress of Vienna and the Paris Peace Treaty.

In subsequent years, there was a struggle between the patrician authorities of individual cantons and supporters of the transformation of Switzerland into an integral state on a democratic basis, which ended in 1848 with the victory of the latter (just 5 years before the Crimean War!). A constitution was adopted and a federal parliament established, and since then there has been a period of calm development of the Swiss Confederation.

The territorial structure of Switzerland as a federal republic currently includes 26 cantons (20 cantons and 6 semi-cantons). Cantons (German: Kantone, French: cantons, Italian: cantoni, Romansh: chantuns) are the largest state-territorial units of the Swiss Confederation. The lowest level of territorial-administrative division is communities (German: Gemeinde), of which there were 2495 as of January 2012 (in 2011 - 2495 communities)

Each canton has its own constitution and laws, the legislative body is the cantonal council (kantonsrat), or grand council, the executive body is the ruling council (regierungsrat), or state council, consisting of the governor (landammann), or chairman of the state council, and government advisers ( regierungsrat), or government advisers. The canton is completely independent in solving internal problems. The central government is in charge of international affairs, the federal budget and the issue of money. However, Switzerland is single state. Country motto: One for all and all for one!"(lat. Unus pro omnibus, omnes pro uno).

gold standard

The beginning of the era of the "gold standard" (legislative formalization of guaranteed gold backing of state credit notes) is considered to be the period after the Napoleonic wars: 1816 - 1821 ("Gold", A.V. Anikin, ed. 1988).

gold standard- a system of currency relations in which each country expressed the value of its currency in a certain amount of gold, and central banks or governments were obliged to buy and sell gold at a fixed price.

England has been applying this principle since 1816, the USA since 1837, Germany since 1875, but the first country to legalize the gold standard was Napoleonic France, which in 1803 chose the gold-silver bimetallic system. The gold standard for the Napoleon coin (issued from 1803 to 1914) was introduced by Napoleon I, who abolished the old louis-based coin unit and set the standard for the gold content of the franc at 0.2903 g (the so-called "germinal franc"). The coin was named after the profile of Napoleon Bonaparte originally depicted on it.

But still, the main development of the world system of the gold standard took place in England.

England gold standard

The history of gold money in England from the discovery of America to the end of the 17th century will not take up much space. This was the era of quasi-bimetallism, when both gold and silver coins were constantly minted, having equal legal rights as money. In general, during these two centuries, the exchange rate was favorable for silver. Therefore, silver money prevailed in circulation.

In the first three quarters of the 18th century the monetary ratio was favorable to gold and unfavorable to silver, thereby facilitating the entry of the yellow metal into England and the displacement of the white metal.

In 1797, English paper money consisted of notes issued by the Bank of England and circulated mainly in London and its environs, and notes of "provincial" banks, which circulated mainly near the place of issue. Banknotes were subject to exchange for specie on demand, but were not a legal means of payment.

There were no restrictions on the receipt by English banks of deposits and their circulation in the form of bank cheques; in the second half of the XVIII century. - early 19th century the use of such a deposit currency has steadily expanded.

From 1797 to 1821, England had a de facto paper money standard, although a law was passed in 1816 that switched it to a pure gold standard 5 years later.

In early 1819, secret committees were appointed by both Houses of Parliament to consider resuming the exchange. Both committees finally adopted a recommendation that the Bank of England be obliged to resume the exchange of notes for gold from February 1, 1820, in accordance with a specially designed scale for lowering the price of gold, with the resumption of full cash payments no later than May 1, 1823. This system of gradual return to the free exchange of banknotes for gold through a gradual change in the exchange rate has not been put into practice. Even before February 1820, the gold premium disappeared, and on May 1, 1821, payments in specie at parity were fully resumed.

Thus, after a paper-money standard that lasted for about a quarter of a century, England returned to the metal standard, but now it was the gold standard, and not the bimetallic standard that was abolished in 1797.

Based on the laws of 1816 and 1817, the English gold standard, after returning to payments in specie in 1821, functioned until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.

The official system of the gold standard received at a conference in Paris in 1821. The basis is gold, which was legally assigned the role of the main form of money. The rate of national currencies was rigidly tied to gold and, through the gold content of the currency, related to each other at a fixed rate.

Pushkin's interest

Of course, the coincidence of this period with the time of the creation of Ruslan and Lyudmila can be considered an accident. But accidents that reflect certain patterns are, in essence, statistical predestinations. If we take into account that the Napoleonic wars were financed by the Rothschild clan, then it remains to be recognized that Pushkin, at the age of twenty, saw and understood the general course of things better than the Russian Decembrist Freemasons, brought up on the economic thought of the West. A.V. Anikin (real name - Jewish), the author of the monograph mentioned above on the role of gold in the financial and credit system, was so concerned about Pushkin's knowledge of Chernomor's beard that he published a special book “Muse and Mammon. Socio-economic motives in Pushkin, ed. 1989. From it we learn that what the Jewish warrior Anika was most concerned about was Pushkin's early interest in the behind-the-scenes activities of the Rothschild banking house. On the other hand, thanks to the information of Anikin, an authoritative specialist in Jewish financial circles, the reader had the opportunity to get acquainted with the rationale for the historical pattern of the birth of the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila".

THE ROTHSCHILDS AND THE NAPOLEONIC WARS

Rothschild brothers

The Frankfurt banker Mayer-Amschel, who became the founder of this dynasty, died on September 19, 1812. Five of his sons continued the business - Amschel Mayer (1773-1855), Solomon Mayer (1774-1855), Nathan Mayer (1777-1836), Kalmann Mayer (1788-1855) and James Mayer (1792-1868).

They began to be called "Five fingers of one hand." Amschel handled all business in Frankfurt. Nathan, who emigrated to Manchester, as already mentioned, became the founder of a British bank. Solomon founded an Austrian bank, Kalmann a Neapolitan bank, and James a French bank. And that is how the gigantic fortune of the Rothschild family arose, which had the most direct relation to the union of “free masons”. James Rothschild very soon became one of the richest men in France, and his brother Nathan Rothschild became a huge success in the gold bullion trade and became the most sought-after pawnbroker in London.

Even when Napoleon was victoriously marching across Europe, and the Rothschilds were cashing in on military orders, he suddenly refused the Rothschild clan to join their financial empire to his own. Moreover, in February 1800 he created the Bank of France, independent of the Rothschilds. And in April 1803 he held monetary reform, introducing silver and gold francs, and the Bank of France received the exclusive right to issue money.

The Rothschilds were outraged, Napoleon said:

“The hand that gives is always higher than the hand that takes. The financiers have no patriotism and honesty - their only goal is the cleansing."

If the government depends on the bankers, then the country is not run by the government, but by the bankers.

But Napoleon needed the money, and therefore, in the same 1803, he sold French territories in North America to the United States. Their size then amounted to approximately 2.1 million square meters. km, and the transaction price - 15 million dollars, or 80 million French francs. In carrying out this transaction, Napoleon used the banks of the direct competitors of the Rothschilds - the Baring banking house in London and Hope's bank in Amsterdam. With the help of the money he received, he quickly equipped an army and began to spread his influence throughout Europe, capturing everything in his path.

Operation Gold

The Rothschild clan could not forgive Napoleon, who soon became emperor, such arbitrariness. And they declared war on the impostor, that is, they began to provide loans to almost any country that was in the camp of his opponents. In fact, the Rothschild clan decided to topple Napoleon, for which he began to actively finance the British and Russians, that is, his main opponents. Napoleon did not want to fight with Russia, but he was forced to do so, and the Rothschilds were not without help.

When in 1812 the main backbone of the Napoleonic army was already in Russia, Nathan Rothschild came up with an ingenious plan to finance the "second front", that is, the actions of the army of the Duke of Wellington in the Iberian Peninsula. To do this, Nathan Rothschild bought gold from the East India Company for the amount of 800 thousand pounds (those pounds!) And then sold this gold, so necessary for Wellington to conduct military operations, to the government of England. Naturally, he did this with huge profits. However, the British did not know how to transfer this gold to Wellington through French territory. And then the Rothschilds themselves took up this risky business.

The essence of the operation they carried out is as follows: first, James Rothschild unexpectedly appeared in Paris, and then his brothers wrote him letters containing feigned complaints that they were going to take gold from England to Spain, but the British government allegedly flatly denied them this. At the same time, the Rothschilds made sure that their messages to their brother would definitely fall into the hands of the French secret police. And the French Ministry of Finance took the bait. If the British enemies are opposed to the gold sailing away from England, they decided in the French ministry, it is necessary to help these same Rothschilds so that they can still take out this gold of theirs ...

Thus the letter trick succeeded, and the Rothschild government helped the Rothschilds to end up with the gold in Spain, where it went to Wellington's army against the French.

Later, at one of the business dinners in London, Nathan Rothschild boasted that it was the best deal in his life.

It is worth noting that the Rothschilds profited well from the continental blockade of England. At that time, Europe could only get British colonial goods (spices, cotton, tobacco, coffee, etc.) through smuggling. So, Nathan Rothschild created a reliable network of smugglers who passed through any Napoleonic cordons. And, of course, the prices for these items were fantastic.

Nathan Rothschild

It is also believed that Nathan Rothschild personally orchestrated the collapse of the London Stock Exchange after Wellington's victory at Waterloo. And it's called his "best deal". However, this is only very far from what actually happened. Although the Rothschilds themselves at some point believed in this myth, which indicates the reliability of the moral and psychological qualities of Nathan from the myth and Nathan in life.

The myth of the "best deal"

It told about the Battle of Waterloo, allegedly witnessed by Nathan Rothschild. By the evening of June 18, 1815, the founder of the London branch of the Rothschild banking empire realized that the French had lost the battle. On fast horses, he reached the Belgian coast with great speed for those times. Nathan needed to urgently cross to the British Isles, but due to a storm at sea, all the ships were in ports.

The sea storm did not stop the enterprising financier. He paid one of the fishermen such a fare that he decided to take a chance and went to sea.

Nathan Rothschild's idea was simple and effective. He was in a hurry to take advantage of something that was highly valued in the financial world even then, two centuries ago - important information. Taking advantage of the fact that no one on the London Stock Exchange, except him, knew about Wellington's victory, he bought up a huge number of shares, and then sold them at a higher price, earning 20 million francs in a matter of hours.

This story has been included in numerous biographies of the House of Rothschild. It was written by Georges Darnavell, who adhered to leftist political views. He also made no secret of his hatred of Jews in general and especially of the Rothschilds, who by 1846 were already among the richest and most famous people in Europe.

Supporters of Georges Darnawell's version argued for it with an article in the London Courier, June 20, 1815. In a note published two days after the battle and the day before the official announcement of victory, it was said that Rothschild bought up a lot of shares.

At first glance, the article proves the enrichment version and confirms the legend, but it turned out that there was none. A check of the archives that retain the London Courier numbers for June 15, 1815, shows that the articles about the Rothschild purchase a large number they don't have shares. It was even possible to establish the source of the origin of this misinformation. It appeared in 1848 in the writings of the Scottish historian Archibald Alison. In addition, supporters of the story of the "greedy villain" Rothschild cite the diary of a young American, James Gallatin, who visited London in 1815, but in 1957 it turned out that he was a fake.

The first to refute the fiction composed by Georges Darnavell, already in the eighties of the last century, was one of the Rothschilds. Baron Victor Rothschild, who wrote a book about Nathan's ancestor, established that Darnawell's "Satan" was at the heart of the whole story, and exposed many of the tales contained in it.

On the other hand, Victor Rothschild found in the archive a letter from an employee of one of the Paris banks, written a month after Waterloo. It contained this phrase:

"Commissioner White informed me that you made excellent use of the information you received about the victory at Waterloo."

However, three decades later, new information appeared, refuting this evidence of Nathan Rothschild's "guilt". It has now been proven that it was not Nathan who first heard the news of the victory at Waterloo, but a certain "Mr. S. of Dover." He learned about the defeat of the French in Ghent and immediately rushed to London with the news. Mr. S. spoke of the victory in the City on the morning of June 21, 1815, i.e. at least 12 hours before the official announcement of the news. At least three London newspapers wrote about it that day.

It is also known that in the evening Nathan Rothschild received a letter from Ghent announcing the victory at Waterloo, and that he hurried to convey the news to the authorities.

Although Rothschild was not the only one who was the first to know about the defeat of Napoleon, he had enough time to buy shares. However, the amount of profit is clearly very much overestimated. However, in general, this story shows the attitude of the Rothschilds to the opportunities to cash in on the war (read the details and details of this story here - http://expert.ru/2015/05/4/kapital-rotshildov/).

A century later, the name of Nathan Rothschild was inscribed in the Guinness Book of Records as the most brilliant financier of all time and the representative of a family that became the richest in the world by the middle of the 19th century. It is not for nothing that the remainder of the 19th century is called the “age of the Rothschilds”.

Naturally, they were closely associated with the Freemasons. Moreover, it can be argued that the Masonic lodges, receiving the funding they needed, were complicit with the Rothschilds, but it cannot be said that these were all Masonic lodges.

It is even believed that Robespierre himself was a blind instrument in the hands of Mayer-Amschel Rothschild. No wonder the Incorruptible said:

“It seems to me that we are constantly pushed against our will by a “hidden hand”. Every day our Committee of Public Safety does what it decided yesterday not to do.”

Robespierre was deprived of his life, among other things, because he dared to express indignation: foreigners, represented by Adam Weishaupt and other agents of the Rothschilds, turned into real rulers!

Did not want to serve the secret lodges and foreign billionaires and Napoleon. For this he paid. He died on May 5, 1821 in exile, on a distant island, lost in the Atlantic Ocean. And his fall, which began in 1812 in Russia, without a doubt, was a real triumph for the Rothschild clan, which is only one of the strands of Chernomor's huge beard.

BEARD OF CHERNOMOR

The poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" was written by Pushkin from 1818 to 1820, when the gold standard had already appeared in Europe.

Chernomor's beard is the first integral allegorical representation of the financial and credit system in literature. I.V. Goethe, a contemporary of Pushkin, will touch on this topic ten years later, in the second part of Faust. An eighty-year-old man, coming from a wealthy merchant family, he was concerned about the decline in public confidence in the new means of payment for that time - paper money. Therefore, his Mephistopheles, explaining to the "little believers" the benefits for society as a whole new form money, at the same time he worked for the worldwide international of the Rothschilds.

“You are always light with tickets,
They are more convenient than money in a wallet,
They take you out of the mess
When buying valuables and selling them.
You need gold, metal
Available in stock at the changers,
But they don’t have it - we pick the ground
And we cover the entire paper issue,
We sell the find at the auction
And pay off the loan in full.
Again we shame the unfaithful,
All in unison glorify our measure,
And with gold coinage on a par
Paper is getting stronger in the country.”

However, spells alone, even in a highly artistic form, were apparently not enough to restore confidence in the means of payment, and in 1867 the Gesheftmachers of the world, by special agreements in Paris (at an international exhibition) on the introduction of the "gold standard", make the first attempt to stop the growth of the "beard" of the world spider.

With the outbreak of the First World War (if the account is kept from the Napoleonic Wars, then the third, since the battles of the "Crimean War" took place in the Baltic, in the White Sea and in Kamchatka, which means it can be considered the second), these agreements became invalid, and until 1944 Chernomor's beard, one might say, grew uncontrollably.

In 1944, the United States at Bretton Woods made a second attempt to introduce a "gold standard". The Soviet Union also took part in the development of the Bretton Woods agreements as part of the delegations of 44 countries. Stalin, who by the end of the war had risen to the level of conceptual confrontation with the Western masters of global politics, understood that the charter of the International Monetary Fund, developed within the framework of these agreements, was just an attempt to control the growth of Chernomor's beard, thanks to which it would be possible to strangle all the beauties of the world. Not wanting to replenish the gallows gallery with the peoples of the USSR, Stalin refused to ratify the Bretton Woods agreements in 1945 and for some time closed the way for the expansion of the generalized weapons of the fourth priority (world money) in the USSR for the humpbacked Karla.

RESULTS OF THE NAPOLEONIC WARS

We consider it important to note that the Napoleonic Wars solved many problems at the level of global politics:

The ideological monopoly of the Holy Roman Empire, like itself, was finally crushed, which opened up opportunities for the Reformation and the spread of liberalism throughout Europe.
The Kingdom of Prussia was destroyed and the conditions were formed for the "smoldering" of Germany's hot spot in Europe (in fact, the foundations were laid in the form of territorial claims of the Germans for the First World War of the 20th century, although before that the situation should have matured).
Switzerland finally took shape as an "incubator" and "testing ground" for testing various management technologies, which status it retains to this day, given the peculiarity that each canton has its own constitution, laws, legislature and government.
The West could not solve the “Russian question”, sending the Napoleon he created to the east, which Victory in the Patriotic War caused the Russian spirit to rise.
Tarle E.V. In his book Napoleon's Invasion, 1959, p. 737. expressed "without the twelfth year there would be no Pushkin." All Russian culture, national identity received a powerful impetus in the year of the Napoleonic invasion. And according to A.I. Herzen, from the point of view of the creative activity of wide sections of society, “only 1812 opens the true history of Russia; everything that happened before is just a preface.
But 1812 is also associated with the “desire for free thought”, which ultimately led to the Decembrist uprising in 1825, of which more than half that were involved in this case were members of the Masonic lodges and worked under the guidance of foreign higher Masonic hierarchs to implement in Russia the "ideals" of the Western project. Infection with their "fashionable disease" could well have occurred during a campaign against Paris (although it happened earlier - for Europeans, Russia was "opened" by Peter I). The unjustifiably bloody experience of the French Revolution and the counter-revolutionary action in the Vendée, which devoured both their own and other people's children, taught them nothing. A.A. Bestuzhev enthusiastically wrote to Nicholas I from the Peter and Paul Fortress: “... Napoleon invaded Russia, and then the Russian people for the first time felt their strength; then a feeling of independence awakened in all hearts, first political, and later popular. This is the beginning of freethinking in Russia.”

We have been disentangling the results of the spread of this “free thinking”, which is not free from Masonic rituals and vows, for more than two centuries.

One of the next attempts to resolve the “Russian question” on a local scale was the Crimean War, which we will talk about in the second part of this material.

Napoleonic France and Europe. Europe and the Napoleonic Wars Dates of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe

Died of wounds

Non-combat losses

THE FRENCH AS A MEANS

I anti-French coalition (1791-1797)

II anti-French coalition (1798-1800)

III anti-French coalition (1805)

IV anti-French coalition (1806-1807)

V Anti-French Coalition (1809)

FIRST PATRIOTIC WAR

THE ROLE OF FREEMASONRY IN THE ASCENT AND

Establishment of the dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte

Wars of 1800 - 1807

From Tilsit to Waterloo

Results and significance of the Napoleonic wars

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II anti-French coalition (1798-1800)

III anti-French coalition (1805)

IV anti-French coalition (1806-1807)

V Anti-French Coalition (1809)

FIRST PATRIOTIC WAR

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