How has the world changed since World War I? Consequences of the First World War First World War Consequences of the First World War briefly.

PhD in History, Head of the Middle East Department of the HSE School of Oriental Studies, Senior Research Fellow at the Institute of General History of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Member of the School of Historical Studies at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, Board member in the International Syriac Language project

According to the British historian Eric Hobsbawm, the 19th century begins in content in 1789, that is, with the French Revolution, and ends in 1913. In turn, the 20th century - not a calendar, but a historical 20th century - begins in 1914, with the First World War, and continues until 1991, when global changes took place in the world, primarily the unification of Germany in 1990 and the collapse of the USSR in 1991 -m. Such a chronology allowed Hobsbawm, and after him many other historians, to speak of a "long 19th century" and a "short 20th century."

Thus, the First World War is a kind of prologue to the short twentieth century. It was here that the key themes of the century were identified: social disagreements, geopolitical contradictions, ideological struggle, economic confrontation. This is despite the fact that at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries it seemed to many that the wars in Europe had sunk into oblivion. If there are collisions, then only on the periphery, in the colonies. The development of science and technology, the refined culture of the Fin de siècle, according to many contemporaries, did not imply a "carnage" that cost millions of lives and buried four great empires. This is the first war in the world that has a total character: all social strata of the population, all spheres of life were affected. There was nothing left that was not involved in this war.

The question arises: what united each of these countries? What were the aims of each of the parties to the conflict? These questions are all the more important because after the signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty on June 28, 1919, all responsibility for unleashing the war will fall on Germany (Article 231). Of course, all this can be justified on the basis of the universal principle of Vae victis. But is Germany alone to blame for this war? Was it only she and her allies who wanted this war? Of course not.

Germany wanted war just as much as France and Great Britain wanted war. Slightly less interested in this were Russia, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Empire, which turned out to be the weakest links in this conflict.

Interests of participating countries

In 1871, the triumphant unification of Germany took place in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. A second empire was formed. The proclamation took place against the backdrop of the Franco-Prussian War, when France was suffering a catastrophic defeat. This became a national disgrace: not only was Napoleon III, emperor of all the French, captured almost immediately, only ruins remained of the second empire in France. The Paris Commune arises, another revolution, as often happens in France.

The war ends with France accepting Germany's defeat by signing the Frankfurt Treaty of 1871, according to which Alsace and Lorraine are alienated in favor of Germany and become imperial territories.

In addition, France undertakes to pay Germany an indemnity of 5 billion francs. To a large extent, this money went to the development of the German economy, which subsequently led to its unprecedented rise by the 1890s. But the point is not even in the financial side of the issue, but in the national humiliation experienced by the French. And more than one generation will remember him from 1871 until 1914.

It was then that the ideas of revanchism arise, which unite the entire Third Republic, born in the crucibles of the Franco-Prussian War. It becomes unimportant who you are: a socialist, a monarchist, a centrist - everyone is united by the idea of revenge on Germany and the return of Alsace and Lorraine.

Britannia

Britain was preoccupied with German economic dominance in Europe and the world. By the 1890s, Germany ranks first in terms of GDP in Europe, pushing Britain into second place. The British government cannot accept this fact, given that for many centuries Britain has been the "workshop of the world", the most economically developed country. Now Britain is seeking some sort of revenge, but economic.

Russia

For Russia, the key topic was the question of the Slavs, that is, the Slavic peoples living in the Balkans. The ideas of pan-Slavism, which gain momentum in the 1860s, in the 1870s lead to Russian-Turkish war, in the 1880s-1890s this idea remains, and so it passes into the 20th century, and finally embodied by 1915. The main idea was the return of Constantinople, to put a cross over Hagia Sophia. In addition, the return of Constantinople was supposed to solve all the problems with the straits, with the transition from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. This was one of the main geopolitical goals of Russia. And plus everything, of course, to push the Germans out of the Balkans.

As we can see, several interests of the main participating countries intersect here at once. Thus, in considering this issue, the political, geopolitical, economic, and cultural levels are equally important. Do not forget that during the war, at least in its first years, culture becomes the basic part of the ideology. The anthropological level is no less important. War affects a person from different sides, and he begins to exist in this war. Another question is whether he was ready for this war? Did he imagine what kind of war it would be? People who went through the First World War, lived in the conditions of this war, after its end became completely different. Not a trace will remain of beautiful Europe. Everything will change: social relations, domestic politics, social politics. No country will ever be the same as it was in 1913.

The formal reason for the start of the war was the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife were shot dead in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. The killer turned out to be a terrorist from the Serbian nationalist organization Mlada Bosna. The Sarajevo assassination caused an unprecedented scandal, in which all the main participants in the conflict were involved and to some extent interested.

Austria-Hungary protests Serbia and asks for an investigation with the participation of the Austrian police in order to identify terrorist organizations directed against Austria-Hungary. Parallel to this, intense diplomatic secret consultations are taking place between Serbia and the Russian Empire on the one hand, and between Austria-Hungary and the German Empire on the other.

Was there a way out of the current impasse or not? It turned out that no. On July 23, Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, giving it 48 hours to respond. In turn, Serbia agreed to all the conditions, except for one related to the fact that the secret services of Austria-Hungary would begin to make arrests and take out terrorists and suspicious persons to Austria-Hungary without notifying the Serbian side. Austria, reinforced by the support of Germany, declares war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. In response to this Russian empire declares mobilization, to which the German Empire protests and demands to stop the mobilization, in case of non-cessation, the German side reserves the right to start its own mobilization. On July 31, a general mobilization was announced in the Russian Empire. In response, on August 1, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia. The war has begun. On August 3, France joins it, on August 4 - Great Britain, and all the main participants begin hostilities.

It is important to note that when announcing mobilization, no one talks about their selfish interests. Everyone proclaims the lofty ideals behind this war. For example, help to the fraternal Slavic peoples, help to the fraternal German peoples and empires. Accordingly, France and Russia are bound by allied treaties, this is allied assistance. This also applies to Britain. It is interesting to note that already in September 1914, another protocol was signed between the Entente countries, that is, between Great Britain, Russia and France - a declaration on the non-conclusion of a separate peace. The same document will be signed by the Entente countries in November 1915. Thus, we can say that among the allies there were suspicions and significant fears in matters of trust in each other: what if someone breaks loose and concludes a separate peace with the enemy side.

World War I as a new type of war

Germany waged war in accordance with the Schlieffen Plan, developed by the Prussian Field Marshal General and member of the German General Staff von Schlieffen. It was supposed to concentrate all forces on the right flank, inflict a lightning strike on France, and only after that switch to the Russian front.

So, Schlieffen develops this plan just at the end of the 19th century. As we can see, his tactics were based on blitzkrieg - delivering lightning strikes that stun the enemy, bring chaos and sow panic among the enemy troops.

Wilhelm II was sure that Germany would have time to defeat France before the general mobilization in Russia ended. After that, it was planned to transfer the main contingent of German troops to the East, that is, to Prussia, and organize offensive operation already in the Russian Empire. This is exactly what Wilhelm II meant when he declared that he would have breakfast in Paris and dinner in St. Petersburg.

Forced deviations from this plan began already from the first days of the war. So, the German troops moved too slowly through the territory of neutral Belgium. The main blow to France came from Belgium. In this case, Germany grossly violated international agreements and neglected the concept of neutrality. What will then be reflected in the Versailles Peace Treaty, as well as those crimes, primarily the export of cultural property from Belgian cities, and is regarded by the world community as nothing more than "German barbarism" and savagery.

World War I is one of the longest
bloody and significant in consequences in
the history of mankind. It went on for more
four years old. 33 countries out of 59 participated in it,
who at that time had state
sovereignty. The population of the warring countries was
over 1.5 billion people, that is, about 87% of all
inhabitants of the earth. Under the gun was put in total
complexity of 73.5 million people. More than 10 million were
killed and 20 million wounded. casualties among the peaceful
population affected by epidemics, famine,
cold and other wartime disasters also
numbered in the tens of millions.

political results.

Six months later, Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles (28
June 1919), compiled by the victorious states at the Paris Peace
conference that officially ended the First World War.
Peace treaties with
Germany (Treaty of Versailles)
Austria (Treaty of Saint Germain)
Bulgaria (Treaty of Neuilly)
Hungary (Trianon Treaty)
Turkey (Sevres Peace Treaty).
The results of the First World War were the February and October revolutions
in Russia and the November Revolution in Germany, the elimination of four
empires: Russian, German, Ottoman empires and Austria-Hungary, and
the last two were separated.
Germany, ceasing to be a monarchy, was cut down territorially and weakened
economically. Difficult for Germany conditions of the Treaty of Versailles
(payment of reparations, etc.) and the national humiliation she suffered
gave rise to revanchist sentiments, which became one of the prerequisites
The rise of the Nazis to power unleashed the Second World War.

Territorial changes.

Territorial changes.
As a result of the war:
annexation
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
England - Tanzania and Southwest Africa, Iraq, Transjordan and Palestine,
parts of Togo and Cameroon, Northeast New Guinea and Nauru;
Belgium - Burundi, Rwanda, Eupen, Malmedy districts, annexation of Moresnet territory;
Greece - Western Thrace;
Denmark - Northern Schleswig;
Italy - South Tyrol and Istria
Romania - Transylvania, Southern Dobruja, Bukovina, Bessarabia;
France - Alsace-Lorraine, Syria, Lebanon, most of Cameroon and Togo;
Japan - German islands in pacific ocean north of the equator
(Caroline, Marshall and Mariana);
French occupation of the Saar;
annexation of Banat, Bačka and Baranya, Slovenia, Croatia and
Slavonia, Montenegro to the Kingdom of Serbia with the subsequent creation of Yugoslavia;
accession of South West Africa to the Union of South Africa.
proclaimed the independence of the Belarusian People's Republic, the Ukrainian People's Republic
republics, Hungary, Danzig, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Finland;
Republic of Austria founded;
The German Empire became a de facto republic;
the Rhine region and the Black Sea straits were demilitarized.

military results.

Entering the war, the general staffs of the warring states and, first of all,
Germany proceeded from the experience of previous wars, the victory in which was decided
crushing the army and military power of the enemy. This war showed that
from now on, world wars will be total in nature, involving everything
population and the strain of all moral, military and economic
states' capabilities. And this war can only end
unconditional surrender of the vanquished.
The First World War accelerated the development of new weapons and means
conducting combat. Tanks were used for the first time, chemical
weapons, gas mask, anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns, flamethrower. wide
planes, machine guns, mortars, underwater
boats, torpedo boats. The firepower of the troops increased sharply. New
types of artillery: anti-aircraft, anti-tank, infantry escorts. Aviation
became an independent branch of the military, which began to be subdivided into
reconnaissance, fighter and bomber. There were tank
troops, chemical troops, air defense forces, naval aviation. Increased role
engineering troops and reduced the role of the cavalry. Also appeared "trench
tactics" of waging war with the aim of exhausting the enemy and exhausting him
economy working for military orders.

Economic results.

Economic results.
The grandiose scale and protracted nature of the First World War
wars led to an unprecedented industrial
states militarizing the economy. This has had an impact on
the course of development of the economy of all major industrial
states between the two world wars: strengthening
state regulation and economic planning,
formation of military-industrial complexes, acceleration
development of nationwide economic infrastructures
(power systems, paved road network, etc.), growth
share of production of defense products and dual
destination.

Consequences of the First World War for Russia.

The effects of the First World War on
Russia
For our country the First World War
acted as a destructive catalyst
leading to the collapse of the Russian
empire, revolution and subsequent
civil war.
Autocracy in the eyes of the people has become
associated with continuous fighting,
million losses, devastation,
famine, epidemics. It's all set up
broad sections of the population against the king. AT
which resulted in the February
revolution and the advent of the Provisional
government.
Then the October Revolution of 1917,
coming to power of the Bolsheviks, execution
royal family, civil war.
The Russian Empire fell. Economics
countries of the winners, with the exception of
The US has also been hit hard. have fallen
standard of living, national economy.

The First World War was a catastrophe for the whole world:
instead of the unjust system of the world order, which caused
war, an even more unjust
The Versailles-Washington system, which gave rise in 20
years of even more devastating World War II; /
4 world empires collapsed and collapsed -
Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman;
the whole of Europe was destroyed, the standard of living decreased.
Great Britain was the only winner in the war.
insular territory of Great Britain (as opposed to
France, Germany, Russia, etc.) almost did not suffer from
military operations;
the economy on military orders has become even stronger;
main competitors (as allies - France and Russia,
and opponents - Germany) were destroyed and
thrown back in development;
Great Britain to the existing vast colonies
new colonies were added (former German and Turkish
- Egypt with the Suez Canal, Iraq, Oman, Palestine,
Namibia, Cameroon, Papua New Guinea, etc. - almost 1/4
part of the Earth). Essential products disappeared
(on the eve of the February Revolution in the capital of Russia -
Petersburg, there was no bread, like in many others
cities:
finally fell the authority of the king and his entourage -
the war showed the people the whole truth of life;
society was militarized;
appeared a large number of armed men,
who have lost the habit of working and have learned to fight, have become
take war and murder calmly - the future
The Red Army and the White Guards, who sent their
energy into the revolutionary process and civil war.

Introduction

1. The beginning of the war.

2. Causes and nature of the war.

4. Attitude towards the war of various classes and parties in Russia.

5. Results of the First World War.

Conclusion.

Introduction

There are a lot of reasons why the First World War began, but various scholars and various records of those years tell us that the main reason is that at that time Europe was developing very rapidly. At the beginning of the 20th century, there were no territories left in the world that were not captured by the capitalist powers. Germany during this period bypassed industrial production all of Europe, and since Germany had very few colonies, she sought to capture them. By capturing them, Germany would have new markets. At that time, England and France had very large colonies, so the interests of these countries often clashed.

I chose this topic because I decided to figure out why the war started? What was the reason for this? What technological advances occurred during the course of the war? Consequences of the First World War for Russia?

It seems to me that this topic in itself is very interesting. During the First World War, one can trace how the technical and economic development of each country developed. For four years of war we find, as new technical means influence the course of the war, how war helps to move scientific progress. The more economic and technological progress, the more weapons of murder appear, the bloodier the war itself becomes, and the more more countries becomes involved in this war.

1. The beginning of the war

The immediate cause for the outbreak of hostilities was the assassination in Sarajevo of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. The Austrian-Hungarian government, with German approval, issued an ultimatum to Serbia, demanding freedom to interfere in Serbia's internal affairs. Despite the acceptance by Serbia of almost all conditions. Austria-Hungary declared war on July 28. Two days later, the Russian government, in response to the opening of hostilities by Austria-Hungary, announced a general mobilization. Germany used this as a pretext and launched a war against Russia on August 1, and against France on August 3. England declared war on Germany on 4 August. At the end of August, Japan came out on the side of the Entente, which decided to take advantage of the fact that Germany would be pinned down in the west and capture its colonies in Far East. On October 30, 1914, Turkey entered the war on the side of the Entente.

In 1914, Italy did not enter the war, declaring its neutrality. She began hostilities in May 1915 on the side of the Entente. In April 1917, the United States entered the war on the side of the Entente.

The hostilities that began in August 1914 unfolded in several theaters and continued until November 1918. According to the nature of the tasks being solved and the military-political results achieved, the First World War is usually divided into five campaigns, each of which includes several operations.

2. Causes and nature of the war.

The First World War arose as a result of the intensification of the political and economic struggle between the major imperialist countries for markets and sources of raw materials, for the redistribution of the already divided world. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the division of the world was already completed, the globe there are no territories left that have not yet been captured by the capitalist powers, there are no more so-called "free spaces". “It has come,” V.I. Lenin, "the era of monopoly possession of colonies is inevitable, and, consequently, a particularly intensified struggle for the division of the world."

As a result of the uneven, spasmodic development of capitalism in the era of imperialism, some countries that took the capitalist path of development later than others in a short time overtook and surpassed in technical and economic terms such old colonial countries as England and France. Particularly indicative was the development of Germany, which by 1900 bypassed these countries in terms of industrial production, but was significantly inferior in size to colonial possessions. Because of this, the interests of Germany and England clashed most often. Germany openly sought to capture British markets in the Middle East and Africa.

The colonial expansion of Germany met with resistance from France, which also had huge colonies. Very sharp contradictions between the countries existed because of Alsace and Lorraine, captured by Germany back in 1871.

With its penetration into the Middle East, Germany created a threat to Russia's interests in the Black Sea basin. Austria-Hungary, acting in alliance with Germany, became a serious competitor tsarist Russia in the struggle for influence in the Balkans.

Exacerbation of foreign policy contradictions between major countries led to the division of the world into two hostile camps and to the formation of two imperialist groupings: the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Tripartite Agreement, or Entente (England, France, Russia).

The war between the major European powers was beneficial to the US imperialists, since this struggle created favorable conditions for the further development of American expansion, especially in Latin America and in the Far East. American monopolies relied on the maximum benefit from Europe.

In preparing for war, the imperialists saw in it not only a means of resolving external contradictions, but also a means that could help them cope with the growing discontent of the population of their own countries and suppress the growing revolutionary movement. The bourgeoisie hoped in the course of the war to destroy the international solidarity of the workers, to physically exterminate the best part of the working class, for the socialist revolution.

Due to the fact that the war for the redivision of the world affected the interests of all imperialist countries, most of the world's states gradually became involved in it. The war became a world war, both in its political aims and in its scope.

By its nature, the war of 1914-1918. was imperialistic, predatory, unjust on both sides. It was a war for who had more to rob and oppress. Most of the parties of the Second International, having betrayed the interests of the working people, came out in favor of the war in support of the bourgeoisie and the governments of their countries.

The Bolshevik Party, headed by V.I. Lenin, having determined the nature of the war, called for a struggle against it, for the transformation of the imperialist war into a civil war.

3. Armed forces and plans of the parties.

In my opinion, the forces of each side were very great importance. By the beginning of the war, all major European states, except England, had standing armies, completing on the basis of universal conscription. In England, the army was mercenary. Only after the outbreak of the war did the British government introduce universal service.

The main type of troops in the armies of all states was the infantry. The ground forces included cavalry and artillery. Special troops had very little specific gravity(about 2%).

The infantry division had from 16 to 21 thousand people, 36-48 guns and about 30 machine guns.

The regiment, as a rule, did not have regular artillery. Artillery was at the disposal of the division commander. By the beginning of the war, the armed forces of Russia had 263 aircraft, Germany - 232, England - 258, France - 156. The army corps included detachments of 3-6 aircraft intended for reconnaissance. All armies had armored cars and armored trains in small numbers. By 1914, there were about 4000 vehicles in the German armed forces, Russia - 4500, England - 900, France - 6000.1

The main burden of the struggle was still assigned to the infantry, armed with a rifle. The political and military leaders of the countries participating in the war could not correctly foresee the nature of the future war and determine the amount of forces and means required for its conduct. Bourgeois military theorists on the eve of the First World War saw the highest achievement of military thought in the reproduction of Napoleon's art of military leadership. The experience of later wars was not taken into account enough. Changes in the methods of warfare that occurred in these wars were regarded as a phenomenon of a random order, caused either by the peculiarities of the theater of operations, or by poor training of the troops, or by the erroneous actions of commanders. The emergence of a positional front during the Russo-Japanese War was regarded as an accident. Therefore, the problem of breaking through the positional defense was not even theoretically studied. All attention was paid to the offensive against a shallow focal defense. The main form of combat formation of troops was considered a rifle chain.

The military action plans of the main participants in the war did not sufficiently take into account the increased role of economic and moral factors and were designed to conduct battles only at the expense of mobilization reserves accumulated in peacetime. It was believed that the war would be short-lived.

The essence of the German plan was the desire to beat the opponents consistently and thus avoid a war on two fronts. It was planned to first strike at France and defeat its army, then transfer the main forces to the east and defeat the Russian army. This circumstance determined the choice of the strategic form of the offensive - flank bypass and encirclement of the main enemy forces. In order to bypass and encircle the French army, it was planned to carry out a flank maneuver through Belgium, bypassing the main forces of the French army from the north. In the east, it was planned to deploy 15-16 divisions, which were supposed to cover East Prussia from a possible invasion of Russian troops. Active operations at this time were to be carried out by the Austro-Hungarian troops.

The main flaw in the German plan was the overestimation of the enemy's strength.

The Austro-Hungarian war plan was strongly influenced by the demand of the German General Staff - to tie down the Russian armies during the main German attack on France. In this regard, the Austro-Hungarian General Staff planned active operations against Russia, Serbia and Czechoslovakia. It was planned to deliver the main blow from Galicia to the east and northeast. The Austro-Hungarian plan was built without any real consideration of the economic and moral possibilities of the country. This clearly showed the influence of the German military school- underestimation of enemy forces and overestimation of own forces. The available forces did not correspond to the assigned tasks.

The French plan, although it provided for active offensive operations, was passive - wait and see, since the initial actions of the French troops were made dependent on the actions of the enemy. The plan provided for the creation of three shock groups, but only one of them (Lorraine) received an active task - to advance on Lorraine and Alsace. The central grouping was supposed to become a link, covering the border in its lane, and the Belgian grouping was supposed to act depending on the position of the enemy. If the Germans violate the neutrality of Belgium and begin to advance through its territory, then this army should be ready to attack in a northeasterly direction.

English plan proceeded from the fact that the allies - Russia and France - should take on the whole burden of waging war on land. The main task of the British armed forces was put forward to ensure dominance at sea. For operations on land, it was planned to transfer seven divisions to France.

The Russian war plan, due to the economic and political dependence of tsarist Russia on Anglo-French capital, provided for simultaneous offensive operations against Austria-Hungary and against Germany. The plan had two options. According to option "A": if Germany concentrates the main forces against France, then the main efforts of the Russian army were directed against Austria-Hungary. According to option "D": in the event that Germany inflicted the main blow on Russia, the Russian army turned its main efforts against Germany. The Northwestern Front was supposed to defeat the 8th German Army and capture East Prussia. The Southwestern Front was tasked with encircling and defeating the Austro-Hungarian troops stationed in Galicia.

By the beginning of hostilities, the strategic deployment of troops in accordance with the adopted war plan was completed only by Germany. Against France and Belgium, the Germans deployed 86 infantry and 10 cavalry divisions (about 1.6 million people and 5 thousand guns). The German troops were opposed by 85 infantry and 12 cavalry divisions of the Franco-Anglo-Belgian troops (over 1.3 million people and 4640 guns). 75 Russian divisions (over 1 million men and 3,200 guns) were concentrated in the East European theater of war against Germany and Austria-Hungary. The opponents of Russia had 64 divisions (about 1 million people and 2900 guns).1

Consequently, by the beginning of the war, neither side had an overall superiority in strength.

4. Attitude towards the war of various classes and parties in Russia.

Unlike the Russo-Japanese War, which was unpopular, the 1914 war caused an explosion of patriotism among the population. The war began in the name of protecting the Serbian people. Sympathy for the younger brothers of the Slavs has been brought up in the Russian people for centuries. For the sake of their liberation from the Turkish yoke, a lot of Russian blood was shed.

With the announcement of mobilization, all strikes immediately ceased. The workers, who the day before staged demonstrations with slogans: "Down with the autocracy!", now sided with the tsar. At a meeting of the State Duma on July 26, 1914, the leaders of all the bourgeois-landowner factions issued an appeal to rally around "their sovereign tsar, leading Russia into a sacred battle with the enemy of the Slavs", putting aside "internal disputes and scores" with the government. At the same meeting, the Duma unanimously (the Social Democrats refused to vote) approved military credits. P.N. Milyukov, formulating the goals of the Russian bourgeoisie in this war, declared: "Only as a result of the war should the solution of our age-old national task: free access to the sea" come. Milyukov also declared that in the name of this task the Cadet Party was abandoning the opposition for the duration of the war.

At the beginning of the war, all-Russian unions were created - Zemsky and City, which set as their goal to attract broad social strata to joint measures with the government to defend the state. But the tsarist bureaucracy treated these organizations with distrust, limiting their activities only to helping the sick and wounded, and allowing their activities only for the period of the war.

Appointed Supreme Commander of the Russian Army Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, who was very popular both in the army and among the people. Russia entered the war unprepared. Since the Russo-Japanese War, a lot of work has been done to reorganize and rearm Russian army and the fleet, which was supposed to end by 1917, the war had begun three years earlier.

The outbreak of the First World War led to the collapse of the Second International, which changed the principles of proletarian internationalism and voted for the support of the bourgeoisie in the war. On July 22 (August 4), 1914, the Social Democratic faction in the German Reichstag voted in favor of granting war credits to the government. British, Belgian and French socialists joined the imperialist governments. In Russia, the Menshevik faction in the Duma, fearful of losing all influence among the people, voted together with the Bolsheviks against war credits. But under pressure from the chairman of the bureau of the Second International, the Mensheviks declared that the war was "just" on the part of Russia and its allies and retired.

The only party that clearly stood on its positions was the party

Central Organ of the Social Democrat Party proclaimed the slogan

the transformation of the imperialist war into a civil war, into a revolution against the exploiting classes. The first steps towards this great goal were to be an unconditional refusal to approve war loans and the withdrawal of socialists from bourgeois governments, a complete break with the policy of "national peace", the creation of illegal organizations, support for fraternization at the front, organization of all kinds of revolutionary actions of the proletariat in the rear . The Bolsheviks countered the social-chauvinist slogan of defending the bourgeois fatherland with the slogan of revolutionary defeatism. This is the true internationalism of the Bolshevik tactics, calculated on the fraternal alliance of the workers of all countries in the struggle against the imperialist war, for the overthrow of all bourgeois governments, for the establishment of a universal democratic peace. The tactics of revolutionary defeatism proceeded from the interests of the development of the world socialist revolution. At the same time, it did not contradict correctly understood national interests. According to the Bolsheviks, the development of the productive forces of society - the concentration of production and capital, the merging of industrial capital with banking, the formation of a system of state-monopoly capitalism - all this should create the material prerequisites for a socialist revolution. But since a revolution cannot be provoked artificially, it must grow out of an objectively overdue general political crisis. The First World War hastened the maturation of the revolutionary situation in all the belligerent countries. According to the Bolsheviks, such a situation could arise in any country.

The Bolsheviks were the first to follow this path. As early as July 16-18, 1914, leaflets of the Bolsheviks appeared at St. Petersburg plants and factories, calling on the workers to take active steps against the threat of war and to the international solidarity of the working people. On July 20, a procession of a "patriotic" manifestation took place along Tverskaya street with slogans: "Down with the war!", "No need for blood!" According to official, clearly underestimated data, anti-war demonstrations of workers and peasants took place in 17 provinces, some of them turned into armed clashes with the police.

In May 1915, at the All-Russian Congress of Representatives of Industry and

trade were established, with the aim of "organizing all the untapped power of Russian industry to meet the needs of the defense of the state," the Central Military-Industrial and Regional Committees in the province, which included prominent industrialists, bankers, and representatives of the technical intelligentsia. At the same time, the unions of zemstvos and cities expanded their functions, forming in July 1915 on an equal footing the Main Committee for the Supply of the Army. Uniting in military-industrial committees, expanding the range of activities of the Zemsky and City unions, and establishing contact with the highest command personnel through the Special Conference under the Minister of War, the bourgeoisie laid claim to overall leadership of the military-economic mobilization in the country.

The continued withdrawal of Russian troops, the growth of the revolutionary movement caused fear that the government would not cope with the situation. Confusion reigned in the Council of Ministers. Ministers complained about the isolation of the government, which has no support "neither from below nor from above." The majority of ministers came to the conclusion that the only way out of the political impasse could be an agreement with the Duma on the basis of a definite program. At a meeting of members of the Duma and the State Council on August 11 and 12, 1915, the so-called Progressive Bloc was launched. The platform of the block was supposed to provide "preservation inner peace and the elimination of discord between nationalities and classes." In order to please the right-wing members of the bloc, it was decided not to include in the program social reforms and maintain the utmost restraint in political matters. But the main task of the bloc was to change the government, that is, to create "a united government of persons who enjoy the confidence of the country and agreed with the legislative institutions regarding the implementation of a certain program in the near future." This formula meant the formation of a coalition, mixed cabinet, consisting of bureaucrats, bourgeois leaders and responsible to the tsar. The bloc itself was based on a compromise between two groupings - moderate right (progressive nationalists and center parties) and bourgeois (Octobrists, Cadets and Progressives) elements with an alignment to the most moderate - the faction of Russian nationalists.

The successes of the Russian fleet in the Gulf of Riga and the troops of the Southwestern Front near Tarnopol strengthened the reactionary currents in ruling circles. The king took over the supreme command of the army. It was an attempt to strengthen the shattered throne, an attempt to convince the people that in difficult times "the tsar himself stood up to defend his country." It also meant an end to fluctuations in power.

Deprived of mass support and torn apart by internal contradictions, the progressive bloc turned out to be fragile and fruitless. He, in fact, did not have a program that would become an alternative to the government course and would impress the masses. Therefore, the ruling environment, after some hesitation, rejected the policy of concessions and agreements with the Duma Bolsheviks.

5. Results of the First World War

The First World War is one of the longest, bloodiest and most significant in terms of consequences in the history of mankind. It went on for over four years. It was attended by 33 countries out of 59, which at that time had state sovereignty. The population of the warring countries amounted to more than 1.5 billion people, that is, about 87% of all inhabitants of the Earth. A total of 73.5 million people were put under arms. Over 10 million were killed and 20 million wounded. Casualties among the civilian population affected by epidemics, famine, cold and other wartime disasters also amounted to tens of millions.

The shortcomings and miscalculations of the peace settlement after the First World War in many ways set the stage for the Second World War. The tragedy that befell mankind in the middle of the 20th century cast a shadow of oblivion on the First World War. Meanwhile, she left a deep mark on modern history. As time goes by, this becomes more and more obvious. The First World War changed the habits and morals of people, made them more tolerant of state forms violence and sowed the seeds of future international conflicts, which sprouted in bloody clashes in our time, for example, in Yugoslavia in the early 90s.

The needs of wartime forced the governments of the belligerent countries to resort to state regulation of industrial and agricultural production, price and consumption rationing, distribution of labor resources and goods, and dosing of socially significant information. All this not only expanded the functions of the state, but actually placed it above society. Here undoubtedly lies the source of the strengthening of totalitarian tendencies in the life of countries and peoples in the middle of the 20th century.

From the experience of the First World War, the theorists and practitioners of not only the fascist command economy in Germany and Italy, but also the "socialist planned economy" in the USSR, largely proceeded. Directly or indirectly, it also influenced the experience of state regulation in democratic countries, for example, the development of the New Deal in the United States. Only as a result of liberal reforms and transformations that swept the world in the last third of our century, humanity is gradually parting with this heritage.

Conclusion

Analyzing all the material, I came to the conclusion that the war that began in the era of imperialism, and in particular the First World War, showed that armed struggle requires massive, multimillion-strong armies equipped with the most diverse military equipment. If at the beginning of the First World War, the number of armies of both sides did not exceed about 70 million people, which accounted for almost 12% of the total population of the largest states participating in the war. In Germany and France, 20% of the population was under arms. More than a million people took part in separate operations at the same time. By the end of the war, the armies of its most important participants (at the front and in the rear) had a total of 18.5 million rifles, 480 thousand machine guns, 183 thousand guns and mortars, over 8 thousand tanks, 84 thousand aircraft, 340 thousand cars. Military equipment also found its application in the mechanization of engineering work, in the use of various new means of communication.

The result of the wars of the era of imperialism shows that as their scope grew, so did their destructive nature.

In terms of damage to humanity, the First World War surpassed all previous wars. Only human casualties during the war amounted to 39.5 million, of which 9.5 million were killed and wounded from wounds. About 29 million were wounded and maimed. In terms of the absolute number of irretrievable losses, the First World War twice surpassed all the wars taken together in 125 years, starting from the wars of bourgeois France.

The war era of imperialism revealed the growing role of economic and moral factors. This was a direct consequence of the creation and growth of mass armies, the masses of various equipment and the protracted nature of wars, in which all the economic and political foundations of the state were tested. The experience of these wars, especially the First World War, was confirmed by V.I. Lenin, made back in 1904, that modern wars are waged by peoples.1 The people are the decisive force in war. The participation of the people in the war is manifested not only, and not only at its expense, modern mass armies are completed, but also in the fact that the basis of modern warfare is the rear. In the course of a war, the rear supplies the front not only with reserves, weapons and food, but also with moods and ideas, thereby exerting a decisive influence on the morale of the army and on its combat capability.

The war showed that the strength of the home front, which includes the morale of the people, is one of the decisive, constantly acting factors that determine the course and outcome of modern warfare.

List of used literature

1. Werth N. History of the Soviet state. 1990-1991. M., 1992. Ch. III.;

2. military history: Textbook / I.E. Krupchenko, M.L. Altgovzen, M.P. Dorofeeev and others - M.: Military Publishing House, 1984.-375s.;

3. General history: Directory / F.s. Kapitsa, V.A. Grigoriev, E.P. Novikova and others - M .: Philologist, 1996. - 544 p.;

4. History: Handbook / V.N. Ambarov, P. Andreev, S.G. Antonenko and others - M.: Drofa, 1998. - 816 p.;

34. History of the First World War 1914 - 1918: Rostunova I.I. - M.: Nauka, 1975.-215s.;

5. The First World War. 1914 - 1918: / collection scientific articles/ Editorial Board: Sidorov (responsible editor) and others - M .: Nauka, 1975.- 44p.

Fin de siècle (French - "end of the century")- phenomena that took place in the history of European culture at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries

Crown Prince Wilhelm of Prussia // europeana1914-1918

balance of power

The main participants: the countries of the Entente, which included the Russian Empire, the French Republic and Great Britain, and the Central Powers, represented by Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.

Vae victis

(Russian "woe to the vanquished") a Latin catch phrase that implies that the winners always dictate the terms

Germany wanted war just as much as France and Great Britain wanted war. Slightly less interested in this were Russia, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, which turned out to be the weakest links in this conflict.

World War I // British Library

5 billion francs

This amount of indemnity was paid by France after the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War

Interests of participating countries

The war ends with France accepting Germany's defeat by signing the Frankfurt Treaty of 1871, according to which Alsace and Lorraine are alienated in favor of Germany and become imperial territories.

Third French Republic

(French Troisième République) - the political regime that existed in France from September 1870 to June 1940

Russo-Turkish War

the war of 1877 - 178, caused by the rise of the national self-consciousness of the Slavic population in the Balkans

Britannia

Britain was preoccupied with German economic dominance in Europe and the world. By the 1890s, Germany ranks first in terms of GDP in Europe, pushing Britain into second place. The British government cannot accept this fact, given that for many centuries Britain was the "workshop of the world", the most economically developed country. Now Britain is seeking some sort of revenge, but economic.

Russia

For Russia, the key topic was the question of the Slavs, that is, the Slavic peoples living in the Balkans. The ideas of pan-Slavism, which gain momentum in the 1860s, lead to the Russian-Turkish war in the 1870s, this idea remains in the 1880s–1890s, and so it passes into the 20th century, and finally embodied by 1915. The main idea was the return of Constantinople, to put a cross over Hagia Sophia. In addition, the return of Constantinople was supposed to solve all the problems with the straits, with the transition from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. This was one of the main geopolitical goals of Russia. And plus everything, of course, to push the Germans out of the Balkans.

As we can see, several interests of the main participating countries intersect here at once. Thus, in considering this issue, the political, geopolitical, economic, and cultural levels are equally important. Do not forget that during the war, at least in its first years, culture becomes the basic part of the ideology. The anthropological level is no less important. War affects a person from different sides, and he begins to exist in this war. Another question is whether he was ready for this war? Did he imagine what kind of war it would be? People who went through the First World War, lived in the conditions of this war, after its end became completely different. Not a trace will remain of beautiful Europe. Everything will change: social relations, domestic policy, social policy. No country will ever be the same as it was in 1913.

World War I // wikipedia.org

Franz Ferdinand - Archduke of Austria

Formal cause for conflict

Was there a way out of the current impasse or not? It turned out that no. On July 23, Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, giving it 48 hours to respond. In turn, Serbia agreed to all the conditions, except for one related to the fact that the secret services of Austria-Hungary would begin to make arrests and take out terrorists and suspicious persons to Austria-Hungary without notifying the Serbian side. Austria, reinforced by the support of Germany, declares war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. In response to this, the Russian Empire announces mobilization, to which the German Empire protests and demands to stop the mobilization, in case of non-cessation, the German side reserves the right to start its own mobilization. On July 31, a general mobilization was announced in the Russian Empire. In response, on August 1, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia. The war has begun. On August 3, France joins it, on August 4 - Great Britain, and all the main participants begin hostilities.

July 31, 1914

mobilization Russian soldiers to participate in the First World War

It is important to note that when announcing mobilization, no one talks about their selfish interests. Everyone proclaims the lofty ideals behind this war. For example, help to the fraternal Slavic peoples, help to the fraternal German peoples and the empire. Accordingly, France and Russia are bound by allied treaties, this is allied assistance. This also applies to Britain. It is interesting to note that already in September 1914, another protocol was signed between the Entente countries, that is, between Great Britain, Russia and France - a declaration on the non-conclusion of a separate peace. The same document will be signed by the Entente countries in November 1915. Thus, we can say that among the allies there were suspicions and significant fears in matters of trust in each other: what if someone breaks loose and concludes a separate peace with the enemy side.

Propaganda Karten // wikipedia.org

Schlieffen Plan

the strategic plan of the military command of the German Empire, developed at the beginning of the 20th century by Alfred von Schlieffen to achieve a quick victory in the First World War

World War I as a new type of war

Wilhelm II was sure that Germany would have time to defeat France before the general mobilization in Russia ended. After that, it was planned to transfer the main contingent of German troops to the East, that is, to Prussia, and organize an offensive operation already against the Russian Empire. This is exactly what Wilhelm II meant when he declared that he would have breakfast in Paris and dinner in St. Petersburg.

Treaty of Versailles

Treaty signed on June 28, 1919 at the Palace of Versailles in France, officially ending the First World War

For reflection German offensive France asked the Russian Empire to hastily launch a counteroffensive in East Prussia in order to pull part of the troops from the Western Front to the Eastern. Russia successfully carried out this operation, which largely saved France from the surrender of Paris.

Kingdom of Poland

Territory in Europe that was part of the Russian Empire from 1815 to 1917

Retreat in Russia

In 1914, Russia won a number of victories, primarily in southwestern front. In fact, Russia inflicts a crushing defeat on Austria-Hungary, occupies Lviv (then it was the Austrian city of Lemberg), occupies Bukovina, that is, Chernivtsi, Galicia and approaches the Carpathians.

But already in 1915, a great retreat began, tragic for the Russian army. It turned out that there was a catastrophic lack of ammunition, according to the documents they should have been, but in fact they were not. In 1915, Russian Poland, that is, the Kingdom of Poland (Privislinsky region), was lost, the conquered Galicia, Vilna, modern western Belarus were lost. The Germans are actually approaching Riga, leaving Courland - for the Russian front it will be a disaster. And since 1916, in the army, especially among the soldiers, there has been a general fatigue from the war. Discontent begins on the Russian front, of course, this will affect the disintegration of the army and play its tragic role in the revolutionary events of 1917. According to archival documents, we see that the censors, through whom the soldiers' letters passed, note decadent moods, the lack of fighting spirit in the Russian army since 1916. It is interesting that the Russian soldiers, who for the most part were peasants, begin to engage in self-mutilation - shoot themselves in the foot, in the hand in order to leave the front as soon as possible and end up in their native village.

Anti-Serb uprisings in Sarajevo. 1914 // wikipedia.org

5000 people

Died as a result of the use of chlorine as a weapon by German troops

The total nature of war

One of the main tragedies of the war will be the use of poisonous gases in 1915. On the Western Front, at the Battle of Ypres, for the first time in history, chlorine was used by German troops, resulting in the death of 5,000 people. The First World War is technological, it is a war of engineering systems, inventions, high technologies. This war is not only on land, it is under water. So, German submarines dealt crushing blows to the British fleet. This is a war in the air: aviation was used both as a means of finding out the positions of the enemy (reconnaissance function), and for delivering strikes, that is, bombing.

The First World War is a war where there is no longer much room for valor and courage. Due to the fact that the war already in 1915 took on a positional character, there were no direct clashes when one could see the face of the enemy, look into his eyes. There is no enemy in sight. Death begins to be perceived in a completely different way, because it appears out of nowhere. In this sense, the gas attack is a symbol of this desacralized and demystified death.

"Verdun meat grinder"

Battle of Verdun - fighting on the Western Front, held from February 21 to December 18, 1916

The First World War is a colossal number of victims, unprecedented before. We can recall the so-called "Verdun meat grinder", where there were 750 thousand killed by France and England, by Germany - 450 thousand, that is, the total losses of the parties amounted to more than a million people! Bloodshed on this scale history has not yet known. The horror of what is happening, the presence of death from nowhere cause aggression and frustration. That is why, in the end, all this causes such bitterness, which will result in outbreaks of aggression and violence already in peacetime after the First World War. Compared with 1913, there is an increase in cases of domestic violence: fights in the streets, domestic violence, conflicts at work, etc.

In many ways, this allows researchers to talk about the readiness of the population for totalitarianism and violent, repressive practices. Here we can recall, first of all, the experience of Germany, where in 1933 National Socialism was victorious. This is also a kind of continuation of the First World War.

That is why there is an opinion that it is impossible to separate the First and Second World Wars. That it was one war that began in 1914 and ended only in 1945. And what happened from 1919 to 1939 was just a truce, because the population was still living with the ideas of war and was ready to fight further.

Map of Germany in 1919 // Alisa Serbinenko for PostNauka

Woodrow Wilson - 28th President of the United States (1913-1921)

Aftermath of World War I

The war, which began on August 1, 1914, continued until November 11, 1918, when an armistice was signed between Germany and the Entente countries. By 1918, the Entente was represented by France and Great Britain. The Russian Empire will leave this union in 1917, when in October there will be a Bolshevik coup of a revolutionary type. The first decree of Lenin will be the Decree on peace without annexations and indemnities to all warring powers on October 25, 1917. True, none of the warring powers will support this decree, except for Soviet Russia.

At the same time, Russia will officially withdraw from the war only on March 3, 1918, when the famous Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of 1918 will be signed in Brest-Litovsk, according to which Germany and its allies, on the one hand, and Soviet Russia, on the other, ceased hostilities against each other. At the same time, Soviet Russia lost part of its territories, primarily Ukraine, Belarus and the entire Baltic. No one even thought about Poland, and, in fact, no one needed it. The logic of Lenin and Trotsky in this matter was very simple: we do not bargain for territories, because the world revolution will win anyway. Moreover, in August 1918, an additional agreement to Brest Peace, according to which Russia will undertake to pay indemnities to Germany, even the first transfer will be made - 93 tons of gold. So, Russia leaves, which will be a violation of the allied obligations that the tsarist government assumed and to which the Provisional Government was loyal.

By 1918, the need for finding a way to compromise with the Entente countries became obvious to the leadership of Germany. At the same time, I wanted to lose as little as possible. It was for this purpose that a counteroffensive was proposed on the Western Front in the spring and summer of 1918. The operation was extremely unsuccessful for Germany, which only increased discontent among the troops and among the civilian population. In addition, a revolution took place in Germany on November 9th. Its instigators were sailors in Kiel, who revolted, not wanting to follow the order of the command. On November 11, 1918, the Armistice of Compiègne was signed between Germany and the Entente countries. It should be noted that the armistice is signed in Compiègne in Marshal Foch's carriage not by chance. This will be done at the insistence of the French side, for which it was very important to overcome the defeat complex in the Franco-Prussian War. France will insist on this place in order for an act of revenge to take place, that is, satisfaction will occur. It must be said that the carriage will surface again in 1940, when it will be brought in again so that Hitler accepts the surrender of France in it.

On June 28, 1919, a peace treaty with Germany is signed. It was a humiliating world for her, she was losing all her overseas colonies, part of Schleswig, Silesia and Prussia. Germany was forbidden to have a submarine fleet, to develop and have the latest weapons systems. The contract, however, did not specify the amount that Germany had to pay as reparations, since France and Britain could not agree among themselves due to France's excessive appetites. It was unprofitable for Britain to create such a strong France. Therefore, the amount was not entered in the end. It was finally determined only in 1921. Under the London Accords of 1921, Germany had to pay 132 billion gold marks.

Germany was declared the sole culprit in unleashing the conflict. And, in fact, all the restrictions and sanctions imposed on it followed from this. The Treaty of Versailles had disastrous consequences for Germany. The Germans felt insulted and humiliated, which led to the rise of nationalist forces. During the 14 difficult years of the Weimar Republic - from 1919 to 1933 - any political force set as its goal the revision of the Treaty of Versailles. First of all, no one recognized eastern borders. The Germans turned into a divided people, part of which remained in the Reich, in Germany, part in Czechoslovakia (Sudetland), part in Poland. And in order to feel national unity, it is necessary to reunite the great German people. This formed the basis of the political slogans of the National Socialists, the Social Democrats, the moderate conservatives, and other political forces.

The results of the war for the participating countries and the idea of great powers

For Austria-Hungary, the consequences of defeat in the war turned into a national catastrophe and the collapse of the multinational Habsburg empire. Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I, who over the 68 years of his reign became a kind of symbol of the empire, died in 1916. He was replaced by Charles I, who failed to stop the centrifugal national forces of the empire, which, coupled with military defeats, led to the collapse of Austria-Hungary. Four of the greatest empires perished in the crucibles of the First World War: Russian, Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian and German. New states will emerge in their place: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. At the same time, grievances and disagreements, as well as territorial claims of new countries to each other, remained. Hungary was dissatisfied with the borders that were determined for it in accordance with the agreements reached, because Greater Hungary should also include Croatia.

It seemed to everyone that the First World War would solve the problems, but it created new ones and deepened the old ones.

Bulgaria is dissatisfied with the borders that she got, because Great Bulgaria should include almost all the territories up to Constantinople. The Serbs also considered themselves deprived. In Poland, the idea of Greater Poland - from sea to sea - is becoming widespread. Perhaps Czechoslovakia was the only happy exception of all the new Eastern European states, which was happy with everything. After the First World War, in many European countries, the idea of \u200b\u200btheir own greatness and significance arose, which led to the creation of myths about national exceptionalism and their political formulation in the interwar period.

Articledevoted tosomemeconomicallym, territorialmand demographicmaftermath of World War I 1914– 1918 - a war that radically changed the face and fate of old Europe.

World War I 1914 – 1918 was one of the most global and destructive conflicts in human history. Some impression about the scale of the consequences of this world confrontation will help to make the following figures and facts.

1. Of the 59 independent states of the world, 34 were involved in the war and only 25 remained neutral. 91% of the world's population was involved in the war.

results of the world war. Decade of the World War. Digest of articles. - M., 1925.

2. Germany, which had 540.8 thousand square meters before the war km of territory, lost 13.44% of the main territory (where 9.5% of the population of the Second Reich lived) and 100% of the colonies. The largest acquisitions at the expense of Germany were made by: Poland (43.6 thousand sq. km from 2.95 million inhabitants - 8.1% of the territory and 4.5% of the population), France (14.5 thousand sq. km from 1, 82 million inhabitants - 2.7% of the territory and 2.8% of the population) and Denmark (3.9 thousand square kilometers with 160 thousand inhabitants - 0.7 of the territory and 0.24% of the population).

England captured 74.1% of the German colonies (65.6% of the colonial population), France annexed 25.8% of the German colonies (31.6% of the colonial population) and 0.1% of the German colonies (2.8% of the colonial population) became booty Japan.

"Have mercy." The Great War in Images and Pictures. Issue. 13. Ed. Makovsky D. Ya. - M., 1917.

3. Austria-Hungary, which in 1914 had an area of 676.6 thousand square meters. km, disappeared from the political map of the world. It is significant that Austria and Hungary proper became the heirs of only a small part of the territory of the empire: Hungary is located on 88 thousand square meters. km (13% of the area of the empire with 15.1% of its population), and Austria - by 84 thousand square meters. km (12.4% of the area of the empire with 12.9% of its population). The largest territories of the Dual Monarchy became part of Yugoslavia (146.5 thousand sq. km - 21.7% of the empire's area with 15% of the population), Czechoslovakia (140.3 thousand sq. km - 20.7% of the empire's area with 26, 8% of the population) and Romania (113.4 thousand sq. km - 16.8% of the area of the empire with 11% of the population).

Former Austro-Hungarian territories in the context of the new Europe. Willmot G.P. The First World War. 2003.

4. The territorial and human losses of Turkey were catastrophic. In 1915, the Ottoman Empire had an area of 1.79 million square meters. km (21.9 million inhabitants) - following the results of the war, Turkey (no longer an empire) lost 1.22 million square meters. km of its territory (68.2%) and 10 million 250 thousand inhabitants (46.1%). The largest acquisitions at its expense were made by: England and its "vassal" states (51.2% of the territory and 17.8% of the population), France (8.9% of the territory and 13.6% of the population) and Armenia (5.3% of the territory and 6.4% of the population).

Middle East and World War II. Willmot G.P. The First World War. 2003.

5. Bulgaria got off relatively easy, from which only 7.7% of the territory was “pinched off” (9 thousand square kilometers from 400 thousand people) from 8.2% of the population: 6.5 thousand square meters. km (300 thousand inhabitants) went to Greece and 2.1 thousand square meters. km (100 thousand inhabitants) - Yugoslavia.

Bulgarian soldiers celebrate the end of the war.
Willmot G.P. The First World War. 2003.

6. The failed victorious power and a key participant in the Entente at the first stage of the world war, Russia, suffered the heaviest damage. She lost 842 thousand square meters. km (15.4% of the territory of the empire), where 31.5 million inhabitants lived (23.3% of the population of the empire). The largest territories became part of Poland (246 thousand sq. km), went to Finland (390 thousand sq. km) and Latvia (65 thousand sq. km). And even Romania managed to grab 46 thousand square meters. km of former Russian territory. Only in 1939-1944. The USSR was able to return part of these lands.

The end of the army is the death of the great and indivisible Russia. Rally at the front, 1917
The Great War in Images and Pictures. Issue. 14. Ed. Makovsky D. Ya. - M., 1917.

7. According to averaged data (according to Professor Gikman), the First World War cost the population of our planet 37 million 50 thousand people (of which over 10 million were killed). The Entente and its allies lost 23 million 350 thousand, and the German bloc - 13 million 700 thousand people.

Demographic consequences of the World War. J. Gross. Decade of the World War. Digest of articles. - M., 1925.

8. During the years of the World War, valuables were destroyed (taking into account the productivity of the dead and maimed people) in the amount of 1 trillion 200 billion gold marks (by 1914, all world wealth was estimated at 2 trillion 400 billion gold marks). And (for comparison) the damage from all wars on the globe for the period 1793-1905. amounted to only 83 billion marks.

Distribution of bread on the streets of Vienna. Willmot G.P. The First World War. 2003.

9. The national wealth of most states (both winners and losers) has significantly decreased. In 1914 and 1919 they amounted to: for England 325 and 275, for France 260 and 180, for Russia 250 and 100, for Germany 375 and 250, for Austria-Hungary 170 and 100, for Italy 100 and 80 billion gold marks. Only the United States and Japan have benefited in this respect. For them, the balance turned out to be 850 and 1200 and 80 and 100 billion gold marks, respectively.

military costs. Decade of the World War. Digest of articles. - M., 1925

10. The damage to the world economy was extremely heavy. The sown areas decreased by 22.6%, grain harvest by 37.2% from pre-war figures. In France alone, 319 thousand houses were completely destroyed, 7985 km railways, 4875 bridges, 20603 factories.

Metal smelting was significantly reduced (in 1921, 43.2% of the pre-war level - and taking into account the USA), mining, etc. The public debts of most states increased (for example, Germany by 63 times, and even England - by 8.7 times) . The fall of world currencies was unprecedented - for example, the pound sterling, which cost 25 francs before the war, was estimated at 60 francs in 1920. And these are the currencies of the victorious powers! The ratio of currencies in relation to the vanquished was different. So, for 1 pound sterling in 1921 they gave 20 thousand (!) German marks.

World War and fertility. Decade of the World War. Digest of articles. - M., 1925.

Thus, no other war had such an impact on the fate of Europe as the First World War.

Interests of participating countries

Britannia

Russia

World War I as a new type of war

political results.

Territorial changes.

military results.

Economic results.

Consequences of the First World War for Russia.

balance of power

Vae victis

5 billion francs

Interests of participating countries

Third French Republic

Russo-Turkish War

Britannia

Russia

Formal cause for conflict

July 31, 1914

Schlieffen Plan

World War I as a new type of war

Treaty of Versailles

Kingdom of Poland

Retreat in Russia

5000 people

The total nature of war

"Verdun meat grinder"

Aftermath of World War I

The results of the war for the participating countries and the idea of ​​great powers

The results of the war for the participating countries and the idea of great powers