Lectures 7, 8. Russia under the first Romanovs in the 17th century.
PLAN:
1. Socio-economic development of Russia in the 17th century.
2. Anti-state speeches.
3. The evolution of the state-political system.
4. Foreign policy of Russia. Development of Siberia and the Far East.
5. Church reform. Russia under the first Romanovs in the 17th century.

TOPIC 7, 8. Russia under the first Romanovs in X7th century

PLAN:
1. Socio-economic development of Russia in the 17th century.
2. Anti-state speeches.
3. The evolution of the state-political system.
4. Foreign policy of Russia. Development of Siberia and the Far East.
5. Church reform.

LITERATURE
1. Buganov V. I. The world of history. Russia in the 17th century. M., 1989.
2. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861 / Ed. N. I. Pavlenko. M, 2000.
3. History of the Fatherland in faces. From ancient times to the end of the 17th century. Biographical Encyclopedia. M., 1993.
4. Kargalov VV On the borders of Rus' to stand firmly! Great Rus' and Wild Iole. Opposition XIII-XVIII centuries. M., 1998.
5. Solovyov V. M. Contemporaries and descendants about the uprising of S. T. Razin. M., 1991.
6. Tarle E. V. International relations of Russia in the XVII-XVIII centuries. M., 1966.
7. Reader on the history of Russia. M., 1995. T. 2. Encyclopedia for children. T. 5. History of Russia. From the ancient Slavs to Peter the Great. M. 1995.

The ruling circles of the Commonwealth and the Catholic Church intended to divide Russia and eliminate its state independence. In a hidden form, the intervention was expressed in the support of False Dmitry I and False Dmitry II. Open intervention under the leadership of Sigismund III began under Vasily Shuisky, when in September 1609 Smolensk was besieged and in 1610 a campaign against Moscow and its capture took place. By this time, Vasily Shuisky was overthrown by the nobles from the throne, and an interregnum began in Russia - Seven Boyars. The Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish invaders and was inclined to call on the Russian throne the Polish king - the young Vladislav, a Catholic, which was a direct betrayal of Russia's national interests. In addition, in the summer of 1610, Swedish intervention began with the aim of wresting Pskov, Novgorod, and the northwestern regions from Russia.
Under these conditions, the independence of the Russian state and the expulsion of the interventionists could only be defended by the whole people. External danger brought national and religious interests to the fore, temporarily uniting the warring classes. As a result of the first people's militia (led by P. P. Lyapunov) and the second people's militia (led by Prince D. M. Pozharsky and K. M. Minin), in the autumn of 1612 the capital was liberated from the Polish garrison.
The victory was won as a result of the heroic efforts of the Russian people. The symbol of loyalty to the Motherland is the feat of the Kostroma peasant Ivan Susanin, who sacrificed his own life in the fight against the Polish invaders. Grateful Russia erected the first sculptural monument in Moscow to Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky (on Red Square, sculptor I.P. Martos).
In 1613, the Zemsky Sobor was held V Moscow, which raised the question of choosing a new Russian tsar. As candidates for the Russian throne, the Polish prince Vladislav, the son of the Swedish king Karl-Philip, the son of False Dmitry II and Marina Mnishek Ivan, nicknamed "Vorenok" (False Dmitry 11 - "Tushinsky Thief"), as well as representatives of the largest boyar families were proposed.
On February 21, the cathedral chose Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, 16-year-old great-nephew of the first wife of Ivan the Terrible Anastasia Romanova. July 11, Mikhail Fedorovich was married to the kingdom. Soon the leading place in the government of the country was taken by his father - the patriarch Filaret, who "mastered all the affairs of the king and the military." Power was restored in the form of an autocratic monarchy. The leaders of the fight against the interventionists received modest appointments. Dmitry Pozharsky was sent as governor to Mozhaisk, and Kozma Minin became the Duma governor.
The government of Mikhail Fedorovich faced the most difficult the task is to eliminate the consequences of the intervention. A great danger to him was represented by detachments of Cossacks, who roamed the country and did not recognize the new king. Among them is Ivan Zarutsky, to whom Marina Mnishek moved with her son. The Yaik Cossacks handed over I. Zarutsky to the Moscow government. I. Zarutsky and Vorenok were hanged, and Marina Mnishek was imprisoned in Kolomna, where she probably died soon after.
The Swedes posed another danger. In 1617 he was concluded with them pillar world(in the village of Stolbovo, not far from Tikhvin). Sweden returned to Russia Novgorod land, but retained the Baltic coast and received monetary compensation.
In the village of Deulino near the Trinity-Sergius Monastery in 1618 it was concluded Deulin truce with the Commonwealth, behind which remained the Smolensk and Chernihiv lands. There was an exchange of prisoners. Vladislav did not renounce his claims to the Russian throne.
Thus, the main consequence events of the Troubles in foreign policy was the restoration of the territorial unity of Russia, although part of the Russian lands remained with the Commonwealth and Sweden.
Socio-economic development of Russia c.XVIIV. In the middle of the XVII century. the devastation and ruin of the Time of Troubles were overcome. The economy recovered slowly in conditions:
- preservation of traditional forms of farming (weak productivity of the peasant economy with its primitive equipment and technology);
- sharply continental climate;
- low soil fertility in the Non-Chernozem region - the most developed part of the country.
Agriculture remained the leading sector of the economy. Height production volumes was achieved by involving new lands in the economic turnover: Chernozem, Middle Volga, Siberia.
In the 17th century further growth of feudal land ownership, redistribution of land within the ruling class. The new Romanov dynasty, strengthening its position, widely used the distribution of land to the nobles. In the central regions of the country, the landownership of black-sown peasants has practically disappeared. The desolation of the central counties as a result of a long crisis and the outflow of the population to the outskirts was one of the reasons strengthening of serfdom.
In the XVIII century. there was a development of handicraft into small-scale production. By the end of the XVII century. in Russia there were at least 300 cities, the main areas of handicraft production were formed. The centers of metallurgy and metalworking, textile products, salt production, and jewelry were further developed.
The development of small-scale production prepared the basis for the emergence manufactories. A manufactory is a large enterprise based on the division of labor and handicraft techniques. In the 17th century in Russia there were approximately 30 manufactories. The first state-owned manufactories arose in the 16th century. (Pushkarsky yard, Mint). The first privately owned manufactory is considered to be the Nitsa copper smelter in the Urals, built in 1631.
Since there were no free hands in the country, the state began to attribute, and later (1721) allowed factories to buy peasants. Ascribed peasants had to work out their taxes to the state at a factory or factory at certain rates. The state provided the owners of enterprises with assistance with land, timber, and money. Manufactories founded with the support of the state received a later name "session"(from the Latin word "possession" - possession). But until the 90s. 17th century metallurgy remained the only industry where manufactories operated.
Increasing role and importance merchants in the life of the country. The constantly gathering fairs acquired great importance: Makaryevskaya (near Nizhny Novgorod), Svenskaya (near Bryansk), Irbitskaya (in Siberia), in Arkhangelsk, etc., where merchants conducted wholesale and retail trade, which was large for those times.
Along with the development of domestic trade, foreign trade also grew. Until the middle of the century, foreign merchants derived huge profits from foreign trade, exporting timber, furs, hemp, etc. from Russia. The English fleet was built from Russian timber, and the ropes for its ships were made from Russian hemp. The center of Russian trade with Western Europe was Arkhangelsk. There were English and Dutch trading yards. Close ties were established through Astrakhan with the countries of the East.
The support of the growing merchant class by the Russian government is evidenced by the publication of the New Trade Charter, which raised duties on foreign goods. Policy mercantilism It was also expressed in the fact that foreign merchants had the right to conduct wholesale trade only in border trading centers.
In the 17th century the exchange of goods between individual regions of the country expanded significantly, which indicated the beginning formation of the all-Russian market. The merging of individual lands into a single economic system began.
The social structure of Russian society. The upper class in the country was boyars(among them were many descendants of the former great and specific princes). About a hundred boyar families owned estates, served the tsar and occupied leading positions in the state. There was a process of rapprochement with the nobility.
nobles made up the top layer of the sovereign's service people in the fatherland. They owned estates on the basis of inheritance law in the event that children continued to serve after their parents. The nobility significantly strengthened its position at the end of the Troubles and became the mainstay of royal power. This layer of feudal lords included persons who served at the royal court (stewards, solicitors, Moscow nobles, etc.), as well as city, i.e., provincial nobles.
Large feudal lords were clergy, which had large land holdings and monasteries.
The lower stratum of service people included service people according to the device or according to recruitment. It included archers, gunners, coachmen, serving Cossacks, government masters, etc.
Categories of the peasant population:

1. possessory or privately owned, living on the lands of estates or
   estates. They carried the tax (a set of duties in favor of the feudal lord). close
   to the privately owned peasants, the place was occupied by the peasants of the monasteries;
2. black peasants. Lived on the outskirts of the country (Pomeranian
   North, Ural, Siberia, South), united in communities. They did not have the right to leave their lands if they did not find a replacement for themselves. They carried the tax in favor of the state. "Cherny lands" could be sold, mortgaged, inherited (i.e., the position is easier than that of privately owned ones);
3. palace peasants, serving the household needs of the royal court. They had self-government and were subordinate to palace clerks.

top urban population were merchants. The richest of them (there were about 30 such people in Moscow in the 17th century) were declared "guests" by the tsar's command. Many wealthy merchants united in two Moscow hundreds - a living room and a cloth room.
The bulk of the urban population was called townspeople. They united in a draft community. In many Russian cities, military officials and their families predominated among the inhabitants. The bourgeoisie in the cities has not yet taken shape.
City artisans united on a professional basis in settlements and hundreds. They carried a tax - duties in favor of the state, chose their elders and sotskys (black settlements). In addition to them, in the cities there were white settlements that belonged to boyars, monasteries, and bishops. These settlements were "whitewashed" (exempted) from incurring the city tax in favor of the state.
Before the time of Peter the Great, a significant number of people lived both in cities and in the countryside. serf slaves. Complete lackeys were the hereditary property of their masters. Layer bonded serfs was formed from among those who fell into a slave state (bondage - a receipt or a debt obligation) previously free people. Bonded serfs served until the death of the creditor, if they did not voluntarily take on a new bondage in favor of the heir of the deceased.
Free and walking people(free Cossacks, children of priests, servicemen and townspeople, hired workers, itinerant musicians and buffoons, beggars, vagabonds) did not end up in estates, estates or urban communities and did not bear the state tax. From among them, service people were recruited according to the device. However, the state tried in every possible way to put them under its control.
Thus, the 17th century was an important stage in the socio-economic development of Russia. Both in agriculture and in industry, especially (the emergence of manufactories), serious changes have taken place. However, there is no reason to speak of the birth of capitalist relations in the country, the main feature of which is an increase in the share of free wage labor in the economy. The development of commodity-money, market relations, the growth in the number of manufactories (among whose workers peasants dependent on the landowner or the state prevailed) were observed in Russia in the conditions of the progressive movement of the feudal economy and the formation of the social structure of society. The formation of a single national market, the initial stage of which dates back to the 17th century, took place in the absence of elements of a capitalist economy based on undeveloped capitalist production.
anti-government speeches. The development of the country's economy was accompanied by large social movements. The 17th century is not accidentally named "rebellious age". It was during this period that two peasant “disturbances” took place (the uprising of I. Bolotnikov and the Peasant War led by S. Razin) and a number of urban uprisings in the middle of the century, as well as the Solovetsky rebellion and two streltsy uprisings in the last quarter of the century.
The history of urban uprisings opens salt riot 1648 in Moscow. Various segments of the population of the capital took part in it: townspeople, archers, nobles, dissatisfied with the policy of B.I. Morozov. A decree of 7 February 1646 imposed a heavy tax on salt. And salt was the product that people of the 17th century would refuse. they couldn't. It was not possible to prepare food for the future without salt. In 1646-1648. salt prices increased 3-4 times. The people began to starve, while thousands of pounds of cheap fish rotted on the Volga: the fish merchants, because of the high cost of salt, could not salt it. Everyone was dissatisfied. Expensive salt was sold less than before, and the treasury suffered significant losses. At the end of 1647, the salt tax was canceled, but it was already too late...
The reason for the speech was the dispersal of the delegation of Muscovites by the archers, who were trying to submit a petition to the tsar at the mercy of the clerks. Pogroms began in the courts of influential dignitaries. The Duma clerk Nazariy Chistoy was killed, and the head of the Zemsky order, Leonty Pleshcheyvidr, was handed over to the crowd to be torn to pieces. The tsar managed to save only Morozov, urgently sending him into exile in the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery.
The Moscow Salt Riot responded with uprisings of 1648-1650. in other cities. The most stubborn and prolonged uprisings in 1650 were in Pskov and Novgorod. They were caused by a sharp increase in the price of bread as a result of the government's commitment to deliver grain to Sweden.
In 1662, the so-called copper riot, caused by the protracted Russo-Polish war and the financial crisis. The monetary reform (the minting of depreciated copper money) led to a sharp drop in the exchange rate of the ruble, which primarily affected the salaries of soldiers and archers, as well as artisans and small merchants. Regiments loyal to the tsar, streltsy and "foreign system" suppressed the rebellion. As a result of the brutal massacre, several hundred people died, and 18 were publicly hanged.
The mid-century urban uprisings proved to be the prelude to the Peasant War led by S. T. Razina 1670-1671 This movement originated in the villages of the Don Cossacks. The Don freemen attracted fugitives from the southern and central regions of the Russian state. Here they were protected by an unwritten law - "there is no extradition from the Don." The government, needing the services of the Cossacks for the defense of the southern borders, paid them a salary and put up with the self-government that existed there.
Stepan Timofeevich Razin, raising the people against the "traitors of the boyars", spoke on behalf of Alexei (the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich), who had already died. The peasant war engulfed vast areas of the Don, the Volga region, the Urals, and found a response in Ukraine. The rebels managed to capture Tsaritsyn, Astrakhan, Saratov, Samara and other cities. However, near Simbirsk, Razin was defeated, and then extradited by the "domestic" Cossacks and executed.
The social crisis was accompanied by an ideological crisis. Let us accept the rum of the escalation of a religious struggle into a social one is Solovetsky uprising 1668-1676 It began with the fact that the brethren of the Solovetsky Monastery flatly refused to accept the corrected liturgical books. The government decided to tame the recalcitrant monks by blockading the monastery and confiscating its land holdings. High thick walls, rich food supplies extended the siege of the monastery for several years. Razintsy exiled to Solovki also joined the ranks of the rebels. Only as a result of betrayal, the monastery was captured, out of 500 of its defenders, only 60 survived.
In general, the popular uprisings of the XVII century. had a dual meaning for the development of the country. First, they partly played the role of limiting the exploitation and abuse of power. And secondly, they pushed the centralization and strengthening of the state apparatus even more.
The evolution of the state-political system. The beginning of the reign of the Romanov dynasty was the heyday of the estate-representative monarchy. Under the young king Mikhail Fedorovich(1613-1645) the Boyar Duma seized power in its hands, in which the relatives of the new tsar - the Romanovs, Cherkasskys, Saltykovs - played a significant role.
However, in order to strengthen the centralized power in the state, the constant support of the nobility and the tops of the urban settlement was required. Therefore, the Zemsky Sobor from 1613 to 1619 sat almost continuously. The role and competence of Zemsky Sobors undoubtedly increased (under Tsar Mikhail, the Sobor met at least 10 times), the elective element received a numerical predominance over the official. Nevertheless, the cathedrals still did not have an independent political significance, therefore, to assert that in Russia there was a classical Western-style estate-representative monarchy is hardly appropriate even in relation to the 17th century, but we can talk about the elements of estate representation: Zemsky Cathedral And Boyar Duma.
The point is that active Zemsky Sobors was due to the temporary need of the new government to overcome the consequences of the Time of Troubles. Elected at the council were ordered, as a rule, only to express their opinion on a particular issue, it was the prerogative of the supreme power to decide. The composition of the cathedral was changeable, devoid of a stable organization, so it is impossible to call it an all-estate body. Gradually by the end of the XVII century. conciliar activity ceased.
In 1619, Tsar Michael's father returns from Polish captivity Filaret (Fyodor Nikitovich Romanov), at one time had a real claim to the royal throne. In Moscow, he takes the patriarchal rank with the title of "great sovereign" and becomes the de facto ruler of the state until his death in 1633.
The new Moscow government, in which the tsar's father, Patriarch Filaret, played a primary role, was guided by the principle that everything should be old-fashioned when restoring the state after the Time of Troubles. The ideas of an electoral and limited monarchy that had matured in the era of unrest did not take deep roots. To calm society, to overcome the devastation, a conservative policy was necessary, but the Time of Troubles brought many such changes into public life that, in fact, government policy turned out to be reformist (S. F. Platonov).
Measures are being taken to strengthen the autocracy. Huge lands and entire cities are transferred to large secular and spiritual landowners. Most of the estates of the middle nobility are transferred to the category of estates, new land allotments "complain" "for the service" of the new dynasty.
Changing shape and meaning Boyar Duma. Due to the duma nobles and clerks, its number increased from 35 people in the 30s. to 94 by the end of the century. Power is concentrated in the hands of the so-called Middle Duma, which at that time consisted of four boyars related to the tsar by family ties (I. N. Romanov, I. B. Cherkassky, M. B. Shein, B. M. Lykov). In 1625, a new state seal was introduced, the word "autocrat" was included in the royal title.
With the limitation of the powers of the Boyar Duma, the importance of orders - their number constantly grew and at times reached fifty. The most important of them were the Local, Ambassadorial, Discharge, order of the Great Treasury, etc. The practice of subordinating several orders to one government person in the state is gradually being established - in fact head of government. So, under Mikhail Fedorovich, the orders of the Great Treasury, Streletsky, Foreign and Aptekarsky, were in charge of the boyar I. B. Cherkassky, and from 1642 he was replaced by a relative of Romanov - F. I. Sheremetyev. Under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, these orders were controlled first by B. I. Morozov, then by I. D. Miloslavsky, the Tsar's father-in-law.
IN local same management changes took place that testified to the strengthening of the centralization principle: the zemstvo elected bodies that appeared in the middle of the 16th century began to be gradually replaced by stricter control from the center through governor In general, a rather contradictory picture emerged: at a time when zemstvo electors were called from the counties to resolve issues of higher administration next to the boyars and nobles of the capital, district voters were given to the power of these boyars and nobles (voivode) (V. O. Klyuchevsky).
Under Filaret, she restored her shaky position church. With a special letter, the tsar handed over to the hands of the patriarch the trial of the clergy and monastery peasants. The land holdings of the monasteries expanded. Patriarchal judicial and administrative-financial orders appeared. The patriarchal court was arranged according to the royal model.
Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov died in June 1645. The issue of succession to the throne was to be decided by the Zemsky Sobor, because in 1613 it was not the Romanov dynasty that was elected to the kingdom, but Mikhail personally. According to the old Moscow tradition, the son of Mikhail Fedorovich Alexei, who was 16 years old at that time, received the crown. Zemsky Sobor took him to the kingdom. Unlike his father, Alexei did not take on any written obligations to the boyars, and formally nothing limited his power.
Into Russian history AAlexei Mikhailovich Romanov(1645-1676) entered as Agexeus the Quieter. Grigory Kotoshihln called Alexei "much quiet", and the foreigner Augustine Mayerberg was surprised that the tsar, "having unlimited power over the people, accustomed to complete slavery, did not encroach on anyone's honor and property."
The point, of course, was not only in the balanced character of Alexei the Quietest. By the middle of the 11th century. the centralization of the Russian state noticeably increased. After the upheavals of the Time of Troubles, the central and local authorities had already recovered, and extreme measures were not required to govern the country.
The domestic policy of Alexei Mikhailovich reflected the dual nature of his time. The quietest tsar wanted to observe the customs of old Muscovite Russia. But, seeing the successes of Western European countries, he simultaneously sought to adopt their achievements. Russia balanced between paternal antiquity and European innovations. Unlike his resolute son, Peter the Great, Alexei the Quietest did not carry out reforms that would break "Moscow piety" in the name of Europeanization. Descendants and historians assessed this differently: some were indignant at the "weak Alexei", ​​others saw in him "the true wisdom of the ruler."
Tsar Alexei encouraged reformers in every possible way, such as A. P. Ordin-Nashchokin, F. M. Rtishchev, Patriarch Nikon, A. S. Matveev and etc.
In the first years of the reign of Alexei, the tutor of the king enjoyed a special influence. Boris Ivanovich Morozov. A powerful and intelligent man, Morozov contributed to the penetration of European achievements into Russia, encouraged the printing of translations and European books in every possible way, invited foreign doctors and craftsmen to serve in Moscow, and loved theatrical performances. Not without his participation, the reorganization of the Russian army was launched. noble cavalry and civil uprising gradually replaced shelves of the new system- a regular army trained and equipped in the European manner.
One of the main achievements of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich was the adoption Cathedral Code(1649). This grand for the XVII century. for a long time the Code of Laws played the role of the All-Russian Law Code. Attempts to adopt the new Code were divided under Peter I and Catherine II, but both times were unsuccessful.
Compared with its predecessor, the Sudebnik of Ivan the Terrible (1550), the Cathedral Code, in addition to criminal law, also includes state and civil law, therefore it is, therefore, not
Surprising is not only the completeness, but also the speed of adoption of the code. This entire extensive code in the project was developed by a commission specially created by the royal decree of the prince Nikita Ivanovich Odoevsky, then it was discussed at a specially convened Zemsky Sobor in 1648, corrected in many articles, and on January 29 it was already adopted. Thus, all discussion and acceptance
The code of almost 1000 articles took only a little more than six months - an unprecedentedly short period even for a modern parliament!
The reasons for such a rapid adoption of new laws were as follows.
Firstly, the very disturbing atmosphere of that time in Russian life forced the Zemsky Sobor to hurry. Popular uprisings in 1648 in Moscow and other cities forced the government and elected officials to improve the affairs of the court and legislation.
Secondly, since the time of the Sudebnik of 1550, many private decrees have been adopted for various cases. Decrees were collected in orders, each according to its type of activity, and then recorded in Ukaznye books. These last clerks were guided along with the Sudebnik in administrative and judicial cases.
For a hundred years, a great many legal provisions have accumulated, scattered according to different orders, sometimes contradicting each other. This made it difficult for the order administration and gave rise to a lot of abuses from which petitioners suffered. It was required, according to the successful formulation of S. F. Platonov, "instead of a mass of separate laws, to have one code." Thus, the reason that stimulated legislative activity was the need to systematize and codify laws.
Thirdly, too much has changed, moved from place to place in Russian society after the Time of Troubles. Therefore, not a simple update was required, but law reform, bringing it into line with the new conditions of life.
Cathedral Code considered the public service and public life in the following main areas:

1. interpreted royal power as the power of the anointed of God;
2. first introduced the concept of "state crime". As such
   all acts directed against the king and his family were announced, criticism
   government. The death penalty for state crimes
   (the theft of the sovereign's goods was equally severely punished);
3. provided for punishment for crimes against the church and the patriarch;
4. regulated relations between the population and local authorities by many articles. Disobedience to the authorities was punished, but punishments were also imposed for
   governor and other officials for extortion, bribes and other abuses;
5. attached the townspeople to the settlement; ,
6. taxed the “white townsmen” - the inhabitants of the settlements that belonged to monasteries and private individuals, with a tax;
7. protected the interests of wealthy citizens - merchants, guests (merchants) - by the fact that severe punishments were announced for infringement on their
   goodness, honor and life;
8. announced an "indefinite" search for peasants and their return to the estates.
   Thus, the last step was taken - serfdom became complete. True, the custom was still in effect - "there is no extradition from the Don." It could be
   hide in Siberia, from where neither the government nor the owners had the opportunity to return the fugitive.

A legislative monument that surpassed the Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in completeness and legal elaboration - the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire in 15 volumes - appeared only in 1832 under Nicholas I. And before that, the Code had remained a code of Russian laws for almost two centuries.
The monarchy of Alexei Mikhailovich still retained the features of a class-representative one, but the autocratic power of the tsar increased. After the council of 1654, which decided the issue of reunification with Ukraine, the Zemsky Sobors did not meet until the end of Alexei's reign. The system of authorities with orders and the Boyar Duma that had developed under the last Rurikovichs remained unshakable. But it also underwent partial changes that contributed to greater centralization and the creation of a complex state-administrative apparatus with a huge number of officials - clerks and clerks.
From the composition of the Boyar Duma stood out Middle thought And straightening chamber, solving current judicial and administrative cases.
Not wanting to completely depend on the Boyar Duma and the leadership of orders, Alexei Mikhailovich created a kind of personal office - Order of secret affairs(he stood above everyone else, as he could interfere in the affairs of all state institutions).
Localism gradually faded into the past. Increasingly, "thin people" were appointed to important government posts.
Thus, in the second half of the XVII century. the formation of the main elements begins absolute monarchy. Absolutism- such a form of government, when the legislative, executive and judicial power is completely concentrated in the hands of the monarch, and the latter relies on the branched bureaucratic apparatus appointed and controlled exclusively by him. Absolute monarchy presupposes the centralization and regulation of state and local government, the presence of a permanent army and security services, a developed financial system controlled by the monarch.
After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich in 1676, his eldest son became king Fedor- sickly boy 14 years old. In fact, his maternal relatives seized power Miloslavsky And sister Sophia, with a strong will and energy. The ruling circle under the princess was headed by an intelligent and talented prince V. V. Golitsyn - favorite of the queen. The course was continued to elevate the nobility, to create conditions for the merging of the nobility and the boyars into a single estate. Swipe according to the class privileges of the aristocracy, in order to weaken its influence, it was inflicted in 1682 with the abolition of parochialism. Now, in official appointments, the principle of personal merit came to the fore.
With the death in 1682 of the childless Fyodor Alekseevich, the question of the heir to the throne arose. Of his two brothers, the weak-minded Ivan could not take the throne, but Peter- the son from the second marriage is 10 years old. At court, a struggle broke out between the relatives of the princes along the line of their mothers.
Behind Ivan were Miloslavsky headed by Princess Sophia, after Peter - Naryshkins, who were supported by Patriarch Jokim, who replaced Nikon. At a meeting of the Consecrated Cathedral and the Boyar Duma, Peter was proclaimed king. However, on May 15, 1682, archers rebelled in Moscow, incited by the head of the Streltsy order, Prince I. A. Khovansky. All prominent supporters of the Naryshkins were killed. At the request of the archers, both princes were placed on the throne, and Princess Sophia became their ruler. With the coming of age of Peter in the summer of 1689, the regency of Sophia lost its foundation. Not wanting to voluntarily give up power, Sophia, relying on her protege, the head of the Streltsy order F. Shaklovity, was waiting for support from the archers, but her hopes were not justified, palace coup failed. Sophia was deprived of power and imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent, her closest supporters were executed or exiled.
In general, at the end of the XVII century. the country was on the threshold of decisive changes, already prepared by previous developments. The overdue reforms could be carried out by reducing state pressure on society while encouraging private initiative and gradually weakening the lack of class freedom. Such a path would be a continuation of the reform activities of A.P. Ordin-Nashchokin and V.V. Golitsyn. The other path suggested even greater tightening of the regime, extreme concentration of power, strengthening of serfdom and - as a result of exorbitant exertion of forces - a reformist breakthrough. The traditions of despotic state power in Russia and the nature of the reformer who appeared at the end of the century made the second option more likely.
Foreign policy of Russia. Development of Siberia and the Far East. Russian foreign policy during the 17th century. was aimed at solving the following problems:

1. achieving access to the Baltic Sea;
2. ensuring the security of the southern borders from the raids of the Crimean
   khanates;
3. the return of the territories torn away during the Time of Troubles;
4. development of Siberia and the Far East.

For a long time, the main knot of contradictions was relations between Russia and the Commonwealth. The efforts of the government of Patriarch Filaret in the 20s and early 30s. were aimed at creating an anti-Polish coalition consisting of Sweden, Russia and Turkey. Proclaimed by the Zemsky Sobor in 1622, the course of war with Poland for 10 years was expressed in economic assistance to the opponents of the Commonwealth - Denmark and Sweden. In June 1634 between Russia and Poland was signed Polyanovsky world.
In 1648, the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people against the Polish lords began under the leadership of B. Khmelnitsky. Zemsky Sobor in 1653 decides on the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. In its turn Pereyaslav Rada in 1654 unanimously voted for the entry of Ukraine into Russia. The outbreak of war with the Commonwealth lasted 13 years, from 1654 to 1667, and ended with the signing Andrusovo truce(1667),
the terms of which were fixed in 1686 "Venny world". Smolensk region, Left-Bank Ukraine and Kiev were ceded to Russia. Belarus remained part of Poland. In addition, the agreement provided for joint actions by Russia and Poland against possible Turkish-Crimean aggression.
From 1656 to 1658 there was war between Russia and Sweden. Russia's attempt to seize the coast Gulf of Finland ended unsuccessfully. In 1661 was signed cardass world, along which the entire coast remained with Sweden.
In 1677 nachillsrussko-Turkish-Crimean War, ended in 1681 Bakhchisarai truce, under the terms of which Turkey recognized Russia's rights to Kyiv (shortly before that, Turkey managed to recapture Podolia from the Commonwealth, and it began to lay claim to the Right-Bank Ukraine). In 1687 and 1689 Prince V.V. Golitsyn led campaigns in the Crimea, but both ended unsuccessfully.
Thus, Russia was never able to get access to the seas, and in this her foreign policy tasks remained the same. The Crimean campaigns did not bring Russia any major military successes or territorial transformations. However, the main task "Holy League"(Austria, Poland, Russia - 1684) was fulfilled - Russian troops blocked the forces of the Crimean Khan, who could not provide assistance to the Turkish troops, who were defeated by the Austrians and Venetians. In addition, the inclusion of Russia for the first time in the European military alliance has significantly raised its international prestige.
Among the successes of Russian foreign policy - development of Siberia and the Far East. In the XVI century. Russian people conquered Western Siberia, and by the middle of the XVII century. conquered a significant part of Eastern Siberia. The gigantic space from the Yenisei to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk was "passed" by the Cossacks-pioneers in 20 years.
From the interfluve of the Ob and Yenisei, Russian explorers moved to the southeast in the Baikal region, to the Amur and the southern Far Eastern lands, as well as to the east and northeast to the Lena River basin - to Yakutia, Chukotka and Kamchatka.
Between the Ob, the Yenisei and the Lower Tunguska in those days lived Nenets(which the Russians called Samoyeds), Khanty (Ostyaks), Mansi (Voguls) And Evenki (Tungus). These peoples began to pay tribute to Russia.
Since 1632, Russia began to pay yasak Yakutia, conquered with the help of squeakers and cannons. Russian Cossacks who founded Yakutsk, became the new masters of the region.
Buryat tribes became part of Russia in the early 1950s. 17th century The main city of the Baikal region, where the Buryat yasak was brought, was built in 1652. Irkutsk. The capital of all Russian possessions in Western and Eastern Siberia remained Tobolsk.
The assertion of the Russians in the middle of the century on the Lena River and in the Baikal region opened up the possibility of the movement of pioneers and settlers further to the east, northeast and southeast (expeditions S. I. Dezhneva to Chukotka, E. P. Khabarova in the Amur region). The Amur region became part of Russia, which caused dissatisfaction with the rulers of Manchuria. Treaty of Nerchinsk 1689 established the border between the possessions of China and Russia along the Amur and its tributaries.
Moscow has firmly established its power in Siberia. Siberia, according to the historian A. A. Zimin, was a kind of valve into which the forces of the unreconciled and unconquered people went. Not only trade and service people rushed here, but also runaway serfs, peasants, townspeople. There were no landowners, no serfdom. Tax oppression in Siberia was softer than in the center of Russia.
The Russian settlers received bread, gunpowder, lead and other assistance from the governors appointed by the tsar and maintained order. In favor of the treasury, the settlers paid taxes, the indigenous people paid fur yasak. And it was not in vain that Moscow encouraged the work of explorers and industrialists: in the 17th century. income from Siberian furs accounted for a fourth of all state revenues.
Church reform. The Russian Orthodox Church occupies a significant place in the history of the Russian state. Orthodoxy determined the ethnic self-consciousness of the Russian people during the period of the struggle against the Mongol-Tatar yoke, which, together with the all-Russian church organization and along with socio-economic factors, contributed to the political unification of the lands and the creation of a single Moscow state.
In the XVI-XVII centuries. the church, relying on the state, suppressed numerous heresies that penetrated into the upper strata of the administrative apparatus and had a fairly broad social base. In historical science, this struggle was seen as the suppression of free thought, currents of social thought, similar to the Western Reformation. Church history interprets the defeat of heresies as a defense of faith, the Orthodox identity of the Russian people and Russian statehood, and the scope and cruelty of the fight against heresies in Russia surpassed the activities of the Inquisition or Protestant churches.
The church and monasteries had significant economic power, developed and efficient economy, and were cultural centers. Monasteries were often built in strategically important places and were of great importance in the defense of the country. The church was able to exhibit up to 20 thousand. warriors. These circumstances created a material basis for the authority of the church (a kind of state within a state), which, however, was not used in opposition to secular power.
The consecrated cathedral, as an organ of church administration, took an active part in the work of the Zemsky Sobors. During the Troubles, the patriarchate (established since 1589), despite some hesitation, played a big role in the fight against impostors and the Polish-Swedish intervention (the tragic fate of Patriarch Hermogenes, the death of monks while defending Orthodox shrines, material support for the militia, etc.). ). Patriarch Filaret actually ruled Russia, being a co-ruler of Tsar Mikhail Romanovich, strengthening the autocracy and the new dynasty, on the one hand, and the role of the church, on the other.
In the middle of the XVII century. reorientation begins in the relationship between church and state. Its causes are assessed by researchers in different ways. In historical literature, the point of view prevails, according to which the process of the formation of absolutism inevitably led to the deprivation of the church of its feudal privileges and subordination to the state. The reason for this was the attempt of Patriarch Nikon to put the spiritual power above the secular. Church historians deny this position of the patriarch, considering Nikon a consistent ideologist "symphonies of power". They see the initiative in rejecting this theory in the activities of the tsarist administration and the influence of Protestant ideas.
An important fact of Russian history of the XVII century. was church split, resulting church reform Patriarch Nikon.
There are two main traditions in understanding the split in literature. Some scientists - A.P. Shchapov, N.A. Aristov, V. B. Andreev, N. I. Kostomarov - tend to see in him socio-political movement in a religious form.
Other researchers see in the schism and the Old Believers primarily religious and ecclesiastical phenomenon. Among historians, such an understanding of the split is typical for S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky, E. E. Golubinsky, A. V. Kartashev, among Russian thinkers - for V. S. Solovyov, V. V. Rozanov, N. A. Berdyaev, Archpriest Georgy Florovsky. Modern researchers A. P. Bogdanov, V. I. Buganov, S. V. Bushuev do not deny the socio-political aspirations, but consider them not the main and determining, but subordinate in the topic of the split.
Reasons for the church reform:
- church reform was dictated by the need to strengthen discipline, order, and the moral foundations of the clergy;
- the introduction of the same church rituals throughout the Orthodox world was required;
- the spread of printing opened up the possibility of unifying church books.
At the end of the 40s. 17th century In Moscow, a circle of zealots of ancient piety was formed. It included prominent church figures: the royal confessor Stefan Vonifatyev, the rector of the Kazan Cathedral on Red Square John, the royal bedkeeper F. Rtishchev, prominent figures of the church from Nizhny Novgorod Nikon and Avvakum, and others.
Son of a Mordovian peasant Nikon(in the world Nikita Minov) made a rapid career. Having taken monastic vows on the Solovetsky Islands, Nikon soon became abbot (head) of the Kozheozersky monastery (Kargopol region). Nikon was connected by acquaintance and friendship with Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, whose support he enjoyed for a long time. Nikon becomes the archimandrite of the Novospassky Monastery in Moscow, the ancestral tomb of the Romanovs. After a short stay as Metropolitan of Novgorod (just during the Novgorod uprising of 1650), in 1652 Nikon was elected Patriarch of Moscow.
It was Patriarch Nikon who began the reform to unify the rites and establish the uniformity of the church service. Greek rules and rituals were taken as a model.
The most significant of the innovations adopted by Patriarch Nikon and the church council in 1654 were the replacement of baptism with two fingers with three fingers, the pronunciation of the doxology to God “hallelujah” not twice, but thrice, the movement around the analogion in the church not in the direction of the Sun, but against it.
Then the patriarch attacked the icon painters, who began to use Western European methods of painting. In addition, following the example of the Eastern clergy, sermons of their own composition began to be read in churches. Here the patriarch himself set the tone. Russian handwritten and printed liturgical books were ordered to be taken to Moscow for viewing. If they found a discrepancy with the Greek ones, then the books were destroyed, instead they printed and sent out new ones. And although all the changes were purely external and did not affect the Orthodox dogma, they were perceived as an encroachment on faith itself, because they violated traditions (the faith of the fathers and their ancestors).
Nikon fought against innovations, but it was his reforms that part of the Moscow people perceived as innovations that encroached on faith. The church was split into Nikonians(the church hierarchy and most of the faithful who are accustomed to obey) and Old Believers.
An active opponent of Nikon and one of the founders of the Old Believer movement is the archpriest Habakkuk- one of the most prominent personalities in Russian history. A man of great fortitude, fully manifested during his persecution, from childhood he was accustomed to asceticism and mortification of the flesh. He considered disgust from the world and the desire for holiness to be so natural for a person that he could not get along in any parish because of his tireless pursuit of worldly amusements and deviations from the customs of the church. Many considered him a saint and a miracle worker. He participated together with Nikon in correcting liturgical books, but was soon dismissed due to ignorance of the Greek language.
Adherents of the old faith - the Old Believers - saved and hid the "wrong" liturgical books. Secular and spiritual authorities persecuted them. From persecution, zealots of the old faith fled to the forests, united in communities, founded sketes in the wilderness. The Solovetsky Monastery, which did not recognize Nikonianism, was under siege from 1668 to 1676, until the governor Meshcheryakov took it and hanged all the rebels (out of 600 people, 50 survived).
The leaders of the Old Believers archpriests Habakkuk and Daniel they wrote petitions to the tsar, but, seeing that Alexei did not defend the "old times", they announced the imminent arrival of the end of the world, because the Antichrist appeared in Russia. The king and the patriarch are "his two horns." Only the martyrs, the defenders of the old faith, will be saved. The sermon of "cleansing by fire" was born. The schismatics locked themselves in churches and burned themselves alive.
The Old Believers did not disagree with the Orthodox Church in any dogma(the main provision of the dogma), but only in some of the rites that Nikon canceled, so they were not heretics, but only schismatics.
The schism united a variety of social forces that advocated the preservation of the traditions of Russian culture intact. There were princes and boirs, such as noblewoman F. P. Morozova and princess E. P. Urusova, monks and white clergy who refused to perform new rites. But there were especially many ordinary people: townspeople, archers, peasants, who saw in the preservation of the old rites a way of fighting for the ancient folk ideals of “pride” and “freedom”. The most radical step taken by the Old Believers was the decision taken in 1674 to stop praying for the tsar's health. This meant a complete break of the Old Believers with the existing society, the beginning of the struggle to preserve the ideal of "truth" within their communities.
Sacred Cathedral 1666-1667 cursed the schismatics for their disobedience. The zealots of the old faith ceased to recognize the church that had excommunicated them. The split has not been overcome to this day.
The leaders of the Old Believers Avvakum and his associates were exiled and Pustoozersk, in the lower reaches of the Pechora, and spent 14 years in an earthen prison, after which they were burned alive. Since then, the Old Believers often subjected themselves to "fire baptism" - self-immolation.
The fate of the main enemy of the Old Believers, Patriarch Nikon, was also tragic. Having achieved the title of "Great Sovereign", His Holiness the Patriarch clearly overestimated his strength. In 1658, he defiantly left the capital, declaring that he did not want to be a patriarch in Moscow, but would remain the patriarch of Rus'.
In 1666, a church council with the participation of the patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, who had powers from two other Orthodox patriarchs - Constantinople and Jerusalem, removed Nikon from the post of patriarch. The place of his exile was the famous Ferapontov Monastery near Vologda. Already after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, Nikon returned from exile and died (1681) near Yaroslavl. He was buried in the Resurrection New Jerusalem Monastery near Moscow (Istra).
Thus, the church reform and schism were a major social and spiritual upheaval, which not only reflected the tendencies towards centralization and a certain unification of church life, but also entailed significant socio-cultural consequences. He stirred up the consciousness of millions of people, forcing them to doubt the legitimacy of the existing world order, gave rise to a split between the official secular and spiritual authorities and a significant part of society. Having violated some of the traditional foundations of spiritual life, the schism gave impetus to social thought and paved the way for future transformations.
In addition, the church schism, which weakened the church in the 15th century, served as a prerequisite for the subsequent subordination of the church to state power, turning it into an ideological appendage of absolutism.

Mercantilism- the economic policy of early capitalism (the era of the so-called primitive accumulation of capital), expressed in the active intervention of the state in economic life. It consists in protectionism, encouraging the development of domestic industry, especially manufacturing, and supporting the expansion (expansion) of commercial capital.

Morozov Boris Ivanovich(1590-1661) - boyar, statesman, in the middle of the 17th century. headed the Russian government.

"Symphony of power" - Byzantine-Orthodox theory, which assumed a dual unity of independently existing secular and spiritual authorities, but jointly upholding Orthodox values.

In 1613, at the most representative and numerous Zemsky Sobor in Moscow, the question arose of choosing a new Russian Tsar. The applicants were Prince Vladislav, the son of the Swedish king Karl-Philip, the son of False Dmitry II and Marina Mnishek Ivan, as well as representatives of the most noble boyar families. The Zemsky Sobor elected to the kingdom a representative of the venerable old Moscow boyar family, 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov, son of Fyodor Nikitich Romanov. The rights of the Romanovs to the throne were substantiated in one of the last chronicle works - "The New Chronicler", created in the 30s. 17th century

Father of Mikhail F.N. Romanov, the nephew of Ivan the Terrible's first wife, Anastasia Romanova (his father, Nikita Romanov, Anastasia's brother), was forcibly tonsured a monk in 1601 under the name Filaret, and in 1619 he was elected patriarch. A powerful and resolute man, in fact, until his death in 1633, he held the government of the country in his hands. A three-hundred-year history of the reign of a new Russian dynasty began.

The election of Mikhail Romanov as tsar did not stop the Poles' claims to establish themselves on the Russian throne, and they were looking for opportunities to arrange for the young king. Widely known is the feat of the Kostroma peasant Ivan Susanin, at the price own life who saved Mikhail, who went on a pilgrimage, from the Polish massacre. M.I. Glinka immortalized his feat in the opera A Life for the Tsar. Decembrist poet K.F. Ryleev dedicated sublime lines to him:

“A traitor, they thought, you found in me:

They are not and will not be on the Russian land!

In it, everyone loves their homeland from infancy

And he will not destroy his soul by betrayal.

"The villain! - shouted the enemies, boiling over, - You will die under the swords! “Your anger is not terrible! Who is Russian by heart, he cheerfully, and boldly, And joyfully perishes for a just cause! Neither execution nor death, and I am not afraid: Without flinching, I will die for the tsar and for Rus'!

... The snow is pure, the purest blood stained: She saved Mikhail for Russia!

The government of Mikhail Romanov was faced with the task of ending the intervention and restoring internal order. According to the Stolbovsky peace with Sweden in 1617, Russia regained Novgorod, but left the coast of the Gulf of Finland and Korela to Sweden; in 1618

According to the Deulinsky truce with Poland, Russia left the Smolensk, Seversk and Chernigov lands behind it. But in general, the territorial unity of Russia was restored. Only in 1634, according to the Polyanovsky Treaty after the Smolensk War (1632-1634), the Commonwealth recognized Mikhail Fedorovich as king.

The Troubles strengthened the idea of ​​autocracy, and the Romanov monarchy was perceived as a symbol of inner peace and stability. The moderation and traditionalism of the first Romanov served to consolidate society. With the consolidation of tsarist power, the government less and less resorted to Zemsky Sobors. Domestic policy took the path of further strengthening the feudal-serf order and the estate system. In order to streamline taxation in the 20s. 17th century new scribe books began to be compiled, attaching the population to the place of residence. The practice of "lesson years" was revived.

During the reign of Mikhail's son Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676), the state system of Russia evolved from a class-representative monarchy to absolutism, i.e. unlimited and uncontrolled power of the monarch. The threat from the more developed countries of the West and systematic raids from the south forced this process and forced the state to keep in constant readiness significant armed forces, the cost of maintaining which exceeded the material resources of the population. Other factors were also important, such as the vast territory of the country with the further development of new lands, the rivalry of the boyars with the nobility, which allowed the monarch to maneuver between them, peasant and urban uprisings.

Alexei Mikhailovich, nicknamed "The Quietest" for his ability to trust the decision of state issues to suitable executors from among his close associates, had to take important steps on Russia's path to absolutism. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, he created a “transformative mood” around him, surrounding himself with thinking people. It was under Alexei Mikhailovich that the most dramatic events of the century took place and the most significant victories were won - over Sweden and Poland.

A necessary step in overcoming the consequences of the Time of Troubles and strengthening statehood was the adoption in 1649 of the Council Code. A hundred years have passed since the Sudebnik of 1550, and it did not take into account the new needs of society. The Council Code of 1649 is a universal code of feudal law, which had no analogues in previous legislation. It established norms in all spheres of society: social, economic, administrative, family, spiritual, military, etc., and remained in force until 1832. The first chapters of the Code provided for severe punishments for crimes against the church and royal power. The power and personality of the king was increasingly identified with the state.

The most important section was the "Court on the Peasants", which introduced an indefinite search for runaway peasants, and finally canceled the transfer of peasants to new owners on St. George's Day. The government took over the search for runaway peasants. This meant the legal registration of a nationwide system of serfdom, in which the feudal lord had the right to dispose of the person, labor and property of his peasants. This allowed the maximum concentration of forces on solving the problems of domestic and foreign policy on a feudal basis.

All classes of society were obliged to serve the state and differed from one another only in the nature of the duties assigned to them: service people carried out military service, and taxable people carried the "tax" in favor of the state and service people. Owning peasants were not exempted from state taxes and paid them on an equal footing with the black-haired peasants, which means they pulled a double "tax" - state and landowner. The state not only provided the landowner with judicial and administrative power over the peasants, but also made him a responsible collector of state taxes from his peasants. Thus, the feudal lords became responsible for the payment of "taxes" by the serfs and received power over the economic life of their serfs.

The state also attached chernososhnye (state) peasants and townspeople to the land. They were forbidden to change their place of residence under pain of cruel punishment and were assigned to bear the state "tax". And yet, in the position of the owner (belonging to secular and spiritual owners) and black-haired (state) peasants, there remained some differences. The feudal lord received the right to actually completely dispose of the property and personality of the peasant. The state transferred to him a significant part of the administrative-fiscal and judicial-police functions. Black-skinned peasants, living on state land, had the right to alienate it: sale, mortgage, inheritance. They had personal freedom. The life of the community was led by a secular gathering and elected elders, who arranged the duties, were responsible for their timely payment, repaired the court and protected the rights of the community.

The Code of 1649 liquidated the "white settlements", which belonged in the cities to large secular and spiritual feudal lords, whose population had previously been free from duties. The state, having limited the immunity of the feudal lords in its own favor, subjugated the urban population and became its feudal owner in the city. The townspeople were obliged to engage in trade and crafts, since both served as a source of financial income to the treasury. The development of cities, crafts, trade was carried out within the framework of the serf system, which undermined the development of capitalism. The monopoly of the townspeople on trade in the cities and the permission of the peasants to trade only “from carts” hampered the development of commodity-money relations in the countryside and placed internal trade under state control in order to make a profit for the benefit of the state (and not to rid the townspeople of competition) .

The enslavement policy of the 16th-17th centuries, which ended with the adoption of the Council Code, was aimed at the entire taxable population, since the owner and state lands were only varieties feudal property. In Russia, a system of so-called "state feudalism" has developed, when the state acted as a feudal owner in relation to the entire population, while in the leading countries Western Europe there was a weakening of serfdom. In Russia, serfdom, in the absence of an incentive for the direct producer to develop production, led to an increase in economic backwardness, which was especially striking against the backdrop of progress in Western Europe, which had embarked on the path of capitalism.

The cathedral code reflected the process of erasing the differences between the hereditary patrimony and lifelong possession - the estate, providing for their exchange. The government already at the beginning of the 17th century. began to sell estates into estates. Among the nobility, the direct connection between the service and its land remuneration began to be lost: the estates remained with the clan even if its representatives stopped serving. Thus, the rights to dispose of estates expanded, and they approached the patrimony. There was a blurring of the boundaries between the individual categories of the ruling class of feudal lords. By the end of the century, only formal differences remained between them, and specific gravity noble landownership increased significantly.

The state sought to control church land ownership. The Council Code limited the growth of church land ownership by a ban on the purchase of land and the transfer of estates to the church under a spiritual testament.

Foreign trade during this period was almost entirely in the hands of privileged foreign merchants. Russian merchants, poorly organized and less wealthy, could not compete with them. The state monopoly on the export of a number of goods that were in demand abroad significantly limited the possibilities for Russian merchants to accumulate capital. The dominance of foreign commercial capital in the domestic market of Russia caused acute discontent. The trade charter of 1653, instead of a multitude of trade duties, established a single duty and increased the amount of duty from foreign merchants. Thus, the charter was of a patronizing nature and met the requirements of the Russian merchant class.

In the spirit of the policy of protectionism, the Novotrade Charter of 1667 was drawn up, which sharply limited the trade of foreigners on the domestic market and freed Russian merchants and manufacturers from competition by raising customs duties on the import of foreign products. Its compiler Afanasy Lavrentievich Ordin-Nashchokin, who came from an ignorant noble family, became a prominent statesman of the 17th century. Relying mainly on his own experience and knowledge, he was actively involved in foreign policy, and largely thanks to his efforts, agreements beneficial to Russia were concluded with Sweden and Poland. Ordin-Nashchokin was a supporter of the use of economic and cultural Western experience, but at the same time he knew well the reasonable measure of borrowing. Many of his ideas regarding the reforms of public administration and city self-government were implemented in the era of Peter I.

Boyars B.I. Morozov, F.M. Rtishchev, A.S. Matveev, V.V. Golitsyn also sought to resolve problems in the economic life of the country, understood the importance of developing trade and industry and the need to support the merchants to strengthen the state. The evolution of government policy towards mercantilism - the maintenance by the state of an active balance of foreign trade - contributed to the interests of the emerging absolutism.

17th century ends the Middle Ages and marks the beginning of the New Age. The accumulation of secular knowledge is gradually destroying the medieval worldview, in which religious ideas played a dominant role. A feature of the culture of this period is its "secularization", i.e. the liberation of public consciousness from the influence of religion and the church, the fall of their authority in the spiritual life of society. Attention to the person, his role in ongoing events and determining his own destiny is growing.

Growing ties with foreign countries gave rise to a state need to get acquainted with the achievements of secular sciences. Although the authorities settled foreigners away from the center of Moscow, in the German Sloboda (modern Lefortovo district), and sought to isolate them from communication with Russians, new knowledge about the outside world inevitably penetrated the minds of Russians. In 1654, the Left-bank Ukraine, which experienced the cultural influence of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, became part of Russia, contributed to the deepening of these ties. The greatest interest in understanding the new cultural situation was shown by the urban trade and craft strata, whose occupation inevitably oriented them to the study of everything modern, advanced, but interest in secular culture was manifested in the most diverse groups of society. The Church's monopoly on education and literacy was beginning to fade.

Serious changes are beginning to take place in the field of education. The country needed educated, qualified specialists in all areas of exact, natural science, humanitarian knowledge, which met the internal and external needs of the emerging absolutism.

The accession of the Volga region and Siberia opened up space for geographical research, organizing expeditions to previously unexplored lands. Journeys to distant lands were previously made by Russian pioneers. 30 years before the opening of the route to India by the Portuguese Vasco da Gama, the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin made his journey (1466-1472) and left fascinating memories of "Journey Beyond the Three Seas". In 1648, the expedition of Semyon Dezhnev, 80 years before V. Bering, reached the strait between Asia and North America. The easternmost point of Russia is named after Dezhnev. E.P. Khabarov in 1649 compiled a map and studied the lands along the Amur, the Siberian Cossack V.V. Atlasov explored Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. The Siberian Order summarized all the information and materials received, on which Western European scientists then relied for a long time.

An important event was the appearance of the first printed textbooks: the Primer by Vasily Burtsov and the illustrated Primer by Karion Istomin, the Grammar by M. Smotrytsky, and at the beginning of the 18th century. - "Arithmetic" by L. Magnitsky, named by M.V. Lomonosov "gates of learning". Typography was concentrated in the sovereign's Printing House.

The paradox of the situation lay in the fact that from the time of the Stoglavy Cathedral (1551), only lower theological schools existed in Russia. There was no secular education. The solution of the question of the essence and tasks of education was reflected in the disputes between the “Latins” and the “Greekophiles”. For Russian Westernizers - "Latins" - Poland for a long time remained a model, an intermediary from which Russia could borrow Western experience. Supporters of the Greek orientation "Grecophiles" sought to preserve the traditions of Russian spiritual life, fearing, not without reason, the invasion of secular European knowledge.

The Reformation and Protestant ethics in Europe changed the value orientations of society. This complex and controversial time of the collapse of the usual living space in the culture of Europe is conveyed by the Baroque style. Western European baroque became the form through which enlightenment features and a bright personality began to penetrate into Russian culture. The conductors of the "Latin" culture, Western influence were immigrants from Poland, Belarus and Ukraine. Under Alexei Mikhailovich, a rather influential circle of lovers of Western European scholarship, education, literature, household items and comforts was formed. This court environment became a bridge to the New Age and brought forward many reformers. Among them was the teacher of the royal children, a Belarusian by origin Samuil Emelyanovich Petrovsky-Sitnianovich from Polotsk, or Simeon Polotsky.

In the 17th century two higher educational institutions for the clergy appeared: in 1632, the Kiev-Mohyla Academy in Ukraine, named after its founder Peter Mohyla, and in 1687, the Greek scientists Sofroniy and Ioanniky Likhudy from Padua (Italy) headed the first higher educational institution in Moscow - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, where Lomonosov later studied. Simeon Polotsky took an active part in the preparation of the draft charter of the academy. The building of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was located on Nikolskaya Street near the Kremlin. She marked the beginning of the future higher education in Russia; Academy graduates could enter the civil service. However, during its creation, supporters of the Greek orientation won. Even earlier, Simeon of Polotsk founded a school in the Zaikonospassky Monastery at the Printing House (1665), which trained clerks.

In the field of spiritual education, he was the first to try to reorient the organization and content to the Western way. educational process with a reasonable interaction of traditions and innovations, the boyar F.M. Rtishchev is an influential person from Alexei Mikhailovich's entourage. The Ukrainian and Belarusian schools at the monasteries served as a model for him. In 1649, Rtishchev opened a school in Moscow at the Andreevsky Monastery, where he invited learned monks from Kiev. The penetration of secular principles into literature was expressed in the emergence of new genres of literature - the poem and the novel. The creator of Russian poetry of the 17th century. was Simeon Polotsky, an encyclopedically educated person, a supporter of enlightenment and rapprochement with the West. S. Polotsky introduced almost all the then known poetic genres into literary use - from the epigram to the solemn ode. He wrote two poetry collections "Multicolored Vertograd" and "Rhymologion".

A bright innovator in literature was the ideological head of the schism, Archpriest Avvakum (Petrov). "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself" opens the genre of autobiography and tells about his own sins and exploits with lyricism and irony, combined with angry pathos. The first Russian novel was "The Tale of Savva Grudtsy-ne" - a story about a young merchant's son and his adventures. Satire also sounded in a new way, denouncing human weaknesses and vices (“Service to a tavern”, “The Tale of Woe-Misfortune”). First historical work, published in print, was the "Synopsis" of the Kiev monk Innocent Gizel, who told about the joint history of the Ukrainian and Russian peoples since the time of Kievan Rus.

In Russian painting of the 17th century. The "secularization" of art is especially vividly represented by the work of Simon Ushakov. In his icon "The Savior Not Made by Hands", new realistic features of painting are clearly visible: three-dimensionality in the depiction of the face, elements of direct perspective. The trend towards a realistic depiction of a person, characteristic of the Ushakov school, was embodied in the “parsun” (from “persona” - a person) - a portrait made according to the laws of iconographic art. The most famous of them are images of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, Prince M.V. Skopin-Shuisky, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.

In architecture, a decorative principle declared itself, which found expression in two new styles. Moscow, or "Naryshkin" (named after the customers of the Naryshkin boyars), baroque was distinguished by the brightness of the facade, the contrasting combination of red and white colors in it, the abundance of shells, columns and capitals that adorned the walls, the visible "number of storeys" of buildings, borrowed from secular architecture. Examples of the Moscow baroque are the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin in Fili and the refectory and bell tower of the Novodevichy Convent. The style of “stone patterning” was widely used, replete with multi-colored reliefs, platbands, tiles made of stone and brick. Its typical examples are the churches of St. Nicholas in Khamovniki and the Trinity in Nikitniki in Moscow.

. The "secularization" of consciousness turned out to be in clear contradiction with traditional thinking. Among the clergy, there was open talk about the "impoverishment of the faith." Western European countries by the 17th century. survived the Reformation and the victory of the secular worldview over the religious, while Russia was fenced off from the West for more than two centuries as a result of the Horde yoke. Muscovite Rus' needed new knowledge that would meet the urgent tasks of the development of education. The gap with the West in cultural and spiritual development became more and more obvious, the overcoming of which required liberation from the direct participation of the church in this process. Interest in secular knowledge is growing in Russian society, the need to think freely is increasingly felt, and the insufficiency of the old sources and methods of enlightenment is becoming more and more clear.

The ecclesiastical worldview itself was in crisis. The loss of the church's spiritual monopoly dictated the need for change, and this was perfectly realized by the intelligent and infinitely ambitious associate of Alexei Mikhailovich, Patriarch Nikon (in the world Nikita Minov). The son of a Mordovian peasant and a Cheremiska (Mariyka), he went through all the steps of the church hierarchy from a village priest to the all-powerful head of the Russian church.

The desire to deepen church influence throughout the Slavic and Orthodox world gave rise to different points of view on the question of how this could be achieved. In the 40s. 17th century in Moscow, a circle of zealots of ancient piety was formed, whose members were future irreconcilable opponents - Nikon and Archpriest Avvakum. The leaders of the Circle made an attempt to raise the authority of the church by streamlining worship, without in any way shaking the very foundations of the church and trying to protect the spiritual life of society from the penetration of secular principles into it. Alexei Mikhailovich supported their program, since it corresponded to the interests of the autocracy, which was advancing towards absolutism.

The unity of views in the Circle was broken when deciding on the choice of samples for correcting liturgical texts. Archpriest Avvakum and his supporters took as a basis Old Russian handwritten texts translated from Greek before the fall of Byzantium (Old Greek). It turned out, however, that they are full of discrepancies, since before the advent of printing, church books were copied by hand, and errors crept into them. The Greek monks who came to Rus' drew the attention of the Russian higher hierarchy to these discrepancies.

Having become patriarch in 1652, Nikon decided to overcome the crisis of the church through church reform, strengthen its role as the world center of Orthodoxy and strengthen ties with the South Slavic countries. The reform was supposed to unify church life in view of the planned reunification of Ukraine with Russia and the unification of the Russian and Ukrainian churches, between which there were differences in church rituals. The content of the reform outwardly coincided with the desire of the "zealots of ancient piety" to restore the unity of the content of liturgical books, lost over the long centuries after the adoption of Christianity.

But Nikon needed not just the unification of church life, but bringing it into line with the modern norms of the Greek (Modern Greek) and other Orthodox churches. He was supported by learned monks who came from Ukraine, among whom was Epiphany Slavinetsky, who received a serious theological education in his homeland. Nikon entrusted the correction of church books to visiting Kiev learned monks and Greeks. They began to be guided in the correction of texts by modern printed publications, Greek and South Russian. However, one should not think that the introduction of rituals on the model of Ukraine and Belarus meant the convergence of the official ideology with Western Europe.

During the preparation of the reform, the weakness of the theological layer of religion, the absence of a system of spiritual education and the educated personnel themselves were clearly felt. Therefore, it was natural to turn to the experience of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church, which did not have the support of the state and, in the ideological struggle against Uniatism and Catholicism, adopted the main method of the enemy - scholasticism. In contrast to the Catholic schools in Ukraine, the already mentioned Kiev-Mohyla Theological Academy (1632), within whose walls a rich polemical literature was created, and Orthodox "brotherhoods" arose. Recognition of the authority of Ukrainian and Greek theologians in matters of dogma was painfully perceived by church conservatives as a retreat to "Latinism".

As a result, the new missal was corrected not according to the old Greek books, but according to the Greek original published in 1602 in Venice. In addition, the church reform touched upon service ceremonies: the two-fingered sign of the cross was replaced with a three-fingered one, “hallelujah” began to be announced not twice, but three times, they began to move around the lectern not in the direction of the sun (“salting”), but against it. In the liturgical texts, some words were replaced with equivalent ones (the name of the Savior "Jesus" to "Jesus"), and the word "true" was removed from the "Creed" in the line "And in the Holy Spirit, the true and life-giving Lord". Instead of polyphony, when they read and sang at the same time to shorten the service, they introduced unanimity, which made it easier for the parishioners to understand what was happening, bowing to the ground at the service was replaced by half bows. Changes also affected the clothes of priests.

Thus, the reform affected only the outer side of worship, leaving without attention the ideas of enlightenment and education coming from the West, their secular content. Neither Nikon nor the top clergy accepted these elements of Western European culture and education that penetrated into Russia. However, the reform opened the way to the unification of all Orthodox churches, confirming the leadership of Russia, and opened the way for cultural dialogue with all of Europe.

In his activities, Nikon not only defended the independence of the church from the state and opposed government interference in its affairs. His claims went even further: he put forward an essentially Catholic thesis - "the priesthood of the kingdom is more than there" and demanded that the secular authorities be subordinated to it. The position of Nikon before his break with the tsar was close to the position of the head of the church, not subject to the tsar - the bearer of complete and sole power. The solemn atmosphere of his patriarchal “exit” was in no way inferior to the royal one: his head was decorated with a miter, similar to a royal crown, under his feet a carpet with an embroidered double-headed eagle was laid. At the same time, Nikon emphasized that he sees his support not in royal mercy, but in the rights of his dignity. Such an interpretation of the patriarchal power was not slow to be reflected in Nikon's relationship with the tsar.

The conflict between the "quietest" tsar and the imperious patriarch ended in Nikon's defeat. The church council of 1666 deprived him of his patriarchal rank, but recognized the church corrections he had made. The church became one of the most important obstacles on the path of the impending transformations, the successful implementation of which required its complete subordination to the state, which happened in the 18th century.

The supporters of the irreconcilable Habakkuk did not accept the innovations and were excommunicated from the church. They were persecuted by both ecclesiastical and state authorities. This led to a split in the Russian church and the emergence of the Old Believer movement. The defenders of the "old faith" received support from the most diverse strata of Russian society. All of them were united by the struggle for an idealized national antiquity. The split was one of the forms of social protest, but it cannot be attributed to the number of progressive movements, because the ideal of the organization of life was turned into the past. His ideology hindered the development of a secular, rationalistic, anti-feudal worldview. Upholding national isolation, hostility to everything new, foreign, the schism movement looked not forward, but backward.

However, the role of the Old Believers in Russian history is not as straightforward as it might seem at first glance. The persecution of their faith, economic oppression (they had to pay a double poll tax) did not prevent them from maximizing their creative and intellectual potential. Their connection with Russian entrepreneurship is obvious: the Old Believers Guchkovs, Morozovs, Ryazanovs, Zotovs, Ryabushinskys founded the first merchant and industrial dynasties in the country. The Old Believers have a special merit in the creation of a leather and bacon manufactory, gold mining, they succeeded in creating a credit system in the Urals and Siberia. The creation of the Ural manufactories under Peter I and the highest quality of iron in Europe and the level of casting were largely the results of their activities. At Demidov's metallurgy factories, most of the workers were Old Believers, and the factories themselves were densely surrounded by hermitages.

The strengthening of autocracy during the reign of the first Romanovs manifested itself in various spheres of the country's political life. The class-representative Zemsky Sobors, which finally ceased to be convened in the 1980s, lost their significance. In the 17th century, the composition and size of the Boyar Duma changed due to the involvement of the nobles, the order system was centralized and the role of order officials in government increased, the secular authorities won in rivalry with the authorities of the church. Changes in local government also reflected a trend towards centralization and a decline in electiveness. Power in the united uyezds was concentrated in the hands of the governors, who replaced all officials of the zemstvo elected bodies.

The title of the Moscow tsar changed: from the “sovereign of all Rus'” in 1654, he turns into “by the grace of God ... the autocrat of all Great and Small and White Russia.” The articles of the Council Code raised the prestige of the tsarist government to an unattainable height and determined harsh penalties for damage to the "sovereign's honor." In everyday life, the greatness of the autocracy was emphasized by the magnificent and solemn ritual of honoring the king, the luxury of the court. The pomposity of the rituals took on the character of sacred rites. All external means were used to instill the idea of ​​the divine origin of royal power. By the end of the XVII century. the evolution of state administration, courts, and military affairs reflected the transition from a class-representative monarchy to absolutism.

After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, his son Fyodor Alekseevich (1676-1682), who did not take an active part in state affairs, ascended the Russian throne. The leading place at the court was occupied by relatives of his mother, Miloslavsky.

During the reign of Fyodor Alekseevich, the political role of the nobility increased. An important milestone in its consolidation was the abolition in 1682 of the most important boyar institution - parochialism, since the parochial custom became a serious obstacle in solving the problems of domestic and foreign policy. The ancient aristocratic families had less and less opportunity to compete with the layers of less noble service people who were rising to power. In 1679-1681. instead of the field tax, household taxation was introduced. The unit of taxation was the peasant or township household.

After the death of the childless tsar, the young sons of Alexei Mikhailovich Ivan (from marriage to M.I. Miloslavskaya) and Peter (from marriage to N.K. Naryshkina) came to power, and with the support of the archers, the regents until they came of age were appointed Princess Sophia, daughter of Alexei Mikhailovich from his first marriage. The actual ruler under Sophia (1682-1689) was her favorite, Prince Vasily Golitsyn. He combined the features of a "statesman" and an intellectual. Many administrative and economic reforms are associated with his name, including the educational reform project, up to the creation of the first university in Russia, but by nature Golitsyn was more of a philosopher than an energetic practitioner.

In 1689, Peter, having reached the age of majority, married Evdokia Lopukhina and formally received all rights to the throne. A clash with Sophia became inevitable and ended with the victory of Peter with the support of the Moscow Patriarch. Sophia was imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent in Moscow, Golitsyn was sent into exile, and with the death of Tsar Ivan (1696), Peter's autocracy was established.

In the second half of the XVII century. the general trend in the development of the state system of Russia was the transition from autocracy with the Boyar Duma, from the estate-representative monarchy to the bureaucratic-noble monarchy, to absolutism, i.e., unlimited and uncontrolled power of the monarch.

The question of the conditions for the emergence of absolutism in Russia requires further study, but even now we can say with confidence that it is useless to look for prerequisites for the establishment of this form of government in the economy - the specifics of the history of our country is that its economy lags behind the political system. Recall that external danger had a decisive influence on the creation of a unified state. The same danger, the threat of losing independence, forced the establishment of absolutism. The threat from the more developed countries of the West and the systematic predatory raids from the south forced the state to keep in constant readiness significant armed forces, the cost of maintaining which exceeded the material resources of the population. Only the unlimited power of the monarch could compel the population to make sacrifices to the state. Other factors also mattered: the vast size of the country's territory, the ongoing colonization, the rivalry of the boyars with the bulk of the nobles, which allowed the monarch to maneuver between them, the urban uprisings of the mid-17th century. and etc.

Russia's transition to absolutism can be traced in various areas of the country's political life: in the change of the royal title, the withering away of such an attribute of a class-representative monarchy as zemstvo sobors, in the evolution of the order system, as well as the composition of the Boyar Duma, in increasing the importance of non-pedigree people in the state apparatus, and finally, in a victorious outcome for the secular power of its rivalry with the power of the church.

In Russia, an absolute monarchy was formed in the course of Peter the Great's reforms. However, already from the Council Code of 1649, measures are clearly visible that reflected timid attempts to move to new forms of organization of power. The title of the Moscow sovereigns has changed, in which the word "autocrat" appeared. After the reunification of the Left-bank Ukraine with Russia, it sounded like this: “Great Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Duke autocrat of all the Great and Small and White Russia ... "

The theoretical postulates of autocracy were reinforced by the Code of 1649, two chapters of which were devoted to the observance of the prestige of royal power and the determination of penalties for all thoughts and actions that caused damage to both the “sovereign honor” and the royal court. Any dishonor was severely punished, even with a word, if it was inflicted on someone in the king's residence.

From the 80s of the XVII century. The convocation of Zemsky Sobors was stopped. The last full Zemsky Sobor decided to reunite Ukraine with Russia in 1653. The strengthened autocracy no longer needed the support of the class-representative body. He was pushed back by government agencies - orders, as well as the Boyar Duma.

The command system has also undergone significant changes. 17th century considered the time of its heyday. It was a rather complex and cumbersome system of central institutions, which lacked both uniform principles for creating orders and a clear distribution of functions between them. This explains the complexity of their classification.

Throughout the 17th century a total of over 80 orders functioned, of which a little more than 40 survived by the end of the century. The number of orders increased, because there was a need to manage new branches of the state economy: the creation of regiments of the new system caused the emergence of the Reitar order, and the reunification of Ukraine with Russia was accompanied by the creation of the Little Russian order , the return of the Smolensk lands - the Smolensk order, etc. It was a natural process that reflected the complication of the socio-economic and political structure of society and, accordingly, the complication of the structure of the state apparatus. However, it was not the appearance of new orders that meant a transition to the absolute, but innovations in the structure of each of them and the growth of the influence of outbred people. If in 1640 there were only 837 clerks, in 1690 there were almost four times as many - 2739. More than 400 people at the end of the century were in the Local Order and the Order of the Great Treasury. The staff of the order of the Grand Palace consisted of more than 200 people. In the rest of the orders, there were from 30 to 100 clerks. A contemporary noted that there were so many clerks in the orders that “there is nowhere to sit, they write standing up.” The growth in the number of clerks is evidence of the increasing role of officials in government.

A more important innovation in the order system was the creation of such institutions as the Order of Secret Affairs and the Accounts Order. The Order of Secret Affairs sent the functions of control over the activities of other orders, considered petitions submitted to the name of the king, and was in charge of the royal economy. It was under the direct jurisdiction of the tsar and was not subordinate to the Boyar Duma. According to G. Kotoshikhin, it was created "in order for his royal thought and deeds to be fulfilled according to his desire, and the boyars and thoughtful people would not know about anything." Supervisory functions in the field of finance were carried out by the Counting Order, established in 1650. Both orders ceased to exist after the death of their founder, Alexei Mikhailovich. However, the organization of control by means of officials is one of the signs of absolutism.

Changes in local government also reflected the trend towards centralization and the fall of the elective principle. Power in the districts, and there were more than 250 of them in the country in the middle of the century, was concentrated in the hands of the governors, who replaced all the officials of the zemstvo elected bodies: city clerks, court and siege heads, and labial elders. Zemstvo administration was preserved only in Pomorie.

In the 17th century ranks are further developed: military-administrative districts that arose in the border regions. The first of them - Tula was created in the XVI century. In the 17th century in connection with the expansion of the borders to the south, west and east, the Belgorod, Smolensk, Tobolsk and other categories arose. They were also created in areas located in the center of the country (Moscow, Vladimir, etc.), but they turned out to be short-lived. Boyars were appointed governors of the ranks, governors of districts were subordinate to them. The ranks were the distant predecessors of the provinces of the time of Peter the Great. The rights and obligations of the governor of the ranks were not defined. Their main task was to mobilize forces to repel the enemy.

In the second half of the XVII century. scattered attempts were made to reorganize the army. The so-called regiments of the “new system” were created from free, “eager” people: soldiers (infantry), reiters (cavalry) and dragoons (mixed system). They also recruited "subject" people. One hundred peasant households gave one soldier for lifelong service. These regiments were assembled only for the duration of the war, and after it ended, they disbanded. Foreign officers began to be invited into the army.

A serious obstacle to the transition to the absolute was created by the church, which still claimed great power.

In the second half of the XVII century. there was a conflict between the leadership of the church and the state. Moscow Patriarch Nikon put forward and fiercely defended the idea of ​​independence and the leading role of the church in the state. He argued that the "priesthood" (church) is higher than the "kingdom" and that the king receives the crown from the hands of the patriarch - the representative of God on earth. Having a huge personal influence on the tsar, Nikon managed to achieve the title of "great sovereign", which put him almost on an equal footing with Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The court of the Moscow patriarch was not much inferior in luxury and splendor to the royal chambers. As mentioned above, Nikon was removed from patriarchal power by a church council and expelled from Moscow.

The Council Code of 1649, allowing the exchange of estates for estates and vice versa, marked the beginning of the merging of boyars and nobles into one closed class - the estate. In 1674, the black-tailed peasants were forbidden to enroll in the nobility. In 1679-1681. housekeeping was introduced. The unit of taxation was the peasant or township household. Thus, the processes that took place in the socio-political development of Russia in the second half of the 17th century indicate that attempts at reforms took place before the reforms of Peter the Great.

Subject: Political development countries.

Goals: characterize the system of governance and self-government in Russia.

During the classes:

1. Organizational moment - the message of the topic of the lesson.
2. Checking homework:

1. First estate:
2. Peasants
3. Urban population
4. Clergy
5. Cossacks

1. Explanation of the new material:

First Romanovs.

M.F. Romanov (1613-1645) became the first Russian tsar of the new dynasty. By the beginning of his reign, he was barely 16 years old. At that age, he could not be an independent politician. In the absence of his father (Filaret was in Polish captivity), the mother of the young tsar Martha, who, after her son was proclaimed tsar, became a “great empress” had a great influence on the decision of Mikhail. Assuming the throne, Mikhail promised not to rule without the Zemsky Sobor and the Boyar Duma. The king fulfilled this oath until he returned from the captivity of his father. Filaret, proclaimed patriarch in 1919, also received the title of "great sovereign" and became co-ruler of his son. Until his death in 1633, Filaret was the de facto ruler of Russia. With strong-willed and power-hungry parents, Mikhail was a gentle and kind person. The king was physically weak and was often sick.

After the death of Mikhail, his son Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676) became the new tsar, who ascended the throne at the same age as his father - at the age of 16. Alexei was prepared for the reign in advance: at the age of five they began to learn to read, at the age of seven - to write. In his mature years, he not only wrote many documents himself, but also composed small literary works. His training was in charge of the boyar Boris Ivanovich Morozov, who eventually gained great influence on Alexei (and even for the first three years he actually ruled the country under the young tsar). Alexei Mikhailovich was a pious man, he welcomed pilgrims, the poor and the homeless. Many contemporaries noted his unusual kindness and benevolence, and sometimes weakness of character. All this did not prevent him, if necessary, from showing determination, will, and rigidity.

From his first marriage (Maria Ilinichnaya Miloslavskaya), Alexei had 13 children, including sons Fedor and Ivan, as well as daughter Sophia. After the death of his first wife, the tsar married a second time to Natalia Kirillovna Naryshkina. In this marriage, the tsar had a son, Peter (the future Peter the Great). It was between the children from the first and second marriages that a struggle for power broke out after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich.

Zemsky cathedrals.

Mikhail Fedorovich's oath to rule in accordance with the Zemsky Sobor and the Boyar Duma was not accidental: in the conditions of economic ruin and the weakness of the central government, the young tsar was forced to seek support from all segments of the country's population. The Zemsky Sobor was to become such a support in the first place. Throughout the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich, the main feature of the cathedrals was a significant increase in representation from the lower classes. The deputies elected to the council received "orders" from their voters, which they had to defend before the tsar. Under Mikhail Zemsky Sobors met quite often. And during the return from the captivity of Filaret, the Zemsky Sobor practically did not stop working. As the tsarist power strengthened, Zemsky Sobors met less and less frequently.

After Filaret's death, some noblemen proposed to transform the Zemsky Sobor into a permanent parliament. However, these plans ran counter to the interests of the autocratic government. Sobors began to meet only to approve the projects already prepared by the king. And with the strengthening of serfdom, the representation of the lower strata of the population in Zemsky Sobors became insignificant.

The last Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1653. Since then, autocratic power has relied not on representatives of the estates, but on the bureaucracy and the army.

Boyar Duma.

The Boyar Duma also gradually lost its former role. At first, the composition of the Duma was expanded by Mikhail Fedorovich - this is how he thanked those who supported his accession.

The Duma was still called upon to decide the most important issues - war and peace, the approval of laws, etc. Its work was supervised either by the tsar himself or by a boyar appointed by him.

The increase in the size of the Duma made it too cumbersome and forced the tsar to create a more flexible governing body, consisting of the most trusted persons. In its entirety, the Boyar Duma began to meet less and less frequently. The "near" Duma concentrated in its hands the solution of many questions of state administration.

Orders.

The increase in the territory of the country, the complication of economic life led to a significant increase in the number of orders. At different times in the country there were about 100 orders.

Complete the table yourself (pp. 51-52)

However, the numerical growth of orders had a negative effect on the management system, increased bureaucratic red tape and abuse of office. Sometimes orders were engaged in solving the same or similar tasks.

In the 17th century, counties remained the main administrative units. By the end of the century, their number exceeded 250. The counties, in turn, were divided into smaller units - camps and volosts.

From the very beginning of the century, at the head of the counties and a number of border towns, the king put the governor, who led not only local military detachments, but also endowed with the main administrative and judicial power. They were responsible to Moscow for the collection of taxes and the fulfillment of duties by the population.

From the second half of the 17th century, the king began to form new, larger military-administrative units - ranks

E united groups of fortress cities in the border regions of the country for defense against possible attacks.

Laws. Cathedral Code of 1649.

In 1649, the Zemsky Sobor adopted the Cathedral Code - the all-Russian code of laws.

The concept of “state crime” (against the honor and health of the king and his family, representatives of state power and the church) was introduced into the law, for which severe punishment was provided.

It canceled fixed years (an indefinite search for runaway peasants and a large fine for harboring fugitives) - this meant the final enslavement of the peasants.

Conclusion:

Thus, during the 17th century, the power of the tsar was strengthened, based not on estate representation, but on the state apparatus and the army; the final formalization of serfdom took place.

1. Homework:§6 pp. 48-55. Copy new words in a notebook and learn.

A new significant moment in Russia's foreign policy in the middle of the 17th century was the rapid expansion of the borders of the Russian state to the Pacific Ocean and the establishment of relations with the states of Central Asia and the Far East associated with this. In a short period, Siberia was annexed to Russia.

By the 1930s, a favorable international situation was developing (aggravation of Polish-Turkish relations and the Thirty Years' War in Europe) for the fight against the Commonwealth for the return of Smolensk. In December of the same year, Smolensk was besieged by Russian troops commanded by the boyar M.B. Shein. The siege dragged on for eight months and ended in failure. The new Polish king Vladislav IV, who arrived in time, in turn blocked Shein's army. In June 1634, the Polyanov peace treaty was concluded. All the cities captured at the beginning of hostilities were returned to the Poles, and Smolensk remained behind them. Vladislav finally renounced his claims to the Moscow throne. In general, the results of the Smolensk War were considered unsuccessful, and the perpetrators - Shein and Izmailov were executed. New military clashes between the Commonwealth and Russia began in 1654.

At first, the war proceeded successfully for Russia: Smolensk and 33 more cities in Eastern Belarus (Polotsk, Vitebsk, Mogilev, etc.) were taken in the first campaign. At the same time, the Swedes invaded Poland and occupied its large territory. Then in October 1656 Russia concludes a truce with the Commonwealth, and in May of the same year begins a war with Sweden on the territory of the Baltic states. Having captured a number of fortresses, the Russians approached Riga, but the siege was unsuccessful. The war also went on in the lands of the Neva River, where, in particular, the Swedish city of Nyenschantz, which had great strategic and commercial importance, was taken, built by the Swedes near the mouth of the Neva at the confluence of the Okhta River. Meanwhile, Poland resumed hostilities. Therefore, at first, a truce was concluded with Sweden, and then in 1661 the Peace of Kardis (in the town of Kardis near Tartu), according to which the entire Baltic coast remained with Sweden.

The war with Poland, during which the warring parties had varying success, was long and ended in 1667 with the signing of the Andrusovo truce for 13.5 years. Smolensk and all the lands east of the Dnieper were returned to Russia, and then the conclusion in 1686 of the “Eternal Peace”, which assigned Kyiv to Russia for all eternity. The end of the war with the Commonwealth allowed Russia to actively resist the aggressive intentions of the Ottoman Empire.

Back in 1637 Don Cossacks captured the Turkish fortress of Azov, but, unsupported by the Moscow troops, were forced to leave it in 1642. In August 1677 and July 1678, the Ottomans made attempts to take the fortress on the Right-Bank Ukraine - Chigirin. The second time they succeeded, the Russians left Chigirin. In January 1681, the Bakhchisarai truce was signed for 20 years. The Ottomans recognized Russia's right to Kyiv, the lands between the Dnieper and the Bug were declared neutral.

Having concluded the “Eternal Peace” with the Commonwealth in 1686, Russia simultaneously assumed obligations in alliance with Poland, Austria and Venice to oppose the Crimea and the Ottoman Empire, which, however, was important for Russia itself, as it provided access to the Black Sea . This resulted in two Crimean campaigns by V. Golitsyn. During the first in 1687, the Tatars set fire to the steppe, and in the face of a lack of water, food and fodder, the Russian army was forced to return.

The second campaign allowed the 100-thousandth Russian army to reach Perekop, but the troops, exhausted by the heat and incessant skirmishes with the Tatars, did not dare to enter the Crimea. Foreign policy tasks, therefore, remained the same - in the future there was a struggle for access to the seas.

Thus, Russia in the 17th century, as in the previous century, faced the same foreign policy tasks: the return of ancient Russian lands, access to the Baltic and Black Sea coasts, the continuation of the struggle against the successor of the Golden Horde - the Crimean Khanate and powerful Turkey standing behind it. The simultaneous fulfillment of all these tasks was beyond Russia's strength, but something was done.

As a result of a series of wars, Ukraine was reunited with Russia in 1654, and Siberia was annexed in a short period of time. The war with Poland ended with the signing in 1667 of the Andrusovo truce for 13.5 years, according to which Smolensk and all the lands east of the Dnieper were returned to Russia, and then with the conclusion in 1686 of the “Eternal Peace”, which assigned Kiev to Russia for eternity . The end of the war with the Commonwealth allowed Russia to actively resist the aggressive intentions of the Ottoman Empire.

Chapter II. The process of formation of the absolutist state power of the new Romanov dynasty

2.1 Major changes in the political system of Russia

After the liberation of Moscow from the Polish interventionists, the government apparatus began to be restored, which began to establish ties with the cities and counties of the country. In February 1613, a representative of the old Moscow boyars, 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (1613-1645), was elected tsar at the Zemsky Sobor.

State power in Russia gradually evolved into absolute power. In the structure of state bodies that limited the power of the tsar, the Boyar Duma and the Zemsky Sobor played a prominent role.

The Boyar Duma, the highest body of the estate-representative monarchy, included the top of the well-born boyar aristocracy. Gradually, representatives of non-clan surnames began to penetrate into the Boyar Duma - duma nobles and duma clerks, who held government posts due to their personal qualities and merits. The aristocratic character of the Boyar Duma decreases over time, its significance decreases. Not the last role in this was played by the fact that along with it, under the first Romanovs, there was a “close” or “secret thought”, which consisted of a few trusted persons at the invitation of the tsar. By the end of the 17th century, the importance of the "near Duma" had increased.

Zemsky Sobors, which were the representative body of the boyars, the nobility, the clergy and the trading elite or the settlement, and in some cases the peasants, sat continuously in the first decade of the reign of Mikhail Romanov. They were engaged in finding money for the state treasury and collecting military people for wars.

Later, the growing autocracy resorted to the help of Zemsky Sobors less and less often, the last one took place in 1686.

At the same time, the ideological and political significance of tsarist power grew. A new state seal was introduced, and the word autocrat was introduced into the royal title. The ideology of autocracy rested on two positions: the divine origin of royal power and the succession of the kings of the new dynasty from the Rurik dynasty. Accordingly, the person of the king was glorified, he was given a magnificent title, and all palace ceremonies were performed with solemnity and splendor.

With the strengthening of the autocracy, there are changes in its social support. The nobility becomes its basis, and it, in turn, was interested in strengthening the royal power.

In the 17th century, the nobility strengthened economically, not without the support of the autocracy. It is becoming more and more a monopolist of feudal land ownership, gradually pushing aside the boyars and noble princely families in this respect. This was facilitated by the policy of granting land to the nobility mainly in the form of inherited possessions - estates, which replaced the estate as a type of land ownership, assigned to the owner only for the period of his service to the sovereign. The rights of the nobility also extended to the serfs.

During the 17th century, the political role of the nobility also increased. It is successfully pushing back the well-born boyars in the state apparatus and in the army. In 1682 localism was abolished.

The growing autocratic state relied on a developed state apparatus of government. The orders remained the most important link in the central administration, in the leadership of which the bureaucratic element of the clerks and clerks began to play a prominent role. On the ground, in the counties, governors appointed by the government from the nobility ruled. The fullness of military, judicial and financial power was concentrated in their hands.

The evolution of the political system was accompanied by changes in the armed forces. From the 40s. In the 17th century, a system of recruiting soldier regiments with "subjective people" began to emerge. The first soldier, reytar and dragoon regiments are created. The state armed the soldiers, paid them a salary. The Russian regular national army was born.

The strengthening of absolutism in Russia affected the problem of the relationship between the autocracy and the church, secular and spiritual authorities, and required further subordination of the church to the state.

In this regard, in the 50s - 60s. Church reform was undertaken in the 17th century. It grew, firstly, out of the need to strengthen the state apparatus, including the church, for it was part of it. And, secondly, this reform was connected with the far-reaching foreign policy plans of the government of Alexei Mikhailovich, which included the unification of the Orthodox churches of Ukraine and the Balkan countries with the Russian Church, as one of the conditions for the unification of the Slavic Orthodox peoples with the Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire.

Church reform was coolly carried out by Patriarch Nikon. At the same time, while carrying out the reform, the patriarch also set theocratic goals: to create a strong ecclesiastical authority that would be independent of the secular one and stand above the royal authority.

And if the reform of the church, which was carried out by the patriarch, met the interests of the Russian autocracy, then Nikon's theocracy clearly contradicted the tendencies of growing absolutism. There is a gap between the king and the patriarch. Nikon was deposed and exiled to a monastery.

The reform ultimately led to a split in the Russian Church into the dominant Orthodox and the Orthodox Old Believers. The split caused a crisis of the church in Russia, its weakening and negative destabilizing social consequences for the internal life of the country.

The second half of the 17th century, despite all the difficulties and difficulties, became an important historical milestone in the development of Russia. The international positions have somewhat strengthened. The all-Russian market was taking shape. The estate-representative monarchy evolved into an absolute one. She faced a number of vital tasks that had not been resolved in the 17th century.

Among them, the following can be distinguished: firstly, it was necessary to break through to the sea frontiers, without which the rapid economic development of the country could not be ensured. Secondly, the struggle for Ukraine did not lead to the unification of the entire Ukrainian people with Russia. Right-bank Ukraine remained under the occupation of Poland. Thirdly, a regular army was needed. Fourthly, the country needed industrial development and trained personnel, which church education could not provide. Fifthly, the peasant uprisings showed ruling class the importance of strengthening the state apparatus.

Historically, the task of overcoming the backwardness of the country in economic, military and cultural terms has become ripe. The prerequisites for reforms were laid in the second half of the 17th century.

In the 17th century, the form of power was an estate-representative monarchy, which gradually evolved into an absolute one. The basis of autocratic power is the nobility, and not boyar power. Power is built on a strong state apparatus, and subordinate to the king, Zemsky Sobors were no longer convened.

2.2 The reign of Mikhail Fedorovich (1613 - 1645)

Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov - Russian Tsar, who laid the foundation for royal dynasty Romanovs. He was elected king at the Zemsky Sobor, held in January - February 1613. Mikhail Fedorovich was married to the kingdom on July 11 of the same year, at the age of 16 years old. After the "troubles" the country was ruined, its economy was in a deplorable state. In such conditions, the young king needed support. The first ten years of the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich almost continuously met Zemsky Sobors, which helped the young Romanov to solve important state issues. In the Zemsky Sobor, one of the main roles was played by relatives of Mikhail Fedorovich on the maternal side - the boyars Saltykovs. Mikhail Fedorovich, not without the help of Metropolitan Filaret, his father, conducts an active domestic and foreign policy. For the first time in his reign, Mikhail Fedorovich paid great attention to international affairs. The foreign policy of the first Romanov was very productive.

In 1617, the "Stolbovsky Peace" was concluded, or as it is also called the "Eternal Peace" with Sweden. According to which Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea, but received back its territories, which had previously been conquered by the Swedes. The borders established by the "Stolbovsky Peace" lasted until the end of the "Northern War".

In 1618, an eternal peace was concluded with Poland, called the Deulino Truce. According to this document, Russia ceded the Smolensk and Chernihiv lands to the Commonwealth, and in return the Polish king renounced claims to the Russian throne.

The internal policy of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov was more extensive and successful than the external one, although, of course, Russia achieved something at the international level. The main internal political problem of Mikhail Fedorovich was the impostors who did not calm down after the “distemper”. In 1614, in Moscow, Marina Mnishek and her son Vorenok, who had previously been hiding in the Lower Volga region, were executed. In 1619, the father of Mikhail Fedorovich, Metropolitan Filaret, returned from Polish captivity. Filaret considered that the priority in the internal policy of the state should be put in the direction of strengthening the principles of autocracy. In connection with this, large lands were transferred to the possession of secular and church landowners, the nobility received lands and privileges as a reward for service, the process of securing peasants to their owners was underway, by increasing the period of their investigation, the composition of the boyar duma expanded, but the circle of people with real power, on the contrary narrowed, the number of orders sharply increased.

In order to increase the authority of the central government, new state seals, as well as a new title "autocrat". After the defeat of the Russian troops near Smolensk in 1634, Mikhail Fedorovich carried out a military reform. The formation of cavalry infantry formations according to the Western model begins. The units were armed with new, modern weapons, and acted according to new tactical schemes. The number of foreigners in Moscow has increased. Mikhail Fedorovich actively invited them to the Russian service.