"DIVO" Russian book of records and achievements
HUMAN ACTIVITIES: Language, Literature, Print: place names
GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES
THE SHORTEST NAMES
In our country, there are a number of geographical names consisting of only one letter. For example, small rivers in the Ob basin are called Yu and Ya.
There are more than 100 names of rivers, consisting of two letters. Here are some of them: Uh, Iya, Eun, Yaya and others.
Many settlements have names consisting of two letters: Ai (Sakhalin region), Ii (Tuva region), Osh (Kyrgyzstan), Uk (Irkutsk region), Chu (Kazakhstan), Yug (Perm region), Yar (Udmurtia, Sverdlovsk and Tyumen regions), Yaya (Kemerovo region).
"RELATIVES" ON THE MAP
The Mama River is a tributary of the Vitim (length 406 kilometers), partially navigable.
The Daughter River is a tributary of the Desna.
Sister - rivers in the Moscow and Leningrad regions.
Tyatya is a volcano on the Kuril Islands.
ISLANDS... WITH THE NAME OF THE NEWSPAPER
The only islands in the world named after the newspaper are the islands of Komsomolskaya Pravda. This is a group of 9 islands in the southwestern part of the Laptev Sea. The largest of them are Bolshoi and Samuil, up to 68 meters high. Tundra prevails.
GHOST VALLEY
Such a mysterious name of one of the valleys in the Crimea is explained by the fact that all of it is covered with stone sculptures resembling bizarre figures of people and animals.
DON'T COUNT THE NAMES
An extraordinary record was set ... by the Kuban River, the Azov and Black Seas. Chairman of the Krasnodar Department of the Geographical Society, Candidate of Geographical Sciences G. A. Galkin, having analyzed several thousand archival, literary, cartographic and epigraphic sources, compiled a unique collection of ancient and medieval names of the Kuban River (296 names and their variants, including discrepancies, distortions, mistakes of the authors , scribes and translators). The Black Sea turned out to have 269 names, and the Azov Sea - 240.
NO VISA REQUIRED FOR CALIFORNIA
At any time and without any visa, a Soviet person can today visit California. At the same time, there is no need to go overseas at all, since California is located in the south of the Gorky region, five kilometers from the border with Chuvashia. The village of Kaniforovka was renamed California, most likely in the second half of the last century. At that time, there was only talk among the peasants about the sale by Russia to American colonists of lands literally stuffed with gold. Apparently, then, half-jokingly, half-seriously, they called the poor Nizhny Novgorod settlement a beautiful overseas name.
According to another version, around the same years, some families from here had a chance to move to America, and later return to their native lands and “bring” a new name for the village with them. Be that as it may, gold has never been looked for here...
NAMES OF THE RED SQUARE
The main square of Moscow was formed at the end of the 15th century. This place near the Kremlin wall was then called the Fire - for the frequent fires of shops or the Market - for the main shopping mall of the city. From the second half of XVII century is called Red Square, that is, "beautiful".
MOSCOW IS KUCHKOVO
The oldest mention of Moscow was found on one of the birch bark letters found in Novgorod. The first known mention of Moscow, dating back to 1147, was found in the Ipatiev manuscript. But the manuscript itself, which told about the events of the XII century, was written in the XV century. The Novgorod birch bark writing dates back to the middle of the 12th century, that is, approximately 1160-1170. The author writes that he intends to visit a settlement on the Moskva River, which later became the capital of the Russian state: According to the head of the Novgorod archaeological expedition, academician V. Yanin, Moscow was then called Kuchkovo.
The term "geographical name" originated in 1986 at a meeting of the United Nations Division of Experts on Geographical Names (UNGEGN) and means "a name given geographical feature". A geographical feature, in turn, is understood as an "artificial or natural part of the land or body of water." A geographical name, therefore, may belong to any object, area or area.
Names are an integral part of language and society. They not only reflect the cultural ideals of today, but also preserve the cultural values of past years, that is, they reflect the connection between modern society and the society that once existed.
Most of the existing names are of natural origin. In contrast to them, artificial names are also distinguished, which are products of the official naming process.
People create names based on some fact that they think is unique and appropriate to be reflected in the name. This approach is universal, regardless of the belonging of the people to a particular culture.
In this paper, an attempt is made to consider the ways of formation and functioning of names geographical objects in Russian and English on the example of the names of the state of Massachusetts (USA) and the Kola Peninsula.
Despite the fact that the state of Massachusetts and the Murmansk region are on different continents, and at first glance, there can be nothing in common between these two territories, as well as between the people living in them, with a deeper study it turns out that between these A number of parallels can be drawn between the two territories, including those relating to the processes and methods of nomination in these regions.
Under the nomination (from the Latin. nominatio - "name") is usually understood:
The formation of linguistic units characterized by a nominative function, that is, serving to name and isolate fragments of reality and form the corresponding concepts about them in the form of words, phraseological units and sentences. This term also refers to the result of the nomination process - a significant linguistic unit. Some scholars use the term "nomination" to designate a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of naming acts, and in this sense, nomination is the same as onomasiology and is opposed to semasiology;
The subject of the theory of nomination as a special linguistic discipline is the study and description of the general patterns of formation of language units, the interaction of thinking, language and reality in these processes, the role of the human (pragmatic) factor in the choice of features that underlie the nomination, the study of the linguistic technique of nomination - its acts, means and methods, construction of a nomination typology, description of its communicative and functional mechanisms. Depending on the starting point of the study, one distinguishes between an onomasiological approach to the problems of nomination, when the relation "realia - the meaning of a name" is taken as the main one, or a semasiological one, in which the meaning of a name is considered as a way of isolating and naming a realia (or a class of realities).
"The theory of nomination - onomasiology - is one of two sections of semantics, opposed to semasiology in the direction of research from a thing or phenomenon to the thought of this thing, phenomenon and to their designation by linguistic means. Onomasiology studies all units of a language from the point of view of their implementation of a nominative or representative function and deals with issues of nominative technique and methods of formation of units of nomination of different level status, different length and structure, as well as unequal in the way of representing reality in the signs of the language.
There are several stages in the acts of naming: the selection and fixation of what is to be denoted, the comprehension of the denoted, the choice of an adequate language means and the name itself, the establishment of a closer and more permanent connection between the denoted and the signifier, and, finally, the assignment of a certain content to a given linguistic segment.
The naming of an object thus achieves a certain objectification of reality in language and, at the same time, its peculiar alienation.
The act of nomination is a speech-thinking process aimed either at choosing a ready-made designation for the named phenomenon and thoughts about this phenomenon existing in the language, or at creating a suitable name for it. The starting point of the act of nomination is the individual semantic task of the speaker.
In the act of nomination, only those real or fictitious objects to which human activity is directed are named. The objects themselves may belong to the outer and inner world, but the name is given to the "stopped" thought about the object.
The nomination is a complex speech-thinking process, which also has psychological, biological, social, physiological and purely linguistic grounds. Being a process of selection and comprehension of the designated object or event, as well as the result of this process, the nomination acts simultaneously as a product of human cognitive activity in the chosen field of knowledge, and as a product of speech and language activity.
"Any name in the language is the result of experience. Experience always precedes the name. In order to generalize the invariant image of a word that appears in our minds in the form of at least a representation or a concept that is difficult to distinguish from it, which can act as an element of human speech, it must be expressed by sound complex". Without this condition, there is no nomination. The most common method of nomination is the use of a sound complex, meaning any of the features inherent in this subject.
The typology of the nomination can be based on the analysis of the meaning (the nature of the designated object), the analysis of the meaning (the internal form of the names) and on the analysis of the scope of the designated (the actual semantic side of the nomination).
"The internal form of the nomination is determined by the feature that is chosen as a distinguishing feature and is used as the basis for the name. These features are extremely diverse and are determined physical properties object, its relation to other objects, as well as the relation of the subject of the nomination to it. "Based on these features, the following types of internal forms of nomination can be distinguished:
1) generalized / individualizing nominations:
They are determined by the degree of individualization of those features that stand out during the designation, and also - in speech - by the volume of the concept under which the named object is summed up, for example: river (Russian) = fr. fleuve (river that flows into the basin) + riviere (river that flows into another river).
2) qualifying / relative nominations:
This opposition concerns not the degree of individualization of traits or their number, but the nature of the selected traits themselves. It is possible to determine the most general types of real features by referring to the most general conditions for the existence of objects. Any object exists in the coordination of time and space, on the basis of which two main types of features can be distinguished: proper and relative.
“Inherent features include: shape, color, length, structure, dimensions, that is, features that distinguish an object from other objects of this class.
Relative features include those that reflect the relationship of a given object with others, often belonging to a different class (spatial relations, sequence, belonging, functions).
Classification and nomination is the first step of man in mastering the world, in his dominance over nature. "However, human practice makes it necessary to create single names for some objects, which reflect not the classification associations of this object with others similar to it in certain characteristics, but the individual characteristics of these objects within a given class. This is how proper names arise, which indicate a class of objects consisting from one element.
Proper name - onym, word, phrase or sentence. It serves to distinguish the object named by it from a number of similar ones, individualizing and identifying this object.
"The section of linguistics that studies proper names is onomastics (from the Greek onomastike techne - "the art of giving names"). Onomastics is divided into sections in accordance with the categories of objects that have their own names: anthroponymy (names of people), toponymy (names of geographical objects) and so Further, onomastics divides proper names into realonyms (names of existing objects) and mythonyms (names of fictitious objects).
The object of study of onomastics is the history of the emergence of names and motifs of nomination, their formation in any class of onyms, differences in character and form, transitions of onyms from one class to another (transonymization), territorial and linguistic distribution, functioning in speech, various transformations, formulaicity. name, use and creation of proper names in artistic text. Onomastics explores phonetic, morphological, derivational, semantic, etymological and other aspects of proper names.
Proper names include:
1) names of persons (names, surnames, patronymics),
2) names, nicknames of animals, birds,
3) topographic names,
4) names of buildings, institutions,
5) titles of books, magazines.
Of these, 1-3 names designate, and 4-5 - only name.
The American professor Nikolaisen believes that names cannot be considered solely as part of the lexicon. Words matter; titles have content. The content of the name is absolutely independent of its potential meaning. Changing the meaning of a word after it has been used in the nomination process is inevitable. One of the tasks of scientists dealing with the problems of nomination is to establish the initial meaning of the words or elements that make up the name. Here, scientists are faced with the need to find out which object or the name of which person is reflected in the name. Most often it is not difficult to determine at what time the name was given, but it is not easy to determine the content of the name. In any case, the connection between the name and the geographical feature it defines is undeniable.
Nominations through a word and a phrase are called lexical, through a sentence - propositive, through a text - discursive. According to the type of means, nominations are distinguished: word formation as a regular way of creating new words and meanings, syntactic transposition, in which morphological means indicate a change in the syntactic function while maintaining the lexical meaning (friend - to be friends), semantic transposition, which does not change the material appearance of the rethought unit and leads to education polysemantic words, as well as phraseological units of various types.
Structural and semantic features of the formation of names of geographical objects in the Russian language.
The set of geographical names in a certain area is called toponymy. Toponymy is the study of their origin and development.
The interpretation of geographical names and finding out their origin is a task that requires a lot of preparation. It is necessary to keep in mind the historical documents relating to the area at different times, to know the main types of local names, to study the peculiarities of the languages of all nationalities of the given territory, as well as local dialects, old personal names, since they often play a significant role in the origin of local names. If we recall how personal names are distorted when two or three languages meet, then the whole difficulty of the issue becomes clear, especially if another, later origin, is added to the first linguistic element.
The matter is sometimes complicated by the constant combination of words of two languages - the first settlers and newcomers, local features of dialects and real, in some cases, remnants of even greater antiquity.
The study of the toponymy of the Kola Peninsula is a complex and diverse process. "In this regard, sources of factual material are of undoubted interest: chronicles, letters, acts, scribe books, maps, atlases, geographical dictionaries, as well as numerous descriptions of the region, reports, travel essays of expeditions and travelers." This is a rich toponymic material relating to various aspects of the life of the region's population in the past and present, its history, geography, and ethnography. Toponymy also includes the first attempts at scientific understanding of historical materials. When studying toponymy, translations of local names, legends and legends about their origin are interesting.
The distribution of ancient people on the territory of the Kola Peninsula dates back approximately to the 10th-9th millennium BC. They came from the east (Urals, Western Siberia). It is difficult to say what language they spoke, so many ancient names remain a mystery to us.
The study of the toponymy of the Kola Peninsula is a complex and diverse process. In this regard, sources of factual material are of undoubted interest: chronicles, letters, acts, scribe books, maps, atlases, geographical dictionaries, as well as numerous descriptions of the region, reports, travel essays of expeditions and travelers. This is a rich toponymic material relating to various aspects of the life of the region's population in the past and present, its history, geography, and ethnography. Toponymy also includes the first attempts at scientific understanding of historical materials. When studying toponymy, translations of local names, legends and legends about their origin are interesting.
Who and when the settlements of the Kola Peninsula were called can only be recognized by the names of settlements preserved in old monuments and by modern names. Settlements appeared and disappeared, were renamed for various reasons and motives, had several names at the same time (official and local), or had no names at all, but only an indication of their location (on a river, near a bay, on a lake).
Works on the toponymy of the Kola Peninsula.
At this point in time, only a few projects have been implemented and only a few works on toponymy have been written, because this is not such open topic for research and few took on its development.
One of these "heroes" is A. A. Minkin, who wrote the book "Toponyms of Murman". It very widely discloses the importance of this topic and gives a unique list of toponyms that we used when writing this work. In Minkin's book, we see carefully sorted information on the toponymy of the Kola Peninsula, as well as a useful dictionary of Sami geographical terms.
There is also a Geographical Dictionary of the Murmansk region, which was compiled by V. G. Muzhikov. This dictionary is very useful for those who want to know the meaning, location of one or another toponym of the Kola Peninsula. It contains a decent theoretical material. It contains a list of Sami words found in toponyms of the Kola Peninsula. And most importantly, this dictionary contains more than 7500 names that can be used in the further development of this topic and which were also used by us.
Structural models of toponyms.
On the territory of the Kola Peninsula, metonymic toponyms are common, that is, when the name of a geographical object is extended by adjacency to another. For example, Imandra is a village (settlement) at Lake Imandra. Such toponyms reflect only its location.
The main role is occupied by the toponyms of the two-component model (Monchegorsk - "beautiful city"). There are the following types:
1. Compounding with a noun: Retiyark, literally "mouth-pillow".
2. Compounding with an adjective, for example: Rimnsuol - “fox island”, Chirmyavr - “wolf lake”.
Determinants are usually geographical terms and words close to them in meaning. The brightest representatives are yavr - "lake" (750), vyd - "top", "mountain" (550), suol - "island" (300), mok - "river" (200), callium - "rock", kurr - "gorge", lust - "bay".
They also use terms that reflect the landscape of the region - appellatives:
The most popular of them:
Lake (more than 150): Moncheozero, Lovozero
Brook (about 100): Upper Brook, Ship Brook
Island: Round Island, Summit Island
Navolok - "spit, low-lying cape": Tersky Navolok.
Toponyms may contain information about the properties of an object or indicate the nature of the landscape. Names may also include:
Colour: Red slit
Flora and fauna:
Korda - "crow": Kordeyok, Kordegsit,
Chirm - "wolf": Chirmyavr, Chirmapakhk
Rimn - "fox": Rimnsuol,
Kuss - "spruce": Kussvarnyun, Kussuvayv
Piadz - "pine": Piadzyavr.
Also, the small value of the object can be taken as the basis of the determinants. The most common parts are iok - "river", yavr - "lake", voay - "stream".
Toponyms can indicate the nature of the area: lyamit - "dense forest", lyamb - "peat bog", koashk - "bog": Koavshkar.
Also, the names of the animal and plant and animal world can be used in toponyms: kul - "fish": Kuljok, Kulyavr, pyuemmel - "hare", serv - "moose": Servyavr, Servyok, chirm - "wolf": Chirmek, Chirmozero, Chirmekswall, rimn - "fox": Rimnswall, Rimnyozero,
If you pay special attention to the study of Kola toponyms, you can highlight:
1) topographic bases - geographical terms - words that reflect the varieties of landscape existing in nature (iok - "river", kevnes - "waterfall", mounds - "gorge")
2) topo bases - names of plants. Here the leading ones are: kuss - "spruce", pyadz - "pine"
3) topographic bases - the names of representatives of the fauna: kayi - "seagull", chiuchi - "hawk", chasi - "woodpecker", kupch - "bear", serv - "moose"
4) determination of the characteristic properties of objects:
Size, shape: vulgisvid - “lower”, sinche “thin”
Color: kohl - "gold", rupses - "red"
5) topographic bases indicating the location: evdest - "near", ell - "above"
6) topobases associated with economic activity local population: hunting, fishing, various buildings and facilities for household purposes.
Local compound names of villages are mainly a combination of an adjective with a noun "Latvian village".
During the study of toponymy, a term arose, a toponymic hybrid - these are the names of places of settlements, composed of the grammatical and lexical parts of Russian and Kola words. They were formed as follows: a) the root of the Sami word was grammatically formalized by the Russian suffix or inflection: Kolvitsa, Teriberka, Kandalaksha b) two stems are combined into a compound word, where the first component was the Kola word, and the second - Russian. The first, as a definition for the second, obeys it grammatically, and the second was the name of the topographic object near which the given settlement arose: Lovozero, Girvozero, Tik-Guba, Tsypnavolok.
c) hybrid toponyms often appeared in the form of a compound name. As in the formation of complex names, both the Russian and the Kola element could act as the first component, and the second, respectively, too: Knyazhaya Guba, Ekostrovsky churchyard.
One of the universal methods of toponym formation is suffixation. The Russian layer of toponyms of the Kola Peninsula has its own word-formation models. The names of cities of a later period are drawn up using the "urban" suffix -sk-: Monchegorsk, Murmansk, Zarechensk.
Some Russian toponyms are formed with the help of prefixes and suffixes: Zaozersk, Zasheek.
So, when considering the names of the Kola Peninsula, we made the following observations:
1. On the territory of the Kola Peninsula, the names of various temporary layers coexist, and the meanings of some of the most ancient names have not yet been determined. The ways of adaptation of the Saami names by the Russian-speaking population include adaptation at the phonetic, derivational and lexical levels.
2. The most common types of names on the territory of the Kola Peninsula are: a) descriptive names that distinguish a geographical object from a number of others according to the following features: location, distinctive features of the object (shape, nature of the soil), as well as certain representatives of the flora and fauna. Descriptive titles make up approximately 70% of all titles; b) possessive names formed from anthroponyms and carrying the idea of belonging. Possessive names make up about 15% of all names.
3. From the point of view of word formation, the most typical place names are hybrids or compound toponyms, parts of which may belong to the vocabulary of one language or several.
4. The most numerous group among the names of the Kola Peninsula are the names of Saami origin, including names formed by translating Saami terms into Russian.
5. The names belonging to the most ancient layer (those whose meaning is not derived from the knowledge of living languages) are approximately
30% of all titles reviewed.
6. The third largest group is made up of names of Russian origin (not counting those formed by translating Saami terms) - (51 names, which is 17% of all names).
7. Composite toponyms, formed as a result of a complex two-part naming model, make up the absolute majority of all names (about 80%).
8. Simple toponyms - a less used type model. Simple toponyms make up about 5% of all names).
9. The Russian layer of toponyms has its own word-formation models. The most productive model for the formation of a Russian name ("productive in modern linguistics models are called, according to the model of which extended word-building rows are built") - a definition in combination with a defined word (21 names out of 51, which is 41% of all Russian names).
10. Russian city names can be formed using suffixes - ets -, - ov -, ev -, - in -, and, above all, the suffix - sk -.
11. Some Russian toponyms are formed with the help of prefixes and suffixes: Zaozersk, Zarechensk.
Structural and semantic features of the formation of names of geographical objects in English.
The problem of nomination in relation to US cities has been considered by researchers infrequently. In most cases, they were limited to listing existing names and trying to interpret their meanings. The greatest contribution to this work was made by George Stewart, author of the collection "American Names". In our study, we also relied on materials from congresses on onomastics held in Quebec in 1987 and in Helsinki in 1990.
Considering American names, Stewart distinguishes among them the following types:
english titles,
Names borrowed from other languages
Indian names.
The largest group is made up of English names reflecting the norms English pronunciation and spelling.
Names borrowed from French, Danish, Spanish are no exception. In Alaska, there are Eskimo and Aleut names, some of which go back to the time of the colonization of Alaska by Russians.
Indian names are the most difficult to study and translate. The oldest of them were already rethought by the Indians themselves, or their meanings were subsequently obscured. Many of the existing Indian names are false, pseudo-Indian, that is, produced by white people according to Indian models. Some of the names are the product of modern Indians: Pasadena, Oklahoma.
From Indian languages, names passed into English in four ways:
1) The informant said the name in his native language. The receptor designed it based on its own auditory perception and in accordance with the characteristics of the native language.
2) The name was translated from the original language into the language of the receptor.
3) The name received a peculiar design as a result of a collision with the processes of folk etymology.
4) The name was borrowed in writing.
George R. Stewart divides all American names of geographical objects into specific (specific) and general, characteristic of a particular class (generic). By analogy with biological terminology, common names indicate the class itself, for example: River, Mountain, City. Names specific, such as: Blue, Battle are definitions for general concepts, thus fixing the use of the name for some single geographical object, despite the fact that in practice many names are repeated.
Specific names are usually adjectives or nouns in the form of adjectives which, when used regularly in English language, anticipate the emergence of common names, for example: Red Rock, Wolf Creek.
Specific names may also consist of a prepositional phrase, represented by a combination of a noun with the prepositions of, by, for example: The Gulf Of Alaska.
In everyday use, mainly when it comes to the names of cities, specific names are combined with general ones. These are cases in which the constituent elements of the names are the parts -town, -ville, -burgh. The combined name in such a case is concretized and becomes the name of the prepositional type, for example: The City Of Pittsburgh.
Considering these types of names, Stewart points to the problem of "plurality versus singularity". It is known that the primary function of the name is the task of highlighting a particular object from a number of others. Therefore, it is natural to assume that the name will fix some distinctive feature of a geographical object. For example, any body of water is likely to contain fish, so this feature is not its distinguishing feature and cannot form the basis of the name, except, perhaps, the presence of a similar phenomenon in the desert, where the name of the type Fish Spring (Fish Spring) indicates that - something unusual. Usually the name of the type: Fish Creek indicates that once there was a great catch in a certain reservoir.
The criterion for his classification of names Stuart chooses their origin and distinguishes among them the following types:
1) descriptive names. This term is used to refer to specific names that define and distinguish any geographical object from a number of others, indicating its distinctive features. These names usually capture the sensory perception of Big River (Big River), Black River (Black River). Negative descriptions, that is, denying the presence of some feature, are less common, but are no exception to Nowood Creek ("Bay where there is no forest"),
2) associative names. They define a geographic feature by association with something else. In origin, they are close to descriptive, it is necessary to distinguish them nevertheless. For example, the type name Mill River ("River on which there is a mill") does not describe the river, but rather defines it by association with the object located on it - the mill,
3) possessive names. They arose as a result of the idea of belonging. This may be a personal belonging: Smith "s Hill -" a hill located in Smith's possessions. A large number of these names arose during the period of the migrants' advance to the west, and therefore they reflect the presence of Indians or pioneers on the path of movement and are usually formed from proper names,
4) the names "event", which arose due to the fact that something unusual happened in a certain place, for example Suicide (Suicide), Battle (Battle), Cannibal (Cannibal). A large number of names of this type are derived from the names of animals, for example Wolf (Wolf), Bear (Bear). This type of nomination is very popular and simple, and the names themselves are the keepers of many old stories. The very nature of some of them indicates an incident, such as Murder Creek (Murder Bay), Earthquake (Earthquake). There are also exclamation names, but they are quite rare Helpmejack Creek ("Bay Jack - help - me") or Goshhelpme Creek ("God - help - me Bay"). A name of this type may also indicate when the Christmas Creek event took place (Christmas Bay),
5) commemorative, memorial names. Most of them owe their origin to the desire to preserve the memory of someone or something, to honor someone. Names have been preserved in this way. famous people, for example: Washington (Washington),
6) "necessary" names. A large number of cities, counties, and states took their names from the desire to create a "decent" name, that is, one that would attract the attention of the settlers and seem appropriate and beautiful. Such names are not necessarily descriptive and can sometimes be misleading. These cases arise from the frequent use of an element, such as the -city element to indicate a new geographic feature. Other examples of such names are Eden (Paradise), Prosperity (Prosperity),
7) names-stamps, created consciously from fragments of other words, proper names, initials, by rearranging letters or syllables. Similar phenomena are reflected in names like: Saybrook, Romley, Alicel. V. D. Belenkaya notes that "artificially created names are a peculiar feature of American toponymy. Sometimes it is a mechanical combination of parts of words, mostly nouns. For example, when the names California and Nevada coexist, names such as Calada, Calneva, Calvada are formed There are also abbreviations of complex names, merging of initials and surnames, for example: Lenwood from Ellen Woods".
8) names transferred from one geographical feature to another. For example, the name Cambridge (Cambridge) was transferred from England to Massachusetts,
9) names resulting from the action of folk etymology, for example: Funny Louis ("Funny Louis").
These types of names Stuart subdivides into the following types:
Folk, co-created by a group of people: Troublesome
Creek ("Restless Brook"),
Humorous, that is, having a humorous undertone, which is expressed through an indication of any incident underlying the name: Robber's Roost ("Robber Den"), Lovers "Leap ("Barrier for Lovers"), Roaring Run ("Running with a loud roar")
Official, which are the product of government activities,
literary,
Approximately at early XIX centuries after the rupture of ties with Great Britain in the United States, a custom arises to give cities and villages foreign names: Memphes (Memphis), Utica (Yutaka). Most of them were taken from books, others - from newspaper reports about events in the world: Sevastopol (Sevastopol), Waterloo (Waterloo). Some names were brought with them by the sailors who returned from the voyage.
Grant Smith suggested that the following points should be kept in mind in any study of names:
1) indicate the language from which the name originated,
2) specify whether the name is specific or general,
3) take into account word-building moments: prefixes, suffixes, root meanings, and also indicate what part of speech the word is,
4) give a phonetic transcription, in cases where the name appears in several variants,
5) take into account the morphological characteristics of the parts that make up the name.
Mary R. Miller does not give a complete classification of names, focusing on descriptive names, but points out that there can be several types:
Names that reflect the nature of the environment (indicate flora and fauna),
Names indicating the location of the object,
Names indicating objects nearby (hills, valleys, lakes),
Names derived from proper names
Names indicating the size of the object, its outlines.
Considering that in the course of our work we studied the names of the state of Massachusetts, most of which were transferred here from Europe, namely from England, it seems appropriate for us to dwell in this chapter on short description main types and elements English titles.
Kenneth Cameron describes the four most typical elements of English names, usually preserved as -ton, -ham, -wich, -worth, and appearing as the final element of compound names. In such constructions, the first element can be a proper name, a term indicating private or public property, a word containing an indication of the shape or size of an object, as well as the name of an animal, plant, or bird.
Old English tun, modern town (comparable to German Zaun) is the most typical element of names. Most likely, in earlier names it means "farm", and later acquires the meaning "village, village".
The fact that the original meaning - tun was "farm" is confirmed by the presence of proper names as the first element of the names Alstone (from Alwine - Alvin), Osmaton (from Osmund - Osmund). Often the first element of the name reflects the location of the object: Norton - northern, Sutton - southern, Weston - western, Easton - eastern.
Many names of estates or villages are named after rivers: Lynton (from Lyne-Line).
The first element of some names is the word hill (hill): Hilton - Hilton.
Undoubtedly, the names of some estates indicated what animals were bred there: Shepton from sheep (sheep), or the names of plants, cereals grown there: Barton from barley (barley).
Somerton, Winterton undoubtedly reflect the cycle of seasonal work on the farm (summer-summer, winter-winter).
Later, this group of names includes names in -tun with a proper name as the first element and with a suffix -ing, for example: Paddington from d/a Pad(d)ing-tun.
The Old English element ham means "manor, village". As with -tun , the element is often adjacent to the proper name as the first element. Often this is an element containing an indication of the location of the object. Also, the composition of names with the element - ham may include:
Element indicating the owner's age: Newham,
An element indicating the size of the estate: Mitchham ("big"),
Element - the name of the river: Cockerham from Cocher (Coker), Trentham from Trent (Trent),
Elements containing the names of other geographical features: Barham, Dunham, Clapham (all of these words mean "hill").
Elements - animal names: Gotham from goats (goats), Shipman from sheep (sheep),
Elements - the names of plants or crops: Banham from beans (beans), Cloverham from clover (clover), Gresham from grass (grass).
The Old English element - wic had many meanings, among which the following stood out: "a place of residence", "a building where food or other goods were made", such as fish (fish) in Fishwick, or salt (salt) in Saltwick.
A significant number of titles containing this element have the name of a pet or food as the first element. Most likely, in such cases, the element had the meaning "farm". Hence the names Bulwick from bull (ox), Calwich from calf (calf), Cheswich from cheese (cheese), Woolwich from wool (wool).
Sometimes the farm was given the owner's name, and names like Battleswick ("property of the Batalle family") are considered in this category.
The element is also present in compound names, which contain an indication of the location of the object: Southweek ("southern"), Eastweek ("eastern").
Kenneth Cameron also discusses other elements most commonly found in English titles:
Ford (river) - indicates the importance of the availability of water resources for the settlers,
Ley (d / a leah "forest") is a very common element, the general meaning of which is difficult to determine. Each time it is taken out of context.
In this case, the first element of the names can be:
Proper names: Barnley from Beorn (Barn), Hockley from Hocca (Hockey),
Names of peoples: Chiddingly ("people of the Sitta"),
Tree names: Ashley from ash (ash), Elmley from elm (elm), Oakleigh from oak (oak),
Crop names: Oteley from oats (oats), Claverslay from clover (clover),
Fawley from hay (hay).
Hill - very often a component of compound names. In such cases, the first element of the name:
Indicates the shape of the object: Coppell ("peak-topped"),
Is an adjective: Hernhill from gray (grey), Clennenhill from clean (clean),
Indicates plants growing on a hill: Haverhill from oats (oats), Wheathill from wheat (wheat),
Chester - (d / a coester) - "city, provincial town". This element is borrowed from the Latin language (castra),
Bridge-(d/a brycg) is another term for ford. There are two options for names:
Bridge and -brigg (Scandinavian influence),
Mouth (d / a mutha) - "mouth of the river",
Land (d / a land) - "land",
Like the other thirteen British colonies along the coast Atlantic Ocean, Massachusetts was founded by people who came to the continent in the hope of finding new life and gain freedom of belief. The very name of the state - Indian - and means "located on the big hills" (big-hills-at). This village name was first recorded in 1616. The British believed that this was the name of an Indian tribe and added the ending -s to it as an indication of plurality. The hills to which the name indicates were located near the city of Boston. The name was later transferred to the bay, and then, in 1629, the Massachusetts colony was officially approved.
The languages of the Indians were alien to the colonists, most of whom could not write. Many Indian names were first heard from the lips of Indians scared to death and unwilling to speak. And they were heard by the Puritans, who were initially opposed to the Indians, who were least of all interested in the linguistic side of the issue. It should also be taken into account that the colonist, who wrote even his name sometimes in eight different ways, was even more puzzled when faced with the need to enter the type name in official sources: Wampanoag (Wampanoag).
Even educated colonists had difficulty distinguishing between such similar Indian languages as: Wampanoag (Vampanoag), Natick (Natik), Narrangansett (Narrangansett). Even the priests, who knew Latin and Greek, and often played the role of translators, had difficulty translating phrases into the Algonquian language (Algonquian).
By 1825 the Algonquian language had almost disappeared from New England. Thus, for three hundred years, since the time when the pilgrims landed in Plymouth, the Indian languages Wampanoag (Vampanoag), Natick (Natik), Nipmuck (Nipmuk), Narangansett (Narangansett), Pequot (Pekuot), Mohegan (Mohigan) , Mahican (Mahikan), Pocumtuck (Pocumtuk), Pennacook (Pennacook) have disappeared, leaving a number of poorly understood and even worse written names as peculiar monuments of the past.
A relatively small number of Native American names have survived in the northeast of the country in the states of Massachusetts and Connecticut. In some cases, Americanized Native American names have been superseded by English ones, which retain only a vague resemblance to the original. For example, Mosketualke eventually turned into Mosquito Hawk ("Mosquito Sting").
Guided by the classification proposed by George Stewart, and taking the origin of the names of the state of Massachusetts as a basis, it seems appropriate for us to distinguish the following types among Indian names:
1. descriptive names: a) English, distinguishing an object from a number of others by:
Form: Heartbreak Hill ("hill of a broken heart"; the name was received by the city due to the fact that the hill on which it is located is shaped like a heart),
Location: Eastham ("city located in the eastern part of the state"), Norhtfield ("city located in the north"),
Objects located in this territory Marshfield ("swamp").
Representatives of the local flora and fauna: Buckland (buck - male deer).
b) Indian, indicating:
Object location: Acushnet ("hiding in the bay").
Representatives of flora and fauna: Cochessett ("place where small pine trees grow), Maquam ("beaver"), Wallum ("dog"),
Soil character: Asnebumsket ("stones on stones").
Activities available at this location: Katama ("place of great fishing"),
2. Associative names:
Brimstone: the place got its name due to the discovery of a sulfur deposit here (the old name for sulfur is brimstone),
3. Event names: a) English:
Bash Bish Halls: during the war with the Indians, the chief of the Bash Indians was shot at this place,
Concord: after the victory in one of the battles of 1775 near this place, the geographical object received this patriotic name (concord-agreement, deal, treaty), b) Indian:
Annawon's Rock: the leader of one of the tribes was captured at this place,
Annursnack: was a meeting place for the chiefs of the Indian tribes,
4. Names memorable, memorial: a) English:
Barre (Barr) - named after General Isaac Barr, an Englishman who spoke out in support of the American Revolutionary War,
Belchertown (Belchertown) - named after the governor of the city Jonathan Belcher,
Berkley (Berkeley) - named after the priest George Berkeley,
Hancock (Hancock) - named after John Hancock, one of the gentlemen who signed the Declaration of Independence,
Quincey (Quincy) - named after General John Quincey,
Sunderland (Sunderland) - named after the Earl of Sunderland, who held the position of Prime Minister in 1718,
Charleton (Charlton) - named after Sir Francis Charlton, a member of the city council.
b) Indian:
Natick (Natik), Pocumtuck (Pocumtuk) - the names of the tribes,
Hyannis (Giannis), Konkapot (Konkapot) - the names of the leaders,
5. Possessive names:
Hadley (Hadley) - proper name,
Holyoke (Holyoke) - either the name of the early settler Elisir Holyoke, or Edward Holyoke, president of Harvard,
6. "Official", artificially created names:
Norwood (Norwood) - the name was proposed by a person who gave unusual reasons for the need to use it: it looks beautiful in print, it sounds beautiful, it is easy to write because it does not have an i to put a period above and a t to cross out cut it in half
7. Names transferred from one object to another:
Babylon (Babylon) - the name of the ancient capital,
Hanover is a city in Germany
A special group is represented by names transferred to American cities from English, among which the following types can be distinguished:
1) names that include a proper name, that is, containing the idea of belonging: Abington (from Aebbe) - Abington, Acton (from Acca) - Acton, Ipswich (from Ipsen) - Ipswich, Bedford (from Beda) - Bedford, Boxford (from Boksa) - Boxford, Chelmsford (from Ceolmaer) - Chelmsford,
The elements - tun, - ford, - land, - wic, appear as the second element of these names.
2) names containing an indication of the location of the object:
Grafton (from d / a graef - "grove, forest") - Grafton,
Manchester - "a city located on steep hills" - Manchester,
Rochester: Romano-British variant of this name meaning "walled city on bridges". When this name was adopted by the d/a language, the first syllable of the Celtic name was lost, so the first element of the name shows the second syllable of the early name (-rob-) - Rochester,
Amesbury, Tisbury (from d / a burh, burg) - "fortified place" - Amesbury, Tisbury,
3) names containing an indication of water resources:
Bradford - "wide stream" - Bradford,
Portsmouth - "the mouth of the Port", where Port is the old name of the harbor - Portsmouth,
Becket (from d / Norwegian bekkr - "stream") - Becket,
4) names containing an indication of individual representatives of flora and fauna:
Acton (from d / a ac) - "oak" - Acton,
Oxford (from oxen - "oxen, bulls") - Oxford,
5) associative names:
Stockbridge - "log bridge" - Stockbridge,
Uxbridge - "Viksanov bridge" - by the name of the Middle Eastern tribe - Uxbridge,
Cambridge - hybrid Celtic-d / a name - Cambridge,
6) names indicating nationality, residents of cities:
Somerset - an elliptical version of soete - "Sommerset people" - Somerset,
Also in this group, you should consider the names of the type:
Chelsea - the name was transferred to a city in Massachusetts from one of the districts of London - Chelsea,
7) names of folk etymology:
Cape Poge - the name is produced as a result of the action of folk etymology on the Algonquian name, the first element of which meant "barrage" and appeared in the following forms: cap - kep - keep - kab. Obviously, he pointed to any obstacle in the way - stones or water.
We analyzed 115 city names in Massachusetts. Of these, the largest group in terms of number is made up of names transferred from one geographical object to another (59), of which 55 (51% of all names) were brought from England. The first elements of these names (most of them are composite) are proper names, names of plants, animals, rivers. The second element is usually the Old English elements. This type of names, defined by us as "descriptive", includes both English and Native American names. Native American titles are quite numerous in the state (35, representing 30% of all titles). The very fact of the presence of Indian names in the state is remarkable. As you know, most of the first settlers came to America from England, and the continent at that time was inhabited by numerous Indian tribes. The clash of two cultures turned out to be disastrous for the Indians, but many of their beliefs and observations were preserved in the names of the state. The names also preserved the memory of the events of Indian life, the names of their leaders and the names of the tribes. Given the fact that the Indian tribes were almost completely exterminated, these names are currently one of the sources for the study of Indian culture and Indian languages \u200b\u200b(for example, Algonquian).
The second largest group is commemorative and memorial names (16%). They, in turn, preserved for posterity the names of many famous people.
During the study, we noticed that the names of cities in the state are quite stable, that is, the reasons for renaming a particular city are extremely rare. This is explained by the fact that most of the names are "neutral" and indicate stable features of the object (location, shape). As for the titles that kept the names famous people, then their stability can be explained, first of all, by the relative "infallibility", "ideality" of persons. That is why the names are interesting, first of all, as a historical source. In the course of their study, facts are revealed that testify to the rich, original culture of the Indians, as well as to the mores and customs of the first settlers who arrived on the new continent in search of a new life and new ideals.
In the course of this study, an attempt was made to analyze the names of geographical objects on the Kola Peninsula and Massachusetts, as well as to consider the structural and semantic features of their formation and functioning, and to identify similarities and differences between them.
The study resulted in the following conclusions:
1. The emergence of toponyms as a whole is historically conditioned. The most ancient inhabitants of the region had to navigate the terrain. served as reference points natural objects, therefore, at the first stage of naming, the role of toponyms was performed by common nouns - geographical terms: river, mountain, lake, in independent use or with definitions. If the object on the ground was presented in the singular, it was enough just to name it. Toponyms of this kind are formed according to a simple, one-component nomination model and are not numerous. Both in the American and in the names of the Kola Peninsula, many geographical terms coincide.
2. Names belonging to different temporal and linguistic strata function in both territories, and the paths of the appearance of the Sami and Baltic-Finnish names of the Kola Peninsula correspond to the appearance of Indian names in Massachusetts.
3. Ways of adaptation of the Saami and Baltic-Finnish names by the Russian-speaking population of the Kola Peninsula correspond to the ways of adaptation of Indian names by the English settlers in the USA. Adaptation could be phonetic, when the receptor formed the name based on its own auditory perception and in accordance with the norms of the native language, or semantic, when the name was translated from the original language into the language of the receptor. However, on the Kola Peninsula, in contrast to Massachusetts, we observe the process of "partial" adaptation, in which a number of hybrid toponyms can be distinguished, the constituent parts of which belong to the vocabulary of different languages. In Massachusetts, we do not observe the mixing of parts of Indian languages and English in the formation of names.
4. In both territories, the following similar types of names can be distinguished:
Descriptive, distinguishing an object (settlement) from a number of others according to the following features: location, distinctive features of the object (size, presence of certain representatives of flora and fauna in a given place, nature of the landscape, soil color, river resources),
Possessive, which are based on anthroponyms that carry the idea of belonging.
5. Descriptive names in both territories are the most numerous. These names are based on features that identify an object that distinguishes it from objects of a given class: shape, color, length, device, dimensions.
6. Unlike the Kola Peninsula, the second largest group of names of settlements in Massachusetts are commemorative, memorial names that have preserved the memory of someone, giving honor to someone. Such a phenomenon does not occur on the Kola Peninsula.
7. The most productive structural naming model in both territories is a complex two-component model, which results in the formation of composite toponyms. These toponyms, as a rule, consist of a determinant indicating the category of the named geographical object and an attribute defining it. This model is more efficient for nomination purposes, as it makes it possible to clearly associate a name with an object.
8. Unlike the Kola Peninsula, most of the names of Massachusetts are transferred to its territory from the settlements of England, that is, they are not original, but, on the contrary, give an indication, a link to another object. On the Kola Peninsula, a similar metonymic transfer takes on the following content: the names of settlements are often identical with the names of the lakes on which these settlements are located.
Thus, contrary to the assertion of George Stewart that the American nomination system differs significantly from the European one, and its methods are inherently unique and unique, we managed to highlight a number of similarities in the two nomination systems and establish a number of typological features common to both territories, characterizing the processes and methods of nomination.
Man gave names to cities and villages; he named mountains and rivers, seas and ranges on the planet. More than that: people came up with names for the planets and stars and "christened" the lifeless lunar landscape. And almost since the first time people began to give names to the rivers and mountains surrounding them, the question arose: why is it so named? What does this or that name mean? Where did these names come from, why did they call them that, what does the word Amur mean? Or Altai? Or the city of Paris? Or the Ebro River in Spain?
The answer to this question is given by science - toponymy, which studies geographical names, their origin, meaning, correct writing, studies thousands and hundreds of thousands of names in tens and hundreds of different languages of the world. Place names are words; albeit with their own characteristics, albeit not bearing such a clear semantic load as ordinary words of the language. And the laws of formation and change of words are studied by linguistics.
But the study of geographical names is just as "blood business" for geographers as it is for linguists. Although the material, the "bricks" of the names are words, but these words have a special service, their main purpose is to give a name to a geographical object, be it a mountain, a river, a city. And therefore, with the help of linguistics alone, the tasks of toponymy cannot be solved.
Very often both the river and the city on the river have the same name. The linguist cannot determine which name was the first: either the city was named after the river, or the river - after the city standing on it. A geographer can answer this question. As a rule, cities and villages receive the names of the rivers on the banks of which they are located, for example, Moscow, Voronezh, Omsk, Tomsk, Ufa, Volgograd. But in Central Asia, on the contrary, the rivers receive the names of cities: the Amu-Darya river is named after the city of Amul; the Yarkand-Darya river through the city of Yarkand, etc.
But neither the linguist nor the geographer can explain why the former St. Petersburg became St. Petersburg, then Petrograd, and then Leningrad; then St. Petersburg again, why the area "Lonely Grave" becomes the "Valley of Oil", why there was a village of Siberia in the Smolensk province, why in the Middle Ages many names of cities and villages were born, formed from the words bridge (Zamostye, Bridges, Pontoise, Bruge, Osnabrück, Alcantar and a number of others), and in our time, when both bridges and new cities appear more often than in the Middle Ages, the names of cities with the basis "bridge" do not appear, why the same river was called at different times Ra- Itil and Volga, why in distant Canada there is a village called Cherry.
These and many other questions of toponymy can be answered not by geography or linguistics, but only by history - the history of society, archaeological excavations, archival materials, annals and scribe books.
So, history, geography, linguistics - all of them are necessary for toponymy; geographical names cannot be learned without their help. But - only help. Toponymy is independent scientific discipline, it has its own methods, its own object of study. In our age, the most interesting problems, the most fascinating branches of knowledge, are born at the intersection of sciences. Cybernetics and the theory of signs, biochemistry and astrophysics, mathematical linguistics and geophysics, psychology and religion... Such complex sciences include the science of geographical names - toponymy - a mixture of geography, history and linguistics.
They lived on the territory of our country, about which historians narrated. Archaeologists have unearthed numerous Scythian burial mounds, thereby confirming the words of ancient scientists. But not only excavations speak of the Scythians. And to this day, traces of the Scythians remain in our lives. These footprints are place names. Don, Donets, Dnieper, Dniester - the names of these rivers go back to the Scythian language and mean "water" and "river".
The Elbe is the name of one of the main German rivers. But the word Elba is not German, it is a converted Slavic Laba - the name of the river was the ancient inhabitants of Northern Germany - the Slavs. And in the mountains of the Czech Republic, where this river originates, to this day it is called by its original and ancient name - Laba.
The name of the capital of France - Paris says that on this place many centuries ago there was a village of the Parisian tribe. The Ebro River in eastern Spain brought to us the oldest name for the whole country - Iberia, formed on behalf of the indigenous inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula, the Iberians.
The word Scotland is derived from the Scottish tribe. And the name of the tribe literal translation means "nomads". “Incomprehensible” for the Russian names of the tributaries of the Oka - Tsna and Smedva, the tributary of the Volga - Zhukon, the tributary of the Moscow River Lusyanka indicate that the ancestors of modern Lithuanians once lived in these territories. The names of the city of Tomsk and the Tom River go back to the language of the Kets and confirm the assumption of scientists that the Kets, who now live in the upper reaches of the Yenisei, used to live in the south of Western Siberia.
Geographical names not only dispassionately tell us about ancient times. Names can and blame. Slave Coast, Slave River, Slave Lake... These names resurrect the terrible past of Africa, which the white colonialists turned into a "reserved hunting field for blacks." "Rich Marina" - Puerto Rico; "Silver" - Argentina. These names were given by the conquerors - the conquistadors to the newly discovered lands of the New World ... And this is how the Indians had to pay for the riches of their native land. In “rich” Costa Rica, they make up less than fifteen hundredths of a percent of the population. And not a single Indian remained on the island of Puerto Rico - already in the 16th century they were inhumanly exterminated by the Spanish colonialists.
The center of New York, the largest city in the world, is located on the island of Manhattan. This word is translated "Where we were deceived", for the island was purchased for nothing by Dutch businessmen from the leaders of the Iroquois.
Geographical names survive centuries and millennia. They outlive those who first coined them, outlive the language in which they were expressed. Majestic palaces and temples collapsed, peoples and languages, cities and states disappeared... And only a fragile word, a weightless word remained to live, being stronger than fortress walls and once mighty empires.
Bit by bit, scientists collect this invaluable material, carefully analyzing it, looking for traces of the distant past in geographical names. And resurrecting it is sometimes even more difficult than deciphering the most complex letter: after all, sometimes geographical names do not form a coherent text at all. And yet, researchers are steadily and patiently doing their job, restoring events and deeds long ago. past days by geographical names.
P.S. Ancient chronicles say: And sometimes, in order to penetrate the history of some geographical names in the East, especially in its Muslim part, it is even necessary to study Arabic, which for a long time was international language the whole East (as now English is international for the whole world). But do not be afraid of the difficulties associated with studying it, because there is an excellent school Oriental languages shid.com.ua, come and study.
place names toponyms, proper names of continents, oceans, seas, currents, rivers, lakes, islands, mountains, sands, swamps, tracts, countries, cities, villages, streets, farms, and all other geographical objects on the surface of the Earth. G.'s sum n. (toponymy) forms a system or a set of features and characteristics that regularly repeat in the process of the formation of toponymy and its modern, relatively stable state. Such a system in different countries of the world is always of different ages and different languages, because reflects the historical conditions of countries and the languages of the peoples inhabiting and inhabiting them. G. n. often repeated, forming rows characteristic of a particular era. So, in the USSR, several cities and towns have the names Komsomolsk, Pervomaisky, Oktyabrsky, etc. The following names can serve as examples of multilingual G. n., but having almost the same content, the following names: Russian Novgorod, Italian Naples, Tajik Novabad, English Newcastle, Turkic Dzhangy-Shaar, etc. Among G. n. hydronyms stand out - G. n. rivers, lakes, oceans, etc., forming on the whole the most conservative group with the greatest stability; oronyms - names of mountains, ranges, peaks, hills; oikonyms - names of populated places, etc. However, this classification is not yet generally accepted. It is not clear, for example, where to attribute the G. of ravines, beams, sais, and other forms of erosional relief to oronyms or hydronyms, as well as the names of swamps, etc. Microtoponyms are also distinguished, i.e. G. n. small objects: lands, tracts, hayfields, pastures, sinkholes, cutting areas, burnt areas, pastures, wells, springs, whirlpools, rapids, etc. This group G. n. diverse in composition, it is united by the limited and narrow local popularity of such names only among local residents. The original meaning of the toponym in some cases is revealed easily, in others significant efforts are required to understand it, in the third, with the current level of knowledge, the origin of the toponym remains a mystery. G. n. are basically folk art. They reflect geographical conditions, history, economy, politics, languages, culture and civilization. Therefore, G.'s study of n. is great interest for linguists, geographers, historians, ethnographers. For practice, the problem of stabilizing G. N., the principles of their transfer from language to language, is very essential. Systematic study of toponymy in the second half of the 20th century. developed in many countries around the world. A branch of knowledge that studies G. n. has stood out - Toponymy. Lit.: Zhuchkevich V. A., General toponymy, 2nd ed., Minsk, 1968; Murzaev E. M., The origin of geographical names, in the book: Soviet geography. Results and tasks, M., 1960; Nikonov V. A., Introduction to toponymy, M., 1965; his own, Brief Toponymic Dictionary, M., 1966; Pospelov E. M., Toponymy and cartography, M., 1971. E. M. Murzaev.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
See what "Geographical names" are in other dictionaries:
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Applications - geographical names- 1. The names of cities expressed by a declining noun, as a rule, agree in case with the word being defined, for example: in the city of Moscow, near the city of Smolensk, above the city of Saratov. The same with foreign names: in the city ... ... A guide to spelling and style
1) Department of the South American Republic of Uruguay, 5682 sq. km with 34154 inhabitants, including many Europeans; main occupation: agriculture and animal husbandry. The soil is partly very fertile and well cultivated. 2) C. del Sacramento chief ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
Name Year of assignment Elisavetgrad 1784 Zinovievsk 1924 Kirovo 1934 Kirovograd 1939 Throughout its history, Kirovograd changed its name several times due to significant historical changes that took place on ... ... Wikipedia
Scientific reference publications containing a systematic set of geographical knowledge. G. e. give a description of objects of regional geography (continents, countries, regions, settlements, mountains, oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
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Books
- Geographical names of the Chuvash Republic Dictionary of local lore, Dubanov I .. Why is one of the lakes in the Krasnoarmeisky district called Pugachevo? Where did the names come from, which today have become objects of jokes, such as Algashi, Konary, Khachiki ... The banks of the river Hirli Sirma ...
toponyms, proper names of continents, oceans, seas, currents, rivers, lakes, islands, mountains, sands, swamps, tracts, countries, cities, villages, streets, farms, and all other geographical objects on the surface of the Earth. G.'s sum n. (toponymy) forms a system or a set of features and characteristics that regularly repeat in the process of the formation of toponymy and its modern, relatively stable state. Such a system in different countries of the world is always of different ages and different languages, because reflects the historical conditions of countries and the languages of the peoples inhabiting and inhabiting them. G. n. often repeated, forming rows characteristic of a particular era. So, in the USSR, several cities and towns have the names Komsomolsk, Pervomaisky, Oktyabrsky, etc. Examples of multilingual G. n., but with almost the same content, are the following names: Russian Novgorod, Italian Naples, Tajik Novabad, English Newcastle, Turkic Dzhangy-Shaar, etc.
Among G. n. hydronyms stand out - G. n. rivers, lakes, oceans, etc., forming on the whole the most conservative group with the greatest stability; oronyms - names of mountains, ranges, peaks, hills; oikonyms - names of populated places, etc. However, this classification is not yet generally accepted. It is not clear, for example, where to attribute the G. of ravines, beams, sais, and other forms of erosional relief to oronyms or hydronyms, as well as the names of swamps, etc. Microtoponyms are also distinguished, i.e. G. n. small objects: lands, tracts, hayfields, pastures, sinkholes, cutting areas, burnt areas, pastures, wells, springs, whirlpools, rapids, etc. This group G. n. diverse in composition, it is united by the limited and narrow local popularity of such names only among local residents.
The original meaning of the toponym in some cases is revealed easily, in others significant efforts are required to understand it, in the third, with the current level of knowledge, the origin of the toponym remains a mystery. G. n. are basically folk art. They reflect geographical conditions, history, economy, politics, languages, culture and civilization. Therefore, G.'s study of n. is of great interest to linguists, geographers, historians, ethnographers. For practice, the problem of stabilizing G. N., the principles of their transfer from language to language, is very essential. Systematic study of toponymy in the second half of the 20th century. developed in many countries around the world. The branch of knowledge that studies G. n. - Toponymy has stood out.
Lit.: Zhuchkevich V. A., General toponymy, 2nd ed., Minsk, 1968; Murzaev E. M., The origin of geographical names, in the book: Soviet geography. Results and tasks, M., 1960; Nikonov V. A., Introduction to toponymy, M., 1965; his own, Brief Toponymic Dictionary, M., 1966; Pospelov E. M., Toponymy and cartography, M., 1971.
E. M. Murzaev.
"Geographic names" in books
From the book Childhood of Alexander Pushkin author Egorova Elena NikolaevnaMentioned geographical names Belkino, the estate of the Counts Buturlins in the Kaluga province, now on the territory of the city of Obninsk.
Place names mentioned
From the book Notes of a Dragoon Officer. Diaries 1919-1920 author Stolypin Arkady AlexandrovichMentioned geographical names Adzhimushkay (Adzhim-ushkay), a village within the city of Kerch, in the area of \u200b\u200bwhich there are extensive underground quarries, where limestone-shell rock has long been mined for construction purposes. Ak-Manai was the name of the village of Kamenskoye until 1945,
Place names mentioned
From the book Our beloved Pushkin author Egorova Elena NikolaevnaMentioned geographical names Admiralty part, an area in the center of St. Petersburg in the Admiralty area. Austria, a state in the center of Europe, in 1804–1867 - the Austrian Empire. Belgium, a state in Northwestern Europe that received
1.4. How and when did geographical names multiply?
From the author's book1.4. How and when geographical names multiplied The above example of Galicia is far from the only one. A lot of them. In particular, we will give a large number of examples of this kind at the end of this book. Today, this effect is more and more flattened and faded.
From the book How it really was. Reconstruction of true history author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich39. When geographical names "froze"
From the author's book39. When geographic names "froze" Many geographical names have significantly changed their meaning over time. Therefore, it is impossible, for example, to speak simply of the "city of Rome." It is necessary to speak of "the city of Rome in such and such a century." This will change significantly
From the book The Complete Encyclopedia of Our Delusions authorPlace names - misunderstandings
From The Complete Illustrated Encyclopedia of Our Delusions [with transparent pictures] author Mazurkevich Sergey AlexandrovichMisunderstanding geographical names There are many misunderstanding names on the geographical maps of the world. They appeared because of certain misconceptions of the discoverers. Here are a few examples. Central America there is a small republic, the name
place names
From the book Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation. Complete Academic Handbook author Lopatin Vladimir VladimirovichGeographical names § 125. They are written together: 1. Names with second parts? city, ?grad, ?dar, ?burg, for example: Zvenigorod, Belgorod, Ivangorod, Kaliningrad, Volgograd, Krasnodar, Yekaterinburg (but: Kitay-gorod).2. Names with the first parts Old-, Upper-, Lower-, Middle-, Near-,
§ 197 Applications - geographical names
From the book Spelling and Style Guide author Rosenthal Ditmar Elyashevich§ 197. Applications - geographical names 1. The names of cities expressed by a declining noun, as a rule, agree in case with the word being defined, for example: in the city of Moscow, near the city of Smolensk, above the city of Saratov. The same with foreign names: in the city
§ 197. Applications - geographical names
From the book A Guide to Spelling, Pronunciation, Literary Editing author Rosenthal Ditmar Elyashevich§ 197. Applications - geographical names 1. The names of cities, villages, villages, towns, estates, expressed by a declining noun, as a rule, agree in case with the word being defined, for example: in the city of Moscow, near the city of Smolensk, over the city of Saratov; to the village
Place names - misunderstandings
From the book The Complete Illustrated Encyclopedia of Our Delusions [with illustrations] author Mazurkevich Sergey AlexandrovichMisunderstanding geographical names There are many misunderstanding names on the geographical maps of the world. They appeared because of certain misconceptions of the discoverers. Here are a few examples. There is a small republic in Central America, the name
place names
From the book Big Soviet Encyclopedia(GE) of the author TSBplace names
From the book Guide to the translation of proper names from The Lord of the Rings author Tolkien John Ronald ReuelXII. Cities, place names
From the Islamic book encyclopedic Dictionary author Alizade Aydin ArifXII. Cities, geographical names Medina Mecca Quds (Jerusalem) Cuba (suburb of Medina) Iram Zat al-Imad (multi-column Iram) Badr - the name of the area between Mecca and Medina, where in the 2nd year of the Hijri the first major battle took place between pagans and MuslimsUhud -