Oceans, seas, currents, rivers, lakes, islands, mountains, sands, swamps, tracts, countries, cities, villages, streets, farms, and all other geographical objects on Earth. The sum of Geographical names (toponymy) forms a system or set of features and characteristics that regularly repeat in the process of the formation of toponymy and its modern relatively stable. Such a different countries the world is always multi-age and multi-lingual, because reflects the historical conditions of countries and the languages of the peoples inhabiting and inhabiting them. Geographical names are often repeated, forming rows characteristic of a particular era. So, in several cities and towns they have the name Komsomolsk, Pervomaisky, Oktyabrsky, etc. The following names can serve as examples of geographic names in different languages, but having almost the same content: Russian, Italian Naples, Tajik Novabad, English Newcastle, Turkic Dzhangy-Shaar, and so on.
Among Geographical names stand out - Geographical names of rivers, lakes, oceans, etc., forming on the whole the most conservative group with the greatest stability; oronyms - names of mountains, ranges, peaks, hills; oikonyms - names of populated places, etc. However, this classification is not yet generally accepted. It is not clear, for example, where to attribute the G. of ravines, beams, sais, and other forms of erosional relief to oronyms or hydronyms, as well as the names of swamps, etc. Microtoponyms are also distinguished, i.e. Geographical names of small objects: lands, tracts, pastures, sinkholes, burnt areas, wells, springs, whirlpools, rapids, etc. This group of Geographical names is diverse in composition; it is united by the limited and narrow local popularity of such names only among local residents.
In some cases, the original toponym is revealed easily, in others significant efforts are required to understand it, in the third, with the current level of knowledge, the origin of the toponym remains a mystery. Geographical names are basically folk. They reflect geographical conditions, languages, and. Therefore, the study of geographical names is great for linguists, geographers, historians, ethnographers. For the stabilization of geographical names, their principles from language to language are very essential. Systematic study of toponymy in the second half of the 20th century. developed in many countries around the world. The branch of knowledge that studies Geographical names has stood out -
Sections: Geography
Class: 7
INTRODUCTION
The dictionary is the first experience of compiling a dictionary of physical geography, aimed at teachers and students of the basic school.
The dictionary contains 167 geographical names found in the course of studying the geography of continents and oceans in grade 7.
Explanation of the meaning and origin of some geographical names enlivens the work and increases students' interest in the subject, broadens their horizons.
The structure of the dictionary consists of 6 sections. The fifth section consists of two subsections. Within the sections, the words are arranged in alphabetical order. The sixth section contains a table of the most commonly used terms and adjectives that are part of geographical names, which include these terms and adjectives in different languages.
Foreign words in the etymological reference are typed in Latin letters, if these words belong to languages using Latin script.
Greek words are also typed in Latin letters. For example: geography(from Greek . ge– earth and graphics- writing).
Words borrowed from languages that do not use the Latin alphabet are transmitted in Russian letters in accordance with the rules of transcription. For example, azimuth(from Arabic-as-simut - path, direction).
In the dictionary, along with generally accepted abbreviations (for example, etc., etc.), abbreviations of the words that make up the title of the article are also used if they are repeated in the text (for example, in the article Absolute height - A.V.).
The work includes the basic concepts and names of geographical objects on the physical geography of continents and oceans.
Geographical names in the study of geography are the Achilles' heel, since they have to be acquired, relying only on memory. Greatly facilitates the memorization of geographical names using place names- a science dedicated to their study, especially since many names have a geographical meaning. In addition, it increases the interest of students, enlivens teaching.
But the use of toponymic material indiscriminately can only burden the memory of students, because. it is necessary to make numerous translations from various languages. To avoid this, it is necessary to bring the toponymic material, if possible, into a certain system. This can be done, for example, by looking at geographical names, containing the most common terms and adjectives in their composition, such as mountain, river, lake, big, white, black, red, yellow, etc.
The dictionary is intended for students and teachers studying and working in the 7th grade of secondary school.
Section 1. Common geographical names.
Wadis - dry river beds found in the deserts of North Africa, which are filled with water after heavy rare rains.
Altitudinal zonality is a natural change in natural zones in the mountains with an increase in altitude above sea level. It is mainly associated with a decrease in heat and a change in the amount of precipitation. It is expressed in changes in climate, soils and vegetation cover with height.
Water masses are large volumes of water that form in certain parts of the ocean and differ from each other in temperature, salinity, density, transparency, amount of oxygen, and the presence of certain living organisms. In the ocean, surface, intermediate, deep, and bottom water masses are distinguished. In surface water masses up to a depth of 200 m, subtypes are distinguished: equatorial, tropical, temperate and polar waters.
Air masses are large volumes of air in the troposphere, which have uniform properties: temperature, humidity, direction of movement, and other features. There are arctic, antarctic, temperate, tropical and equatorial air masses with their division into marine and continental subtypes (except for the antarctic and equatorial).
A hypothesis is a scientifically based assumption put forward to explain some phenomena and requiring verification by experience and confirmation by facts in order to become a reliable scientific theory.
Geyser - (Icelandic . geyser – "hot") - a hot spring of volcanic origin.
The geographic shell is the shell of the Earth, within which the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper parts of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and biosphere mutually penetrate and interact.
Western winds are constant winds of temperate latitudes blowing between the subtropical zone of high pressure and 60-65 * s. and y.sh. Characteristic is the predominance of westerly winds throughout the troposphere.
The reserve is one of the forms of nature protection, which serves to preserve in the natural state the entire natural complex of the territory or water area - the standards of untouched nature, valuable in scientific and educational terms, forever withdrawn from traditional economic use.
Geographic zonality - a consistent and definite change in geographical zones and zones, due mainly to the distribution of solar energy over latitudes (decreases from the equator to the poles).
A natural zone is a large natural complex with a common temperature and moisture conditions, soils, vegetation and wildlife.
Isotherms (from the Greek .isos – equal, terme– warmly ) are lines connecting points with the same temperature.
Rubber - ancient Indian - "tears of a tree"
Climatic belt (zone) - latitudinal or sublatitudinal bands of the earth's surface, characterized by solar radiation, as well as features of the general circulation of the atmosphere. There are 13 climatic zones on Earth: arctic, antarctic, subarctic, subantarctic, 2 temperate, 2 subtropical, 2 tropical, 2 subequatorial, equatorial.
Creeks are a network of temporary drying rivers that are characteristic of the interior desert and semi-desert regions of Australia.
Rubber is the milky sap (latex) of rubber plants. Almost all natural rubber is obtained from the latex of Hevea brasiliensis. Extracted by undercutting, it contains 34-37% rubber; a five-year-old hevea tree produces 2-3 kg of rubber per year. From ancient Indian rubber means "tears of a tree"
Lithospheric plate - according to the theory of lithospheric plates, the earth's crust, together with part of the upper mantle, is not a monolithic shell of the planet, but consists of several very large blocks (plates) with a thickness of 60 to 100 km.
Continents (continents) (from lat .continents- mainland ) - a large massif of the earth's crust, most of the surface of which protrudes above the level
The oceans are in the form of land, and the marginal parts are submerged under the ocean level.
Monsoon (from the French. mouse, Arab. mausim – season ) - a kind of sustainable air transport over certain areas of the Earth with a change from winter to summer. The winter monsoon is directed from the land to the ocean, and the summer monsoon is from the ocean to the land. Monsoons are caused by differences in the heating of the continents and oceans.
Oasis - 1) a vegetated and usually populated area in deserts or semi-deserts, confined to rivers or areas with a close occurrence of fresh groundwater, as well as artificially irrigated from artesian wells or canals laid from rivers and reservoirs;
2) a piece of land on the outskirts of Antarctica, free from continental ice.
Ocean - a part of the World Ocean, a huge depression filled with water, bounded by continents.
An island is a small piece of land surrounded by water on all sides. There are single islands in the form of a chain (ridge), groups of islands in a chaotic order (archipelagos). By origin, there are mainland islands (former parts of the mainland, now separated by straits), volcanic (underwater volcanoes that have emerged from under the ocean level) and coral (buildings of marine animals of coral polyps).
pampas, pampas “grassy, flat spaces” - flat areas with a predominance of grassy vegetation in South America. Actually P. is called a natural subtropical region in Argentina - cereal-forb steppe, now almost completely plowed.
trade winds (from him . pasaat)- stable (throughout the whole year) transfer of air masses between the subtropical area of high pressure (25-30 * N and south latitude) and the equator.
Platform - ancient relatively stable and leveled areas of the earth's surface, which lie at the base of modern continents and formed in the distant geological past.
A natural complex is a section of the earth's surface, which is distinguished by the features of natural components that are in complex interaction.
A natural zone is a large natural complex with a common temperature and moisture conditions, soils, vegetation and wildlife.
Reservation (lat. reserve keep ) - territories set aside for the forced settlement of indigenous people (Indians in the USA and Canada, Africans in South Africa, Australian Aborigines).
Relief - a set of irregularities of the earth's surface, differing in size, origin and age.
Savannah - Spanish "sabana", which means “wild primeval plain".
Samum (arab. "poisoned wind" ) is the name of a dry hot wind in the deserts of Arabia and North Africa. It has the character of a squall with a strong sandstorm, sometimes with a thunderstorm.
Selva is a humid equatorial evergreen forest in the Amazonian lowland and on the slopes of the Andes.
Scrub, scrub, scrub - huge dense thickets of xerophytic (up to 2 m high), mainly evergreen shrubs (eucalyptus, acacia) in arid regions of Australia, almost devoid of rivers and lakes.
A typhoon is a tropical cyclone that has reached the strength of a hurricane or storm. From Chinese - "very strong wind" .
Tornado (Spanish) . “twisting” ) is a strong atmospheric vortex (tornado) that occurs in the United States in the summer (especially often in the south of the Great Plains).
Chukchi - a people living in the north of Eurasia, people "rich in deer".
Section 2. Continents and oceans.
America. In 1402, believing that he was right, H. Columbus rushed to the shores of India at full sail. Columbus made four voyages to the shores of America, discovered many islands, and in 1498 entered the mainland. It became clear that new lands unknown to Europeans were discovered. However, the idea of their existence was first expressed by Amerigo Ves-pucci, who took part in two expeditions (1499-1504) to open lands. An inquisitive and observant person, he compiled the first description of the new lands,
his travel letters gained great fame in Europe, and the discovered New World was named after him.
Australia is a continent located in the southern hemisphere, from the Latin "southern".
Antarctica is a continent located in the southern hemisphere, beyond the southern polar circle. The name of the continent comes from the Greek word "anti" - against , i.e. the area lying opposite the northern polar region of the globe - the Arctic.
The Arctic is the northern polar region of the globe, including the Arctic Ocean with its seas and islands, the adjacent parts of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, as well as the margins of the continents of Eurasia and North America. The name comes from the Greek "arktos" - "bear"; a country lying under the constellation Ursa Major in the Far North.
Africa is the second largest continent on the planet. The origin of its name is interpreted in different ways:
1) lat. africus - “frostless, not knowing the cold”;
2) so the Romans called a small tribe that lived south of Tunisia, and its location - "Africa".
Europe is part of the world. The word is so ancient that it is extremely difficult to trace its origins. The name may have come from the Semitic "Erebus" or "irib", which means "west" or from Phoenician "Erep" – sunset; sunset .Another version: in ancient Greece, the word "Erebos" meant darkness, darkness, the underworld of the dead. Europe is part of the world, the western part of the Eurasian continent. According to legend, the Greek father of the gods, Zeus, stole the beautiful Europa from Phoenicia, took her to Crete and conceived several children with her here.
Aral Sea - from the Turkic Aral, what does it mean in translation "Island". So first on-
called the area at the mouth of the Amu Darya.
Sea of Azov - in Arabic Bar-el-Azov – "dark blue sea"
Antilles from the Greek word "anti" - "against", "ahead", "against the mainland"
The Azores are ten large and several small, mostly uninhabited islands. The thick veil of fog that now and then shrouds the Azores has become a kind of symbol of the archipelago, another, less well-known name that sounds like “Ilyas de Bruma” (foggy islands).
Alaska is a peninsula in the northwest of the North American continent. From the Aleutian alyakhas, means "big land".
Bay of Bengal - from the Hindu word bangala, What means “dwelling of the Banga”; (Bangi are the ancient inhabitants of the coast).
Bosphorus Strait (Greek) - "cow ford". According to Greek mythology, the beautiful Io, turned by the wife of Zeus, the goddess Hera, into a cow, pursued by a gadfly, fled from Greece and swam across the Bosphorus.
Bab el-Mandeb, connecting the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden – "gate of tears"
Greenland is an island "green country" (in Danish), discovered in Hv by the Norman Vikings.
Hudson Bay is named after the English explorer Hudson, who discovered the bay in 1610.
California is a peninsula on the west coast of North America. Denotes "hot horn" because In summer, the air temperature is very high here.
The Caspian Lake-Sea is part of the former vast sea. The name of the sea is connected with the name of the one who lived on its shores in the first millennium BC. people Caspian.
Kuril Islands - from the word "hens" which means "Human".
The Caribbean Sea is named after the Carib Indians who lived on the seashore.
The name Red Sea comes from the name of a seaweed, which actually has a bluish color, however, when it dies, it becomes bright blue.
Labrador Peninsula - "farmer" (Portuguese).
In 1003 Viking expedition Torfini Karlefni sailed along the coast of Greenland, then the coast disappeared in the sea mist. The ships went south to the open sea. The sea was deserted, only in the distance could be seen fountains released by whales. Finally, the sailors saw a blue stripe on the horizon. It was the current Labrador. The high bank was covered with rocks. Sailors named this country helluand – "country of flat stones".
“Land of slaves”, because after its opening in 1501. The Portuguese forced the Indians to work for themselves and turned them into slaves.
Madeira - an island in Portugal - "wine island" In XYv. The famous Portuguese traveler Henry the Navigator planted Malvasian grapes brought from Crete in Madeira. So the grapes went into exile in Madeira.
The Gulf of Mexico - its name is associated with the state of Mexico, which in turn is named after the Aztec god of war - Mehitli.
Newfoundland - from English. - "rediscovered land." In 1003 the Viking ships Torfini Karlefni sailed further south from Labrador. Two days later, a new land opened up before the travelers. The indented coast was covered with coniferous forest. Thorfinn named this land Markland - "forest country".
Svalbard (Dutch) islands of the Arctic Ocean - "jagged mountains".
Florida peninsula North. America - "flowering" (Spanish).
Aegean Sea (Greek) - "exciting".
Yucatan peninsula Sev. America - in the language of local Indians means “we you we do not understand" (this is how the inhabitants of this peninsula answered the first Europeans who asked “what is the name of this land?”)
Section 3. Relief.
Alps - mountains in Europe - "high", "mountain".
Apennine mountains in Europe - from the word Pen - "top".
Altai - mountains in Asia - from Mongolian "golden mountains"
Andes - the mountains of South America - in the language of the local inhabitants of the Incas - “copper”, “copper mountains”.
Atacama, the desert of South America - "desert area".
Balkans - mountains in Europe on the Balkan Peninsula - from Turkish "mountain".
Vesuvius, a volcano on the Apennine Peninsula - "smoking mountain".
Gobi desert Central Asia– from Mongolian – "desert".
Himalayas - Asian mountains - "home of the snows"
Decan, a plateau on the Hindustan Peninsula - from the Sanskrit word dakishna "south".
Chomolungma (Everest) - the highest land point in the Himalayas - "mother gods of the earth.
Kalahari, African desert "thirsty" and translated from the Bandu language means "a large area devoid of water."
Cordillera - the mountains of the North. America - from Spanish - cord, chain.
Cotopaxi - a volcano in South America - "Glittering Mountain"
Kilimanjaro - a mountain-volcano in Africa - in the language of Negro Swahili the name of this volcano kilimangara means "Shining Mountain"
Kunlun - the mountains of Central Asia - from Chinese "onion mountains" because separate slopes of the ridges are overgrown with wild onions.
Mesopotamian lowland in Asia from Greek means "interfluve".
Pamir - Asian mountains - "roof of the world".
Pyrenees - European mountains - in the language of the locals (Basques) pyrene - "mountain".
Sahara - African desert - "desert".
Tien Shan - Asian mountains - the name of Chinese origin. Tien- "sky" and shan– "the mountains", those. "heavenly mountains".
Elbrus - the highest point of the Caucasus Mountains - means "brilliant mountain"
Section 4. Internal waters.
Amazon South American river – “ stormy onslaught of water clouds.
Amu Darya - a river in Central Asia - “river of the city of Amu; Amu is an ancient city on the banks of the river.”
Balkhash, lake - from Kazakh – “elongated marsh space”; the lake is swamped off the coast.
Volga, river - in the language of the ancient Slavic tribes means "bright", "sacred".
Huron is a North American lake named after an Indian tribe.
Yenisei - pronounced in Evenki "ioanesi", What means "big river"
Zambezi - African river - in the language of local blacks - "great river"
Issyk - Kul, lake - "warm lake"
Indus, river - Sanskrit name, translated - "father of rivers"
Lena, river - the name is derived from the Yakut "eluena", What means "river".
La – Payment, the river of South America - "Silver River"
Colorado, Sev. America means in Spanish “variegated, colorful”; "red river".
Mississippi - “great river”, “father of waters” in the language of the Alconquin Indians.
Missouri - American River – "fat dirty".
Michigan, lake - from the language of the Chipewa Indian tribe - "big lake"
Niger - African river - from Latin - “black”, “river in the country of black people”.
Niagara, North American river, waterfall. In the language of the local Iroquois Indians, it sounds like “no-a-ka-ra” and means "thunder of water".
Ob, river - in the Komi language means "aunt" and "grandmother".
Ontario is one of the North American Great Lakes "beautiful lake"
Orinoco, North American River - "river".
Pechora, river - from the word cave - "river of caves"
Parana, river "cousin of the sea"
Northern Dvina, river - from the Finnish word veena – "quiet".
The Seine is one of the great rivers of France. Its name, translated from the Gaulish language, denotes "silent river"
Syrdarya, the river of Central Asia - from Tajik and Uzbek - "full river"
Tanganyika, African lake - "collection of waters."
Thames - a river in England - the name of the river was given by Caesar. The name of the river comes from the Celtic word there, What means "expanding".
Titicaca, a lake in South America - in the Inca language means "lead rock"
Chad lake in Africa - "water".
Erie, one of the North American Great Lakes - named after the Indian tribes (erie - "cats").
Yangtze river in Asia "son of the ocean" The Chinese call it Dajiang, What means "great river" or Changjiang, those. "long river".
All in. America is a lake with one of the longest names. This name has 42 letters: CHARGOGGAGOGGMANCHAUGGOGOGGCHAUBUNAGOOGAMAUGG.
Section 5. Political map.
Section 5.1. States.
Australia is the only state on our planet that occupies an entire continent. It is located on the mainland of the same name in the eastern and southern hemispheres at the junction of the Pacific and Indian oceans. August 22, 1770 Cook landed on a small island in the Torres Strait and brought the entire east coast of New Holland, which he called New South Wales, into the possession of the British crown. Thus ended the discovery of the fifth continent of the Earth - Australia, which in Latin means "southern".
Austria is located in the center of Europe. November 1, 996 Holy Roman Emperor Otto111 in a modest deed of gift mentioned a certain frontier region in the southeast, which he called "Ostarihi", which meant "eastern country, empire".
Argentina, located in the south of the continent of South America, is one of the largest countries in Latin America. The desire of Europeans to possess enormous wealth, which is allegedly hidden in the name of the state itself: "argentum" translated from Latin means "silver". However, the country has never had precious metals.
Bolivia is a South American state. The people themselves call their country "roof of the world" since most of its territory is located high in the mountains. The country is named after the leader of the liberation movement against the mother country.
Brazil is the largest state in South America. The country got its name from the name of a tree with beautiful, red wood. – pau-brazil .
Vietnam is a state in South East Asia on the Indochina peninsula. Translated from Vietnamese - "Country of the South" The natural attractions of Vietnam include the bay halong, which means in translation “Bay of the Landing Dragon”; the Vietnamese call it the eighth wonder of the world: in the sea space of 1500 sq. km there are about 1600 islands and rocks of the most bizarre shapes, which have no less “bizarre” names - “vase for incense sticks”, “stone frog”, “old man - angler”, “fighting cocks” and etc.
Venezuela is a state located in the north of South America. In 1498 When H. Columbus first saw Venezuela, he could not resist admiration. Spacious beaches fringed with palm groves. A year later, Amerigo Vespucci set foot on these shores. The stakes he saw on Lake Maracaibo reminded him of hometown, and he christened the country Venezuela, which in Italian means “ little Venice” .
Haiti - a state in the West Indies, occupies the western third of the island of Haiti (Hispanyolca). Translated into Russian means "mountainous island"
Honduras is a state located in the south of the North American continent. The name of the state is translated as "depth".
Greenland - from Danish – “green country” - opened in Xv. Norman Vikings. This is a large island of the Arctic archipelago.
Ireland is a state located in the West. Europe and occupies five-sixths of the island of Ireland. Country of Irovs; the Irish call their island erin, those. West ; from the word Erin came the name of the tribe - Iry.
Iceland is a country located on the island of the same name. Translated from Icelandic - "ice country".
China - "Zhongguo" , so the Chinese call their country, in translation means "middle state" . The inhabitants of ancient China considered their homeland the center of the Universe. The Chinese have called themselves "Han" since the ancient Han Dynasty. In Russian, the word “China” came from the name of the Khitan people, who once lived in the northwestern regions of the country.
Korea is a state located in s-in Asia, in the southern part of the Korean peninsula. in Korean Chiosen - "Land of the Morning Calm"
Canada is the second largest country in the world, located in the northern part of the North. America and the numerous adjacent islands. Indian word meaning "village".
Kenya is an African state. Named after Mount Kenya, which means: the place where the ostrich lives.
Morocco is a state on the extreme northwest of the African continent. From the Arabic "Morocia", which means "decoration".
Mexico is a state in North America, located in South America. The country is known throughout the world as the cradle of ancient Indian civilizations: the Mayans, Toltecs and Aztecs inhabited these places until the Spanish colonizers invaded there. The name is associated with the name of the Aztec god of war Mehitli.
Nicaragua is a country in Central America. Its name is associated with the name of the local leader.
Norway - a Western European state occupies the western and northern parts of the Scandinavian Peninsula. From Old Norse means "northern way"
New Zealand is an island nation in the southwest Pacific Ocean, located on the South and North Islands, separated by the Cook Strait, and small offshore islands. The name of the country comes from the name of the Dutch province of Zeeland, where the discoverer of New Zealand Abel Tasman was from.
Poland is a state in Central Europe. The name of the state comes from the Slavic word "field", those . flat, smooth place.
Tripoli is an African state , "country of three cities".
Finland is a state in the North. Europe. Suomi in Finnish means "swamp", "swamp".
Chile stretches like a narrow ribbon almost along the entire Pacific coast of the South American continent. Translated from the local dialect - "It's cold there".
Scotland is a European country "country of nomads".
Switzerland is one of the small states in Europe. The name of the state comes from the ancient German word Svay-Kings, which means "cattle breeding".
Ethiopia - an African state - translated from Greek – "a country of people with sun-scorched faces."
Jamaica is an island nation in the Antilles. The name of the country comes from the language of the Arawak Indians. At the beginning of the XV111 century. Jamaica has become a real pirate nest. The British gave them shelter on the island on the condition that the pirates would only attack Spanish ships.
Japan - in Japanese Dai Nippon, What means “great land of the rising sun”
Section 5.2. Major cities of the world.
Addis - Ababa - the capital of Ethiopia (Africa) - "new flower"
Amsterdam is the capital of the Netherlands. “Dam” in Dutch is dam, and this word is included in the names of many cities and towns. Translated as "Dam at the river Amstel".
Barcelona is a Spanish city where a monument to Columbus was erected.
Bombay is a city in India - the name of the city comes from the name of the goddess Mumba.
Buenos Aires is the capital of Argentina (South America). In Spanish it means "good air" which really corresponds to the climatic features of the area.
Vienna is the capital of Austria (Europe). In Latin it means "city of crowns" (the Viennese are a Slavic tribe).
Jakarta is the main city of Java. Its name translates as “wonderful fortress” .
Salzburg is the second largest city in Austria, the birthplace of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Salt hail, translated from German, arose not far from the rock salt deposit.
Kolkata - Big City India. In Hindu it means "home of the goddess Kali".
Copenhagen is the capital of Denmark. In Danish it means "trading haven".
Madrid is the capital of Spain (Europe). In ancient times, the territory of Spain was inhabited by the Iberian tribes. The Arabs, who seized the Spanish lands at the beginning of the 111th century, built their fortress on the site of the Iberian village of Matritem. The old name given to this place by the Iberamis was pronounced by the Moors as “Majirit”. The Spaniards, who took the Moorish fortress at the end of the 11th century. (1083), began to call the conquered region in their own way. From this bizarre mixture of different pronunciations - Iberian, Arabic and Spanish - arose the current name of the city, Madrid.
Montevideo is the capital of Uruguay. In local language it means "I see the earth."
Ottawa is the capital of Canada. The first settlers at this place were an Indian tribe. "Ottawa", the city and the river on which it was built were named after this tribe.
Oslo is the capital of Norway. There is a Viking ship museum here.
Beijing is the capital of China (Asia). Translated from Chinese - "northern capital".
Puerto Rico is an island nation in the Antilles. The name means - “rich port”.
Pyongyang is the capital of North Korea. In ancient times this city was called Goguryeo– "City of Yves". Weeping willows, which are found everywhere in the city, add color inherent only to this city.
Prague is the capital of the Czech Republic. At the place where the city is located, on the Laba River, its tributary Vltava was the threshold "Prag" hence the name of the city.
Rabat is the capital of Morocco (Africa). In translation means "fortified monastery" - one of the major centers of Arab culture and education.
Rio de Janeiro is a major city in Brazil - translated into Russian means "January River"
Rome - the capital of Italy - one of the most ancient cities in Europe; it originated over 2700 years ago on the Palatine Hill. According to legend, the twins Romulus and Remus were fed by a she-wolf on the slopes of this hill. Romulus founded a city on a hill, named after him - in Italian, Rome is pronounced "roma".
Reykjavik - the capital of Iceland - the name translates "smoking bay".
Rotterdam is a city in the Netherlands. “Dam” in Dutch is dam, and this word is included in the names of many cities and towns. Translated as "dam by the river" Rotterdam - Dam on the River Rott.
Singapore is a city in Malaysia - the name is Sanskrit - Singa Pura - means "lion city"
Sydney is Australia's second largest city and port. On January 26, 1788, the first British landed. The city is named after the British Home Secretary, Lord Sydney.
Khartoum is the capital of Sudan (Africa). From Arabic - "trunk", because The peninsula, formed at the confluence of the White and Blue Nile, where the city is located, resembles an elephant's trunk.
Section 6. Table of toponyms.
Table of toponymic names found in the course of studying physical geography.
| Russian | English | Spanish | Turkic | Chinese | Arab |
| mountain | mount | Monte | doug, tau | shan | jebel |
| river | river | rio | su | heh, chiang | nahr, bahr |
| lake | lake | lago | sack | hu | fringe |
| large | big, great | grande | ulu | yes, thai | kebir |
| white | byte | blanco | ak | buy | abyad, libnan |
| black | black | Negro | Kara | hey | Sudan |
| Red Yellow | red yellow | colorado amarillo | kyzyl sara | hong huang | ahmar asfar |
Mountain (mountains, ranges):
Kopet-Dag - "Multimountain"; Tersey-Alatau and Kungei-Alatau- Alatoo is more correct here - "Motley Mountains" in Central Asia.
Altyn-Tag - "Golden Mountains"; Nanshan b - “southern mountains” in Central Asia.
Yamantau - "Bad Mountain" as being surrounded by wetlands, which is why it is named so - the peak of the Southern Urals.
Chatyr-Dag - "Tent-mountain", as having a quadrangular shape - one of the peaks of the Crimean mountains.
Mont Blanc - "White Mountain" in French and Monte Rosa, in Italian - the main peaks in the Alps.
Montevideo - "The mountain is visible" is the capital of Uruguay.
Montana and Vermont– "Green Mountains" - US states.
Green River - "Green River"; Red River, Rio Grande del Norte – “Big northern river, for Mexicans, it really is northern - a river in North America.
Bahr el Abyad and Bahr el Azraq - name White and Blue Nile in Arabic.
Issyk-Kul - "Hot Lake" because does not freeze.
Lago Maggiore - "Big Lake" in Italian.
Great Salt Lake - Great Salt Lake in North America.
Ulugmuztag - “Big Ice Mountain” - the name and peaks of Kunlun.
Big Horn - "Big Horn" is the name of a spur of the Rocky Mountains.
Grand Canyon - “Grand Canyon” on the Colorado River.
Aktyubinsk - from Ak-tube - “ White Hill, city in Kazakhstan.
Blanca, Casablanca "White House" Cape and city in Africa.
Karakorum - “Black Scree” - the name of the mountains in Central Asia.
Karabakh - “Black Garden” - Highlands in the Caucasus.
Kara-Bogaz-Gol - "Black Mouth Gulf."
Kyzylkum - “Red sand” - the desert of Central Asia.
Yellowstone - "Yellow Stone" a river in North America.
Huanghe - "Yellow River" in China.
Bibliography
- Korinskaya V.A. Geography of continents and oceans: A textbook for the 7th grade of high school / V.A.Korinskaya, V.A.Schenev, I.V.Dushina.-M.: Enlightenment, 2000.
- Kondratiev B.A. Geography lessons of the parts of the world and the most important states. M.-Enlightenment, 1963
- Solovyov A.I. Dictionary - a reference book on physical geography. / A.I. Soloviev, G.V. Karpov.-M .: Education, 1983.
- Shabanova A.T. Countries of the world: A modern reference book. - World of Books LLC, 2005.
- Brief dictionary of foreign words.
- Geography at school: Journal. 1961
The term "geographical name" originated in 1986 at a meeting of the United Nations Division of Experts on Geographical Names (UNGEGN) and means "a name given to a geographical feature". A geographic feature, in turn, is understood as "an artificial or natural part of the land or body of water." Geographical name, therefore, may belong to any object, area or area.
Names are an integral part of language and society. They not only reflect the cultural ideals of today, but also preserve the cultural values of past years, that is, they reflect the connection between modern society and the society that once existed.
Most of the existing names are of natural origin. In contrast to them, artificial names are also distinguished, which are products of the official naming process.
People create names based on some fact that they think is unique and appropriate to be reflected in the name. This approach is universal, regardless of the belonging of the people to a particular culture.
In this paper, an attempt is made to consider the ways of formation and functioning of the names of geographical objects in Russian and English using the names of the state of Massachusetts (USA) and the Kola Peninsula as an example.
Despite the fact that the state of Massachusetts and the Murmansk region are on different continents, and at first glance, there can be nothing in common between these two territories, as well as between the people living in them, with a deeper study it turns out that between these A number of parallels can be drawn between the two territories, including those relating to the processes and methods of nomination in these regions.
Under the nomination (from the Latin. nominatio - "name") is usually understood:
The formation of linguistic units characterized by a nominative function, that is, serving to name and isolate fragments of reality and form the corresponding concepts about them in the form of words, phraseological units and sentences. This term also refers to the result of the nomination process - a significant linguistic unit. Some scholars use the term "nomination" to designate a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of naming acts, and in this sense, nomination is the same as onomasiology and is opposed to semasiology;
The subject of the theory of nomination as a special linguistic discipline is the study and description of the general patterns of formation of language units, the interaction of thinking, language and reality in these processes, the role of the human (pragmatic) factor in the choice of features that underlie the nomination, the study of the linguistic technique of nomination - its acts, means and methods, construction of a nomination typology, description of its communicative and functional mechanisms. Depending on the starting point of the study, one distinguishes between an onomasiological approach to the problems of nomination, when the relation "realia - the meaning of a name" is taken as the main one, or a semasiological one, in which the meaning of a name is considered as a way of isolating and naming a realia (or a class of realities).
"The theory of nomination - onomasiology - is one of two sections of semantics, opposed to semasiology in the direction of research from a thing or phenomenon to the thought of this thing, phenomenon and to their designation by linguistic means. Onomasiology studies all units of a language from the point of view of their implementation of a nominative or representative function and deals with issues of nominative technique and methods of formation of units of nomination of different level status, different length and structure, as well as unequal in the way of representing reality in the signs of the language.
There are several stages in the acts of naming: the selection and fixation of what is to be denoted, the comprehension of the denoted, the choice of an adequate language means and the name itself, the establishment of a closer and more permanent connection between the denoted and the signifier, and, finally, the assignment of a certain content to a given linguistic segment.
The naming of an object thus achieves a certain objectification of reality in language and, at the same time, its peculiar alienation.
The act of nomination is a speech-thinking process aimed either at choosing a ready-made designation for the named phenomenon and thoughts about this phenomenon existing in the language, or at creating a suitable name for it. The starting point of the act of nomination is the individual semantic task of the speaker.
In the act of nomination, only those real or fictitious objects to which human activity is directed are named. The objects themselves may belong to the outer and inner world, but the name is given to the "stopped" thought about the object.
The nomination is a complex speech-thinking process, which also has psychological, biological, social, physiological and purely linguistic grounds. Being a process of selection and comprehension of the designated object or event, as well as the result of this process, the nomination acts simultaneously as a product cognitive activity person in the chosen field of knowledge, and as a product of speech and language activity.
"Any name in the language is the result of experience. Experience always precedes the name. In order to generalize the invariant image of a word that appears in our minds in the form of at least a representation or a concept that is difficult to distinguish from it, which can act as an element of human speech, it must be expressed by sound complex". Without this condition, there is no nomination. The most common method of nomination is the use of a sound complex, meaning any of the features inherent in this subject.
The typology of the nomination can be based on the analysis of the meaning (the nature of the designated object), the analysis of the meaning (the internal form of the names) and on the analysis of the scope of the designated (the actual semantic side of the nomination).
"The internal form of the nomination is determined by the feature that is chosen as a distinguishing feature and is used as the basis for the name. These features are extremely diverse and are determined physical properties object, its relation to other objects, as well as the relation of the subject of the nomination to it. "Based on these features, the following types of internal forms of nomination can be distinguished:
1) generalized / individualizing nominations:
They are determined by the degree of individualization of those features that stand out during the designation, and also - in speech - by the volume of the concept under which the named object is summed up, for example: river (Russian) = fr. fleuve (river that flows into the basin) + riviere (river that flows into another river).
2) qualifying / relative nominations:
This opposition concerns not the degree of individualization of traits or their number, but the nature of the selected traits themselves. It is possible to determine the most general types of real features by referring to the most general conditions for the existence of objects. Any object exists in the coordination of time and space, on the basis of which two main types of features can be distinguished: proper and relative.
"Inherent features include: shape, color, length, device, dimensions, that is, features that distinguish an object from other objects of this class.
Relative features include those that reflect the relationship of a given object with others, often belonging to a different class (spatial relations, sequence, belonging, functions).
Classification and nomination is the first step of man in mastering the world, in his dominance over nature. "However, human practice makes it necessary to create single names for some objects, which reflect not the classification associations of this object with others similar to it in certain characteristics, but the individual characteristics of these objects within a given class. This is how proper names arise, which indicate a class of objects consisting from one element.
Proper name - onym, word, phrase or sentence. It serves to distinguish the object named by it from a number of similar ones, individualizing and identifying this object.
"The section of linguistics that studies proper names is onomastics (from the Greek onomastike techne - "the art of giving names"). Onomastics is divided into sections in accordance with the categories of objects that have their own names: anthroponymy (names of people), toponymy (names of geographical objects) and so Further, onomastics divides proper names into realonyms (names of existing objects) and mythonyms (names of fictitious objects).
The object of study of onomastics is the history of the emergence of names and motifs of nomination, their formation in any class of onyms, differences in character and form, transitions of onyms from one class to another (transonymization), territorial and linguistic distribution, functioning in speech, various transformations, formulaicity. name, use and creation of proper names in artistic text. Onomastics explores phonetic, morphological, derivational, semantic, etymological and other aspects of proper names.
Proper names include:
1) names of persons (names, surnames, patronymics),
2) names, nicknames of animals, birds,
3) topographic names,
4) names of buildings, institutions,
5) titles of books, magazines.
Of these, 1-3 names designate, and 4-5 - only name.
The American professor Nikolaisen believes that names cannot be considered solely as part of the lexicon. Words matter; titles have content. The content of the name is absolutely independent of its potential meaning. Changing the meaning of a word after it has been used in the nomination process is inevitable. One of the tasks of scientists dealing with the problems of nomination is to establish the initial meaning of the words or elements that make up the name. Here, scientists are faced with the need to find out which object or the name of which person is reflected in the name. Most often it is not difficult to determine at what time the name was given, but it is not easy to determine the content of the name. In any case, the connection between the name and the geographical feature it defines is undeniable.
Nominations through a word and a phrase are called lexical, through a sentence - propositive, through a text - discursive. According to the type of means, nominations are distinguished: word formation as a regular way of creating new words and meanings, syntactic transposition, in which morphological means indicate a change in the syntactic function while maintaining the lexical meaning (friend - to be friends), semantic transposition, which does not change the material appearance of the rethought unit and leads to education polysemantic words, as well as phraseological units of various types.
Structural and semantic features of the formation of names of geographical objects in the Russian language.
The set of geographical names in a certain area is called toponymy. Toponymy is the study of their origin and development.
The interpretation of geographical names and finding out their origin is a task that requires a lot of preparation. It is necessary to keep in mind the historical documents relating to the area at different times, to know the main types of local names, to study the peculiarities of the languages of all nationalities of the given territory, as well as local dialects, old personal names, since they often play a significant role in the origin of local names. If we recall how personal names are distorted when two or three languages meet, then the whole difficulty of the issue becomes clear, especially if another, later origin, is added to the first linguistic element.
The matter is sometimes complicated by the constant combination of words of two languages - the first settlers and newcomers, local features of dialects and real, in some cases, remnants of even greater antiquity.
The study of the toponymy of the Kola Peninsula is a complex and diverse process. "In this regard, sources of factual material are of undoubted interest: chronicles, letters, acts, scribe books, maps, atlases, geographical dictionaries, as well as numerous descriptions of the region, reports, travel essays of expeditions and travelers." This is a rich toponymic material relating to various aspects of the life of the region's population in the past and present, its history, geography, and ethnography. Toponymy also includes the first attempts at scientific understanding of historical materials. When studying toponymy, translations of local names, legends and legends about their origin are interesting.
The distribution of ancient people on the territory of the Kola Peninsula dates back approximately to the 10th-9th millennium BC. They came from the east (Urals, Western Siberia). It is difficult to say what language they spoke, so many ancient names remain a mystery to us.
The study of the toponymy of the Kola Peninsula is a complex and diverse process. In this regard, sources of factual material are of undoubted interest: chronicles, letters, acts, scribe books, maps, atlases, geographical dictionaries, as well as numerous descriptions of the region, reports, travel essays of expeditions and travelers. This is a rich toponymic material relating to various aspects of the life of the region's population in the past and present, its history, geography, and ethnography. Toponymy also includes the first attempts at scientific understanding of historical materials. When studying toponymy, translations of local names, legends and legends about their origin are interesting.
Who and when the settlements of the Kola Peninsula were called can only be recognized by the names of settlements preserved in old monuments and by modern names. Settlements appeared and disappeared, were renamed for various reasons and motives, had several names at the same time (official and local), or had no names at all, but only an indication of their location (on a river, near a bay, on a lake).
Works on the toponymy of the Kola Peninsula.
At this point in time, only a few projects have been implemented and only a few works on toponymy have been written, because this is not such open topic for research and few took on its development.
One of these "heroes" is A. A. Minkin, who wrote the book "Toponyms of Murman". It very widely discloses the importance of this topic and gives a unique list of toponyms that we used when writing this work. In Minkin's book, we see carefully sorted information on the toponymy of the Kola Peninsula, as well as a useful dictionary of Sami geographical terms.
There is also a Geographical Dictionary of the Murmansk region, which was compiled by V. G. Muzhikov. This dictionary is very useful for those who want to know the meaning, location of one or another toponym of the Kola Peninsula. It contains a decent theoretical material. It contains a list of Sami words found in toponyms of the Kola Peninsula. And most importantly, this dictionary contains more than 7500 names that can be used in the further development of this topic and which were also used by us.
Structural models of toponyms.
On the territory of the Kola Peninsula, metonymic toponyms are common, that is, when the name of a geographical object is extended by adjacency to another. For example, Imandra is a village (settlement) at Lake Imandra. Such toponyms reflect only its location.
The main role is occupied by the toponyms of the two-component model (Monchegorsk - "beautiful city"). There are the following types:
1. Compounding with a noun: Retiyark, literally "mouth-pillow".
2. Compounding with an adjective, for example: Rimnsuol - “fox island”, Chirmyavr - “wolf lake”.
Determinants are usually geographical terms and words close to them in meaning. The brightest representatives are yavr - "lake" (750), vyd - "top", "mountain" (550), suol - "island" (300), mok - "river" (200), callium - "rock", kurr - "gorge", lust - "bay".
They also use terms that reflect the landscape of the region - appellatives:
The most popular of them:
Lake (more than 150): Moncheozero, Lovozero
Brook (about 100): Upper Brook, Ship Brook
Island: Round Island, Summit Island
Navolok - "spit, low-lying cape": Tersky Navolok.
Toponyms may contain information about the properties of an object or indicate the nature of the landscape. Names may also include:
Colour: Red slit
Flora and fauna:
Korda - "crow": Kordeyok, Kordegsit,
Chirm - "wolf": Chirmyavr, Chirmapakhk
Rimn - "fox": Rimnsuol,
Kuss - "spruce": Kussvarnyun, Kussuvayv
Piadz - "pine": Piadzyavr.
Also, the small value of the object can be taken as the basis of the determinants. The most common parts are iok - "river", yavr - "lake", voay - "stream".
Toponyms may indicate the nature of the area: lyamit - "dense forest", lyamb - "peat bog", koashk - "bog": Koavshkar.
Also, the names of the animal and plant and animal world can be used in toponyms: kul - "fish": Kuljok, Kulyavr, pyuemmel - "hare", serv - "moose": Servyavr, Servyok, chirm - "wolf": Chirmek, Chirmozero, Chirmekswall, rimn - "fox": Rimnswall, Rimnyozero,
If you pay special attention to the study of Kola toponyms, you can highlight:
1) topographic bases - geographical terms - words that reflect the varieties of landscape existing in nature (iok - "river", kevnes - "waterfall", mounds - "gorge")
2) topo bases - names of plants. Here the leading ones are: kuss - "spruce", pyadz - "pine"
3) topographic bases - the names of representatives of the fauna: kayi - "seagull", chiuchi - "hawk", chasi - "woodpecker", kupch - "bear", serv - "moose"
4) determination of the characteristic properties of objects:
Size, shape: vulgisvid - “lower”, sinche “thin”
Color: kohl - "gold", rupses - "red"
5) topographic bases indicating the location: evdest - "near", ell - "above"
6) topographic bases associated with the economic activities of the local population: hunting, fishing, various buildings and facilities for economic purposes.
Local compound names of villages are mainly a combination of an adjective with a noun "Latvian village".
During the study of toponymy, a term arose, a toponymic hybrid - these are the names of places of settlements, composed of the grammatical and lexical parts of Russian and Kola words. They were formed as follows: a) the root of the Sami word was grammatically formalized by the Russian suffix or inflection: Kolvitsa, Teriberka, Kandalaksha b) two stems are combined into a compound word, where the first component was the Kola word, and the second - Russian. The first, as a definition for the second, obeys it grammatically, and the second was the name of the topographic object near which the given settlement arose: Lovozero, Girvozero, Tik-Guba, Tsypnavolok.
c) hybrid toponyms often appeared in the form of a compound name. As in the formation of complex names, both the Russian and the Kola element could act as the first component, and the second, respectively, too: Knyazhaya Guba, Ekostrovsky churchyard.
One of the universal methods of toponym formation is suffixation. The Russian layer of toponyms of the Kola Peninsula has its own word-formation models. The names of cities of a later period are drawn up using the "urban" suffix -sk-: Monchegorsk, Murmansk, Zarechensk.
Some Russian toponyms are formed with the help of prefixes and suffixes: Zaozersk, Zasheek.
So, when considering the names of the Kola Peninsula, we made the following observations:
1. On the territory of the Kola Peninsula, the names of various temporary layers coexist, and the meanings of some of the most ancient names have not yet been determined. The ways of adaptation of the Saami names by the Russian-speaking population include adaptation at the phonetic, derivational and lexical levels.
2. The most common types of names on the territory of the Kola Peninsula are: a) descriptive names that distinguish a geographical object from a number of others according to the following features: location, distinctive features of the object (shape, nature of the soil), as well as certain representatives of the flora and fauna. Descriptive titles make up approximately 70% of all titles; b) possessive names formed from anthroponyms and carrying the idea of belonging. Possessive names make up about 15% of all names.
3. From the point of view of word formation, the most typical place names are hybrids or compound toponyms, parts of which may belong to the vocabulary of one language or several.
4. The most numerous group among the names of the Kola Peninsula are the names of Saami origin, including names formed by translating Saami terms into Russian.
5. The names belonging to the most ancient layer (those whose meaning is not derived from the knowledge of living languages) are approximately
30% of all titles reviewed.
6. The third largest group is made up of names of Russian origin (not counting those formed by translating Saami terms) - (51 names, which is 17% of all names).
7. Compound toponyms formed as a result of a complex two-part naming model make up the vast majority of all names (about 80%).
8. Simple toponyms - a less used type model. Simple toponyms make up about 5% of all names).
9. The Russian layer of toponyms has its own word-formation models. The most productive model for the formation of a Russian name (“productive in modern linguistics are models that follow the model of which long word-formation rows are built”) is a definition in combination with a defined word (21 names out of 51, which is 41% of all Russian names).
10. Russian city names can be formed using suffixes - ets -, - ov -, ev -, - in -, and, above all, the suffix - sk -.
11. Some Russian toponyms are formed with the help of prefixes and suffixes: Zaozersk, Zarechensk.
Structural and semantic features of the formation of names of geographical objects in English.
The problem of nomination in relation to US cities has been considered by researchers infrequently. In most cases, they were limited to listing existing names and trying to interpret their meanings. The greatest contribution to this work was made by George Stewart, author of the collection "American Names". In our study, we also relied on materials from congresses on onomastics held in Quebec in 1987 and in Helsinki in 1990.
Considering American names, Stewart distinguishes among them the following types:
english titles,
Names borrowed from other languages
Indian names.
The largest group is made up of English names reflecting the norms English pronunciation and spelling.
Names borrowed from French, Danish, Spanish are no exception. In Alaska, there are Eskimo and Aleut names, some of which go back to the time of the colonization of Alaska by Russians.
Indian names are the most difficult to study and translate. The oldest of them were already rethought by the Indians themselves, or their meanings were subsequently obscured. Many of the existing Indian names are false, pseudo-Indian, that is, produced by white people according to Indian models. Some of the names are the product of modern Indians: Pasadena, Oklahoma.
From Indian languages names have been translated into English in four ways:
1) The informant said the name in his native language. The receptor designed it based on its own auditory perception and in accordance with the characteristics of the native language.
2) The name was translated from the original language into the language of the receptor.
3) The name received a peculiar design as a result of a collision with the processes of folk etymology.
4) The name was borrowed in writing.
George R. Stewart divides all American names of geographical objects into specific (specific) and general, characteristic of a particular class (generic). By analogy with biological terminology, common names indicate the class itself, for example: River, Mountain, City. Names specific, such as: Blue, Battle are definitions for general concepts, thus fixing the use of the name for some single geographical object, despite the fact that in practice many names are repeated.
Specific names are usually adjectives or nouns in the form of adjectives which, when used regularly in English language, anticipate the emergence of common names, for example: Red Rock, Wolf Creek.
Specific names may also consist of a prepositional phrase, represented by a combination of a noun with the prepositions of, by, for example: The Gulf Of Alaska.
In everyday use, mainly when it comes to the names of cities, specific names are combined with general ones. These are cases in which the constituent elements of the names are the parts -town, -ville, -burgh. The combined name in such a case is concretized and becomes the name of the prepositional type, for example: The City Of Pittsburgh.
Considering these types of names, Stewart points to the problem of "plurality versus singularity". It is known that the primary function of the name is the task of highlighting a particular object from a number of others. Therefore, it is natural to assume that the name will fix some distinctive feature of a geographical object. For example, any body of water is likely to contain fish, so this feature is not its distinguishing feature and cannot form the basis of the name, except, perhaps, the presence of a similar phenomenon in the desert, where the name of the type Fish Spring (Fish Spring) indicates that - something unusual. Usually the name of the type: Fish Creek indicates that once there was a great catch in a certain reservoir.
The criterion for his classification of names Stuart chooses their origin and distinguishes among them the following types:
1) descriptive names. This term is used to refer to specific names that define and distinguish any geographical object from a number of others, indicating its distinctive features. These names usually capture the sensory perception of Big River (Big River), Black River (Black River). Negative descriptions, that is, denying the presence of some feature, are less common, but are no exception to Nowood Creek ("Bay where there is no forest"),
2) associative names. They define a geographic feature by association with something else. In origin, they are close to descriptive, it is necessary to distinguish them nevertheless. For example, the type name Mill River ("River on which there is a mill") does not describe the river, but rather defines it by association with the object located on it - the mill,
3) possessive names. They arose as a result of the idea of belonging. This may be a personal belonging: Smith "s Hill -" a hill located in Smith's possessions. A large number of these names arose during the period of the migrants' advance to the west, and therefore they reflect the presence of Indians or pioneers on the path of movement and are usually formed from proper names,
4) the names "event", which arose due to the fact that something unusual happened in a certain place, for example Suicide (Suicide), Battle (Battle), Cannibal (Cannibal). A large number of names of this type are derived from the names of animals, for example Wolf (Wolf), Bear (Bear). This type of nomination is very popular and simple, and the names themselves are the keepers of many old stories. The very nature of some of them indicates an incident, such as Murder Creek (Murder Bay), Earthquake (Earthquake). There are also exclamation names, but they are quite rare Helpmejack Creek ("Bay Jack - help - me") or Goshhelpme Creek ("God - help - me Bay"). A name of this type may also indicate when the Christmas Creek event took place (Christmas Bay),
5) commemorative, memorial names. Most of them owe their origin to the desire to preserve the memory of someone or something, to honor someone. Names have been preserved in this way. famous people, for example: Washington (Washington),
6) "necessary" names. A large number of cities, counties, and states took their names from the desire to create a "decent" name, that is, one that would attract the attention of the settlers and seem appropriate and beautiful. Such names are not necessarily descriptive and can sometimes be misleading. Such cases arise when an element is used frequently, such as the -city element to indicate a new geographical feature. Other examples of such names are Eden (Paradise), Prosperity (Prosperity),
7) names-stamps, created consciously from fragments of other words, proper names, initials, by rearranging letters or syllables. Similar phenomena are reflected in names like: Saybrook, Romley, Alicel. V. D. Belenkaya notes that "artificially created names are a peculiar feature of American toponymy. Sometimes it is a mechanical combination of parts of words, mostly nouns. For example, when the names California and Nevada coexist, names such as Calada, Calneva, Calvada are formed There are also abbreviations of complex names, merging of initials and surnames, for example: Lenwood from Ellen Woods".
8) names transferred from one geographical feature to another. For example, the name Cambridge (Cambridge) was transferred from England to Massachusetts,
9) names resulting from the action of folk etymology, for example: Funny Louis ("Funny Louis").
These types of names Stuart subdivides into the following types:
Folk, co-created by a group of people: Troublesome
Creek ("Restless Brook"),
Humorous, that is, having a humorous undertone, which is expressed through an indication of any incident underlying the name: Robber's Roost ("Robber Den"), Lovers "Leap ("Barrier for Lovers"), Roaring Run ("Running with a loud roar")
Official, which are the product of government activities,
literary,
Approximately at early XIX centuries after the rupture of ties with Great Britain in the United States, a custom arises to give cities and villages foreign names: Memphes (Memphis), Utica (Yutaka). Most of them were taken from books, others - from newspaper reports about events in the world: Sevastopol (Sevastopol), Waterloo (Waterloo). Some names were brought with them by the sailors who returned from the voyage.
Grant Smith suggested that the following points should be kept in mind in any study of names:
1) indicate the language from which the name originated,
2) specify whether the name is specific or general,
3) take into account word-building moments: prefixes, suffixes, root meanings, and also indicate what part of speech the word is,
4) give a phonetic transcription, in cases where the name appears in several variants,
5) take into account the morphological characteristics of the parts that make up the name.
Mary R. Miller does not give a complete classification of names, focusing on descriptive names, but points out that there may be several types:
Names that reflect the nature of the environment (indicate flora and fauna),
Names indicating the location of the object,
Names indicating objects nearby (hills, valleys, lakes),
Names derived from proper names
Names indicating the size of the object, its outlines.
Considering that in the course of our work we studied the names of the state of Massachusetts, most of which were transferred here from Europe, namely from England, it seems appropriate for us to dwell in this chapter on short description main types and elements English titles.
Kenneth Cameron describes the four most typical elements of English names, usually preserved as -ton, -ham, -wich, -worth, and appearing as the final element of compound names. In such constructions, the first element can be a proper name, a term indicating private or public property, a word containing an indication of the shape or size of an object, as well as the name of an animal, plant, or bird.
Old English tun, modern town (comparable to German Zaun) is the most typical element of names. Most likely, in earlier names it means "farm", and later acquires the meaning "village, village".
The fact that the original meaning - tun was "farm" is confirmed by the presence of proper names as the first element of the names Alstone (from Alwine - Alvin), Osmaton (from Osmund - Osmund). Often the first element of the name reflects the location of the object: Norton - northern, Sutton - southern, Weston - western, Easton - eastern.
Many names of estates or villages are named after rivers: Lynton (from Lyne-Line).
The first element of some names is the word hill (hill): Hilton - Hilton.
There is no doubt that the names of some estates indicated what animals were bred there: Shepton from sheep (sheep), or the names of plants, cereals grown there: Barton from barley (barley).
Somerton, Winterton undoubtedly reflect the cycle of seasonal work on the farm (summer-summer, winter-winter).
Later, this group of names includes names in -tun with a proper name as the first element and with a suffix -ing, for example: Paddington from d/a Pad(d)ing-tun.
The Old English element ham means "manor, village". As with -tun , the element is often adjacent to the proper name as the first element. Often this is an element containing an indication of the location of the object. Also, the composition of names with the element - ham may include:
Element indicating the owner's age: Newham,
An element indicating the size of the estate: Mitchham ("big"),
Element - the name of the river: Cockerham from Cocher (Coker), Trentham from Trent (Trent),
Elements containing names of other geographic features: Barham, Dunham, Clapham (all of these words mean "hill").
Elements - animal names: Gotham from goats (goats), Shipman from sheep (sheep),
Elements - the names of plants or crops: Banham from beans (beans), Cloverham from clover (clover), Gresham from grass (grass).
The Old English element - wic had many meanings, among which the following stood out: "a place of residence", "a building where food or other goods were made", such as fish (fish) in Fishwick, or salt (salt) in Saltwick.
A significant number of titles containing this element have the name of a pet or food as the first element. Most likely, in such cases, the element had the meaning "farm". Hence the names Bulwick from bull (ox), Calwich from calf (calf), Cheswich from cheese (cheese), Woolwich from wool (wool).
Sometimes the farm was given the owner's name, and names like Battleswick ("property of the Batalle family") are considered in this category.
The element is also present in compound names, which contain an indication of the location of the object: Southweek ("southern"), Eastweek ("eastern").
Kenneth Cameron also discusses other elements most commonly found in English titles:
Ford (river) - indicates the importance of the availability of water resources for the settlers,
Ley (d / a leah "forest") is a very common element, the general meaning of which is difficult to determine. Each time it is taken out of context.
In this case, the first element of the names can be:
Proper names: Barnley from Beorn (Barn), Hockley from Hocca (Hockey),
Names of peoples: Chiddingly ("people of the Sitta"),
Tree names: Ashley from ash (ash), Elmley from elm (elm), Oakleigh from oak (oak),
Crop names: Oteley from oats (oats), Claverslay from clover (clover),
Fawley from hay (hay).
Hill - very often a component of compound names. In such cases, the first element of the name:
Indicates the shape of the object: Coppell ("peak-topped"),
Is an adjective: Hernhill from gray (grey), Clennenhill from clean (clean),
Indicates plants growing on a hill: Haverhill from oats (oats), Wheathill from wheat (wheat),
Chester - (d / a coester) - "city, provincial town". This element is borrowed from the Latin language (castra),
Bridge-(d/a brycg) is another term for ford. There are two options for names:
Bridge and -brigg (Scandinavian influence),
Mouth (d / a mutha) - "mouth of the river",
Land (d / a land) - "land",
Like the other thirteen British colonies along the coast Atlantic Ocean, Massachusetts was founded by people who came to the continent in the hope of finding new life and gain freedom of belief. The very name of the state - Indian - and means "located on the big hills" (big-hills-at). This village name was first recorded in 1616. The British believed that this was the name of an Indian tribe and added the ending -s to it as an indication of plurality. The hills to which the name indicates were located near the city of Boston. The name was later transferred to the bay, and then, in 1629, the Massachusetts colony was officially approved.
The languages of the Indians were alien to the colonists, most of whom could not write. Many Indian names were first heard from the lips of Indians who were scared to death and did not want to speak. And they were heard by the Puritans, who were initially opposed to the Indians, who were least of all interested in the linguistic side of the issue. It should also be taken into account that the colonist, who wrote even his name sometimes in eight different ways, was even more puzzled when faced with the need to enter the type name in official sources: Wampanoag (Wampanoag).
Even educated colonists had difficulty distinguishing between such similar Indian languages as: Wampanoag (Vampanoag), Natick (Natik), Narrangansett (Narrangansett). Even priests who knew Latin and Greek, and often played the role of translators, had difficulty translating phrases into the Algonquian language (Algonquian).
By 1825 the Algonquian language had almost disappeared from New England. Thus, in the three hundred years since the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth, the Indian languages of Wampanoag (Vampanoag), Natick (Natik), Nipmuck (Nipmuk), Narangansett (Narangansett), Pequot (Pekuot), Mohegan (Mohigan) , Mahican (Mahikan), Pocumtuck (Pocumtuk), Pennacook (Pennacook) have disappeared, leaving a number of poorly understood and even worse written names as peculiar monuments of the past.
A relatively small number of Native American names have survived in the northeast of the country in the states of Massachusetts and Connecticut. In some cases, Americanized Native American names have been superseded by English ones, which retain only a vague resemblance to the original. For example, Mosketualke eventually turned into Mosquito Hawk ("Mosquito Sting").
Guided by the classification proposed by George Stewart, and taking the origin of the names of the state of Massachusetts as a basis, it seems appropriate for us to distinguish the following types among Indian names:
1. descriptive names: a) English, distinguishing an object from a number of others by:
Form: Heartbreak Hill ("hill of a broken heart"; the name was received by the city due to the fact that the hill on which it is located is shaped like a heart),
Location: Eastham ("city located in the eastern part of the state"), Norhtfield ("city located in the north"),
Objects located in this territory Marshfield ("swamp").
Representatives of the local flora and fauna: Buckland (buck - male deer).
b) Indian, indicating:
Object location: Acushnet ("hiding in the bay").
Representatives of flora and fauna: Cochessett ("place where small pine trees grow), Maquam ("beaver"), Wallum ("dog"),
Soil character: Asnebumsket ("stones on stones").
Activities available at this location: Katama ("place of great fishing"),
2. Associative names:
Brimstone: the place got its name due to the discovery of a sulfur deposit here (the old name for sulfur is brimstone),
3. Event names: a) English:
Bash Bish Halls: during the war with the Indians, the chief of the Bash Indians was shot at this place,
Concord: after the victory in one of the battles of 1775 near this place, the geographical object received this patriotic name (concord-agreement, deal, treaty), b) Indian:
Annawon's Rock: the leader of one of the tribes was captured at this place,
Annursnack: was a meeting place for the chiefs of the Indian tribes,
4. Names memorable, memorial: a) English:
Barre (Barr) - named after General Isaac Barr, an Englishman who spoke out in support of the American Revolutionary War,
Belchertown (Belchertown) - named after the governor of the city Jonathan Belcher,
Berkley (Berkeley) - named after the priest George Berkeley,
Hancock (Hancock) - named after John Hancock, one of the gentlemen who signed the Declaration of Independence,
Quincey (Quincy) - named after General John Quincey,
Sunderland (Sunderland) - named after the Earl of Sunderland, who held the position of Prime Minister in 1718,
Charleton (Charlton) - named after Sir Francis Charlton, a member of the city council.
b) Indian:
Natick (Natik), Pocumtuck (Pocumtuk) - the names of the tribes,
Hyannis (Giannis), Konkapot (Konkapot) - the names of the leaders,
5. Possessive names:
Hadley (Hadley) - proper name,
Holyoke (Holyoke) - either the name of the early settler Elisir Holyoke, or Edward Holyoke, president of Harvard,
6. "Official", artificially created names:
Norwood (Norwood) - the name was proposed by a person who gave unusual reasons for the need to use it: it looks beautiful in print, it sounds beautiful, it is easy to write because it does not have an i to put a period above and a t to cross out cut it in half
7. Names transferred from one object to another:
Babylon (Babylon) - the name of the ancient capital,
Hanover is a city in Germany
A special group is represented by names transferred to American cities from English, among which the following types can be distinguished:
1) names that include a proper name, that is, containing the idea of belonging: Abington (from Aebbe) - Abington, Acton (from Acca) - Acton, Ipswich (from Ipsen) - Ipswich, Bedford (from Beda) - Bedford, Boxford (from Boksa) - Boxford, Chelmsford (from Ceolmaer) - Chelmsford,
The elements - tun, - ford, - land, - wic, appear as the second element of these names.
2) names containing an indication of the location of the object:
Grafton (from d / a graef - "grove, forest") - Grafton,
Manchester - "a city located on steep hills" - Manchester,
Rochester: Romano-British variant of this name meaning "walled city on bridges". When this name was adopted by the d/a language, the first syllable of the Celtic name was lost, so the first element of the name shows the second syllable of the early name (-rob-) - Rochester,
Amesbury, Tisbury (from d / a burh, burg) - "fortified place" - Amesbury, Tisbury,
3) names containing an indication of water resources:
Bradford - "wide stream" - Bradford,
Portsmouth - "the mouth of the Port", where Port is the old name of the harbor - Portsmouth,
Becket (from d / Norwegian bekkr - "stream") - Becket,
4) names containing an indication of individual representatives of flora and fauna:
Acton (from d / a ac) - "oak" - Acton,
Oxford (from oxen - "oxen, bulls") - Oxford,
5) associative names:
Stockbridge - "log bridge" - Stockbridge,
Uxbridge - "Viksanov bridge" - by the name of the Middle Eastern tribe - Uxbridge,
Cambridge - hybrid Celtic-d / a name - Cambridge,
6) names indicating nationality, residents of cities:
Somerset - an elliptical version of soete - "Sommerset people" - Somerset,
Also in this group, you should consider the names of the type:
Chelsea - the name was transferred to a city in Massachusetts from one of the districts of London - Chelsea,
7) names of folk etymology:
Cape Poge - the name is produced as a result of the action of folk etymology on the Algonquian name, the first element of which meant "barrage" and appeared in the following forms: cap - kep - keep - kab. Obviously, he pointed to any obstacle in the way - stones or water.
We analyzed 115 city names in Massachusetts. Of these, the largest group in terms of number is made up of names transferred from one geographical object to another (59), of which 55 (51% of all names) were brought from England. The first elements of these names (most of them are composite) are proper names, names of plants, animals, rivers. The second element is usually the Old English elements. This type of names, defined by us as "descriptive", includes both English and Native American names. Native American titles are quite numerous in the state (35, representing 30% of all titles). The very fact of the presence of Indian names in the state is remarkable. As you know, most of the first settlers came to America from England, and the continent at that time was inhabited by numerous Indian tribes. The clash of two cultures turned out to be disastrous for the Indians, but many of their beliefs and observations were preserved in the names of the state. The names also preserved the memory of the events of Indian life, the names of their leaders and the names of the tribes. Given the fact that the Indian tribes were almost completely exterminated, these names are currently one of the sources for the study of Indian culture and Indian languages \u200b\u200b(for example, Algonquian).
The second largest group is commemorative and memorial names (16%). They, in turn, preserved for posterity the names of many famous people.
During the study, we noticed that the names of cities in the state are quite stable, that is, the reasons for renaming a particular city are extremely rare. This is explained by the fact that most of the names are "neutral" and indicate stable features of the object (location, shape). As for the titles that kept the names famous people, then their stability can be explained, first of all, by the relative "infallibility", "ideality" of persons. That is why the names are interesting, first of all, as a historical source. In the course of their study, facts are revealed that testify to the rich, original culture of the Indians, as well as to the manners and customs of the first settlers who arrived on the new continent in search of a new life and new ideals.
In the course of this study, an attempt was made to analyze the names of geographical objects on the Kola Peninsula and Massachusetts, as well as to consider the structural and semantic features of their formation and functioning, and to identify similarities and differences between them.
The study resulted in the following conclusions:
1. The emergence of toponyms as a whole is historically conditioned. The most ancient inhabitants of the region had to navigate the terrain. served as reference points natural objects, therefore, at the first stage of naming, the role of toponyms was played by common nouns - geographical terms: river, mountain, lake, in independent use or with definitions. If the object on the ground was presented in the singular, it was enough just to name it. Toponyms of this kind are formed according to a simple, one-component nomination model and are not numerous. Both in the American and in the names of the Kola Peninsula, many geographical terms coincide.
2. Names belonging to different temporal and linguistic strata function in both territories, and the paths of the appearance of the Sami and Baltic-Finnish names of the Kola Peninsula correspond to the appearance of Indian names in Massachusetts.
3. Ways of adaptation of the Saami and Baltic-Finnish names by the Russian-speaking population of the Kola Peninsula correspond to the ways of adaptation of Indian names by the English settlers in the USA. Adaptation could be phonetic, when the receptor formed the name based on its own auditory perception and in accordance with the norms of the native language, or semantic, when the name was translated from the original language into the language of the receptor. However, on the Kola Peninsula, in contrast to Massachusetts, we observe the process of "partial" adaptation, in which a number of hybrid toponyms can be distinguished, the components of which belong to the vocabulary different languages. In Massachusetts, we do not observe the mixing of parts of Indian languages and English in the formation of names.
4. In both territories, the following similar types of names can be distinguished:
Descriptive, distinguishing an object (settlement) from a number of others according to the following features: location, distinctive features of the object (size, presence of certain representatives of flora and fauna in a given place, nature of the landscape, soil color, river resources),
Possessive, which are based on anthroponyms that carry the idea of belonging.
5. Descriptive names in both territories are the most numerous. These names are based on features that identify an object that distinguishes it from objects of a given class: shape, color, length, device, dimensions.
6. Unlike the Kola Peninsula, the second largest group of names of settlements in Massachusetts are commemorative, memorial names that have preserved the memory of someone, giving honor to someone. Such a phenomenon does not occur on the Kola Peninsula.
7. The most productive structural naming model in both territories is a complex two-component model, which results in the formation of composite toponyms. These toponyms, as a rule, consist of a determinant indicating the category of the named geographical object and an attribute defining it. This model is more efficient for nomination purposes, as it makes it possible to clearly associate a name with an object.
8. Unlike the Kola Peninsula, most of the names of Massachusetts are transferred to its territory from the settlements of England, that is, they are not original, but, on the contrary, give an indication, a link to another object. On the Kola Peninsula, a similar metonymic transfer takes on the following content: the names of settlements are often identical with the names of the lakes on which these settlements are located.
Thus, contrary to the assertion of George Stewart that the American nomination system differs significantly from the European one, and its methods are inherently unique and unique, we managed to highlight a number of similarities in the two nomination systems and establish a number of typological features common to both territories, characterizing the processes and methods of nomination.
What is a geographic feature: definition and examples
Geography is the science that studies the earth's surface and everything on it. And a lot of things are located there: rivers and lakes, mountains and seas, agricultural lands and rocky canyons, cities and tiny villages ... It is these objects that give a unique, inimitable look to our planet.
So, what is a geographic real-life and relatively stable element of the earth's surface. All geographic features differ in integrity, specific location and have their own boundaries. At the same time, their genesis (origin) can be very diverse.
The science of geography, studying all these objects, first of all, is obliged to answer two main questions:
- Where is the object located?
- What does he look like?
The image of this or that geographical object is very important. In some of them, it is extremely brightly formed. For example, at the mention of the Roman Colosseum or the famous Egyptian pyramids, the corresponding “picture” immediately appears in the head.
Varieties of geographical objects
Based on the origin, all geographical objects can be divided into two large groups:
- Natural (seas, oceans, mountain ranges, lakes, caves, forests, rocks, springs, etc.).
- Anthropogenic or man-made (countries, cities, villages, industrial enterprises, monasteries, parks, ports, railway stations, etc.).
It is customary to describe any geographical object carefully and in detail, determining its characteristic properties, as well as measuring its parameters. For example, for mountain peaks, their height is determined, for rivers, their length, for airports, passenger traffic, etc.
What is a geographic feature? One more definition can be given - simple, but quite accurate. Geographical objects are all that can be indicated on geographical maps and terrain plans. How can I do that?
Geographical objects on the map
Various objects on maps and plans are displayed using special conventional signs. This is a system of specially designed graphic symbols and figures, which allows you to give a qualitative and quantitative description of certain objects or phenomena.
All cartographic symbols are divided into four types:
- large-scale or areal (contours of lakes, forests, fields, etc.);
- non-scale or point (power plants, mineral springs, Orthodox churches, etc.);
- linear (rivers, canals, highways, territory boundaries, etc.);
- explanatory (various verbal and numerical inscriptions).
The relief on geographical maps is depicted using horizontal lines - thin brown lines connecting points of the earth's surface with the same height. Arrows and special traffic signs show various natural or, for example, directions of maritime transport.
Names of geographical objects
Each such object has its own "name". And, as a rule, it is not accidental. The name of a geographical feature is usually associated with its features, location, or history.
The study of the origin, meaning and development (change) of place names is a separate science - toponymy. This scientific discipline located at the intersection of geography, history and linguistics. The correct name of a geographical feature is extremely important for cartographers.
There are a huge number of types of geographical names: hydronyms (names of rivers and lakes), oikonyms (names of settlements), oronyms (names of landforms), godonyms (street names), etc.
The names are folk poetic design of the country. They speak about the character of the people, its history, its inclinations and peculiarities of life. ( Konstantin Paustovsky)
Throughout our life, from the moment of birth to the very death, various geographical names accompany us. We live on the Eurasian continent, in Russia, in a certain region or region, in a city, town, village and village, and each of the listed objects has
Thus, a toponym is the name of continents and oceans, countries and geographical areas, cities and streets in them, rivers and lakes, natural objects and gardens. The origin and semantic content, historical roots and changes in the pronunciation and spelling of the names of geographical objects over the centuries are studied by a special science - toponymy.
What is toponymy
The word "toponymy" comes from two Greek words: topos - place and onyma - name. This scientific discipline is a branch of onomastics - a branch of linguistics that studies proper names. Toponymy is an integral science functioning at the intersection of linguistics, geography and history.
Geographical names do not appear in an "empty" place: noticing certain features of the relief and nature, people who lived nearby called them, emphasizing their characteristic features. Over time, the peoples who lived in a particular region changed, but the names were preserved and used by those who replaced them. The basic unit for the study of toponymy is the toponym. The names of cities and rivers, villages and villages, lakes and forests, fields and streams - all these are the toponyms of Russia, very diverse both in time of appearance and in their cultural and linguistic roots.
What is a toponym
Literally translated from Greek, a toponym is a “name of a place”, that is, the name of a particular geographical object: a continent, a mainland, a mountain and an ocean, a sea and a country, a city and a street, natural objects. Their main purpose is to fix the "binding" of a particular place on the surface of the Earth. In addition, toponyms for historical science are not just the name of any geographical object, but a historical trace on the map, which has its own history of occurrence, linguistic origin and semantic meaning.
How are toponyms classified?
A single classification of toponyms that would suit both linguists and geographers and historians does not exist today. Toponyms are classified according to a variety of criteria, but most often according to the following:
- by type of designated geographical objects (hydronyms, oronyms, dromonims and others);
- linguistic (Russian, Manchu, Czech, Tatar and other names);
- historical (Chinese, Slavic and others);
- by structure:
- simple;
- derivatives;
- complex;
- composite; - by territory area.
Classification by area
Of greatest interest is the classification of toponyms according to their territorial basis, when geographical objects, depending on their size, are classified as macrotoponyms or microtoponyms.
Microtoponyms are individual names of small geographical objects, as well as characteristic features of the relief and landscape. They are formed on the basis of the language or dialect of the people or nationality living nearby. Microtoponyms are very mobile and changeable, but, as a rule, they are limited territorially by the distribution zone of one or another language.
A macrotoponym is, first of all, the names of large natural or natural and socio-administrative units created as a result of human activity. The main characteristics of this group are standardization and stability, as well as the breadth of use.
Types of place names
The following types of toponyms are distinguished in modern toponymy:
| Geographical names of objects | Examples | |
| Astyonyms | cities | Astana, Paris, Stary Oskol |
| Oikonyms | settlements and settlements | the village of Kumylzhenskaya, the village of Finev Lug, the village of Shpakovskoe |
| Urbonyms | various intracity facilities: theaters and museums, gardens and squares, parks and embankments and others | City garden in Tver, Luzhniki stadium, Razdolie residential complex |
| Godonyms | streets | Volkhonka, street Guardian of the Revolution |
| Agoronyms | areas | Palace and Troitskaya in St. Petersburg, Manezhnaya in Moscow |
| Geonyms | avenues and driveways | Geroev Avenue, 1st passage of the First Horse Lakhta |
| Dromonyms | highways and roads of various types, as a rule, passing outside the settlements | Northern Railway, BAM |
| Horonyms | any territories, regions, districts | Moldavian, Strigino |
| Pelagonyms | seas | White, Dead, Baltic |
| Limnonyms | lakes | Baikal, Karasyar, Onega, Trostenskoe |
| Potamonyms | rivers | Volga, Nile, Ganges, Kama |
| Gelonyms | swamps | Vasyuganskoye, Sinyavinskoye, Sestroretskoye |
| Oronyms | uplands, ridges, hills | Pyrenees and Alps, Studenaya Mountain and Dyatlovy Mountains |
| anthropotoponyms | derived from a surname or personal name | the city of Yaroslavl, many villages and villages with the name Ivanovka |
How toponyms decline
Toponymic words with Slavic roots and ending in -ev(o), -in(o), -ov(o), -yn(o) were previously considered traditionally inflected. However, in recent decades, more and more often they are used in an indeclinable form, as they were previously used by professional military and geographical scientists.
The declension of toponyms, such as Tsaritsyno, Kemerovo, Sheremetyevo, Murino, Kratovo, Domodedovo, Komarovo, Medvedkovo and the like, was mandatory in the time of Anna Akhmatova, but today both the inflected and indeclinable forms are considered equally true and used. The exception is the names of settlements, in the event that they are used as applications with a generic name (village, village, farm, town, city, etc.), then it would be correct not to incline, for example, to the Strigino region, from the Matyushino region, to the city of Pushkino . If there is no such generic name, then both inflected and non-inclined variants can be used: from Matyushino and towards Matyushin, to Knyazevo and from Knyazev.
Indeclinable toponyms
In modern Russian, there are several cases in which toponyms ending in -o can only be used in an invariable form:
