The era of great reforms in Russia (60s of the XIX century). The era of great reforms in Russia (60s of the XIX century) State reforms of the 60-70s

Peasant reform

On February 19, 1861, Alexander P signed the "Regulations on Peasants Leaving Serfdom" and the Manifesto announcing the abolition of serfdom in Russia. According to these documents, the peasants immediately received personal freedom, rural and volost peasant governments were introduced. The peasants were released with land, but giving them a sufficient amount of land was unprofitable for the landowner, since then the peasant farms would be completely independent of him. The reform established "higher" and "lower" norms for allotments. A cut was provided for from the peasant allotment in favor of the landowner, if its pre-reform dimensions exceeded the “higher” norm, and a cut if it did not reach the “lower” norm. In practice, segments have become the rule, and cuts the exception. The best, most necessary land for the peasant (pastures, hayfields, watering places) most often fell into the segments. Lack of land and striped land did not allow the peasant economy to develop successfully. The peasants did not have the money needed to buy the land. In order for the landlords to receive the redemption sums at a time, the state provided the peasants with a loan in the amount of 80% of the value of the allotments. The remaining 20% ​​was paid by the peasant community itself to the landowner. Within 49 years, the peasants had to return the loan to the state in the form of redemption payments with an accrual of 6% per annum. The payment by the peasants to the landowner stretched over 20 years. It gave rise to a specific temporarily obligatory state of the peasants, who had to pay dues and perform certain duties until they completely redeem their allotment. That is, the peasant still paid dues and worked out corvée (albeit in a reduced form). Only in 1881 was a law issued on the liquidation of the temporarily obligated position of the peasants.

The final stage of the peasant reform was the transfer of peasants for redemption. When receiving land, the peasants were obliged to pay its cost. The market price of the land transferred to the peasants was actually 544 million rubles. However, the formula for calculating the cost of land developed by the government raised its price to 867 million rubles, that is, 1.5 times. Consequently, both the granting of land and the redemption transaction were carried out exclusively in the interests of the nobility. (In fact, peasants also paid for personal emancipation.)

The peasant reform of 1861 was carried out primarily in the interests of the landowners. Many farms went bankrupt. The response to the reform was a surge of peasant unrest and riots that swept across the country in the early 60s.

Zemstvo and city reforms

By March 1863, after the preliminary work done by the commissions of N.A. Milyutin and P.A. Valtsev, “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” were prepared, approved by Alexander II on January 1, 1864. The created zemstvo institutions consisted of administrative (county and provincial zemstvo assemblies) and executive (county and provincial zemstvo councils). Both were elected for a three-year term. All voters were divided into three curia - landowners, city voters, elected from rural societies. If for the first two curiae the elections were direct, although limited by the property qualification, then for the third - multi-stage and without qualifications. The zemstvos were deprived of any political functions and dealt exclusively with economic issues of local importance. Zemstvos were in charge of organizing local communications, post offices, schools, hospitals, taking care of local trade and industry, etc. The zemstvos kept doctors, teachers, technicians, statisticians, insurance agents, technicians, statisticians and other zemstvo employees who had professional training. The activities of the zemstvos, even within these very modest limits, were extremely useful and necessary. In addition, zemstvos became centers social activities liberal nobility.

According to the same principles as the zemstvo, it was carried out urban reform, which received the force of law on June 16, 1870. In 509 cities of Russia, new self-government bodies were introduced - city dumas, elected for four years. City dumas elected for the same term executive bodies - councils. The competence of city self-government, as well as zemstvo, was limited to the framework of exclusively economic issues. They dealt with the improvement of the city, took care of trade, provided educational and medical needs. City voters were divided into three curia according to the property principle, the leading role belonged to the big bourgeoisie. Persons who did not have property in the city and did not pay city taxes (workers, intellectuals, employees) did not take part in the elections. Like the zemstvos, they were under the strict control of the government administration.

Judicial reform

In 1861, the State Chancellery was instructed to start developing the "Basic Provisions for the Transformation of the Judiciary in Russia." Major lawyers of the country were involved in the preparation of the judicial reform. A prominent role was played here by the well-known lawyer, State Secretary of the State Council S.I. Zarudny, under whose leadership by 1862 the main principles of the new judicial system and legal proceedings were developed. They received the approval of Alexander II, were published and sent for feedback to judicial institutions, universities, well-known foreign lawyers, and formed the basis of judicial charters. The developed draft judicial statutes provided for the non-estate court and its independence from administrative authorities, the irremovability of judges and judicial investigators, the equality of all estates before the law, the oral nature, competitiveness and publicity of the trial with the participation of jurors and lawyers (sworn attorneys). This was a significant step forward compared to the feudal class court, with its silence and clerical secrecy, lack of protection and bureaucratic red tape.

November 20, 1864 Alexander II approved the judicial statutes. They introduced crown and magistrate courts. The crown court had two instances: the first was the district court, the second - the judicial chamber, uniting several judicial districts. Elected jurors established only the guilt or innocence of the defendant; the measure of punishment was determined by the judges and two members of the court. Decisions made by the district court with the participation of jurors were considered final, and without their participation they could be appealed to the judicial chamber. Decisions of district courts and judicial chambers could be appealed only in case of violation of the lawful order of legal proceedings. Appeals against these decisions were considered by the Senate, which was the highest instance of cassation, which had the right of cassation (review and cancellation) of court decisions.

To deal with petty offenses and civil cases with a claim of up to 500 rubles in counties and cities, a world court was established with simplified legal proceedings.

Judicial statutes of 1864 introduced the institution of sworn attorneys - the bar, as well as the institution of judicial investigators - special officials of the judicial department, who were transferred to the preliminary investigation in criminal cases, which was withdrawn from the police. Chairmen and members of district courts and judicial chambers, sworn attorneys and judicial investigators were required to have a higher legal education, and a sworn attorney and his assistant, in addition, had to have five years of experience in judicial practice. A person who had an educational qualification not lower than average and who had served at least three years in the public service could be elected a justice of the peace.

Supervision over the legality of the actions of judicial institutions was carried out by the chief prosecutor of the Senate, prosecutors of the judicial chambers and district courts. They reported directly to the Minister of Justice. Although the judicial reform was the most consistent of the bourgeois reforms, it retained many features of the estate-feudal political system, subsequent instructions introduced into the judicial reform an even greater deviation from the principles of the bourgeois court. The spiritual court (consistory) for spiritual matters and military courts for the military were preserved. The highest royal dignitaries - members of the State Council, Senators, ministers, generals - were judged by a special Supreme Criminal Court. In 1866, judicial officials were actually made dependent on the governors: they were obliged to appear before the governor on the first call and "obey his legal requirements." In 1872, the Special Presence of the ruling Senate was created specifically to deal with cases of political crimes. The law of 1872 limited the publicity of court sessions and their coverage in the press. In 1889 the world court was liquidated (restored in 1912).

Judicial statutes of 1864 for the first time in Russia introduced a notary. In the capitals, provincial and county cities, notary offices were established with a staff of notaries who were in charge, "under the supervision of judicial places, of the commission of acts and other actions on the notarial part on the basis of a special provision about them." Under the influence of a social democratic upsurge in the years of the revolutionary situation, the autocracy forced to go to the abolition of corporal punishment. The law issued on April 17, 1863 abolished public punishments by verdicts of civil and military courts with whips, gauntlets, "cats", and branding. However, this measure was inconsistent and had a class character. Corporal punishment has not been completely abolished.

Financial reforms

The needs of the capitalist country and the disorder of finances during the years of the Crimean War imperatively demanded that all financial affairs be streamlined. Conducted in the 60s of the 19th century. a series of financial reforms was aimed at centralizing the financial affairs and affected mainly the apparatus of financial management. Decree of 1860. The State Bank was established, which replaced the former lending institutions - zemstvo and commercial banks, while maintaining the treasury and orders of public charity. The State Bank received the pre-emptive right to lend to trade and industrial establishments. The state budget was streamlined. Law of 1862 established a new procedure for the preparation of estimates by individual departments. The only responsible manager of all income and expenses was the Minister of Finance. From the same time, the list of income and expenses began to be published for general information.

In 1864 the state control was reorganized. Branches were established in all provinces. state control- control chambers independent of governors and other departments. The Chambers of Control audited the revenues and expenditures of all local institutions on a monthly basis. Since 1868 began to publish annual reports of the state controller, who was at the head of state control.

The farming system was abolished, in which most of the indirect tax went not to the treasury, but to the pockets of tax farmers. However, all these measures did not change the general class orientation of the government's financial policy. The main burden of taxes and fees still lay on the taxable population. The poll tax for peasants, philistines, and artisans was preserved. The privileged classes were exempted from it. The poll tax, quitrent and redemption payments accounted for more than 25% of state revenues, but the bulk of these revenues were indirect taxes. More than 50% of the expenditures in the state budget went to the maintenance of the army and the administrative apparatus, up to 35% - to the payment of interest on public debts, the issuance of subsidies, and so on. Expenses for public education, medicine, and charity accounted for less than 1/10 of the state budget.

Military reform

The defeat in the Crimean War showed that the Russian regular army, based on a recruiting set, cannot withstand more modern European ones. It was necessary to create an army with a trained reserve of personnel, modern weapons and well-trained officers. Transformations in the military sphere are largely associated with the name of D.A. Milyutin, appointed to the post of Minister of War in 1861 year. The key element of the reform was the law of 1874. on the all-word conscription of men who have reached the age of 20. The service life was set at ground forces up to 6, in the Navy - up to 7 years. The terms of active service were significantly reduced depending on the educational qualification. Persons who had higher education served only six months.

In the 60s. the rearmament of the army began: the replacement of smooth-bore weapons with rifled ones, the introduction of a system of steel artillery pieces, and the improvement of the equestrian fleet. Of particular importance was the accelerated development of the military steam fleet. For the training of officers, military gymnasiums, specialized cadet schools and academies were created - the General Staff, Artillery, Engineering, etc. The command and control system of the armed forces has been improved.

All this made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and at the same time increase its combat effectiveness.

Reforms in the field of public education and printing

Reforms of administration, courts and the army logically demanded a change in the education system. In 1864, a new “Charter of the Gymnasium” and “Regulations on Public Schools” were approved, which regulated primary and secondary education. The main thing was that all-class education was actually introduced. Along with the state schools, zemstvo, parochial, Sunday and private schools arose. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones. They accepted children of all classes capable of paying tuition fees, mainly the children of the nobility and the bourgeoisie. In the 70s. was the beginning of higher education for women.

In 1863, the new Statute returned autonomy to the universities, which had been abolished by Nicholas I in 1835. They restored independence in dealing with administrative, financial, scientific and pedagogical issues.

In 1865, "Provisional Rules" on printing were introduced. They abolished preliminary censorship for a number of printed publications: books designed for the wealthy and educated part of society, as well as central periodicals. The new rules did not apply to the provincial press and mass literature for the people. Special spiritual censorship was also preserved. From the end of the 60s. the government began to issue decrees, largely nullifying the main provisions of the education reform and censorship.

By the middle of the 19th century. Russia's lagging behind the advanced capitalist states in the economic and socio-political spheres was clearly manifested. International events (the Crimean War) showed a significant weakening of Russia in the foreign policy field as well. Therefore, the main goal of the internal policy of the government in the second half of the 19th century. was bringing the economic and socio-political system of Russia in line with the needs of the time.

In domestic politics Russia in the second half of the 19th century. there are three stages:

1) the second half of the 50s - the beginning of the 60s - the preparation and implementation of the peasant reform;

2) - 60-70s carrying out liberal reforms;

3) 80-90s economic modernization, strengthening of statehood and social stability by traditional conservative administrative methods.

Defeat in the Crimean War played the role of an important political prerequisite for the abolition of serfdom, because it demonstrated the backwardness and rottenness of the socio-political system of the country. Russia has lost international prestige and almost lost influence in Europe. The eldest son of Nicholas 1 - Alexander 11 came to the throne in 1855, went down in history as the tsar "Liberator". His phrase about “it is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until it begins to be abolished from below” meant that the ruling circles finally came to the idea of ​​the need to reform the state.

Members of the royal family, representatives of the highest bureaucracy took part in the preparation of the reforms - Minister of Internal Affairs Lanskoy, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs - Milyutin, Adjutant General Rostovtsev. After the abolition of the kr.prav, it became necessary to change local government in 1864. zemstvo reform. Zemstvo institutions (zemstvos) were created in provinces and districts. These were elected bodies from representatives of all estates. The entire population was divided into 3 electoral groups - curia. 1 curia - landowners with > 2 acres of land or owners of real estate from 15,000 rubles; 2 curia - urban, urban industrialists and merchants with a turnover of at least 6,000 rubles / year were allowed here; 3 curia - rural. For the rural curia, the elections were multistage. The curiae were dominated by landlords. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions. The scope of their activities was limited to solving economic issues of local importance: the arrangement and maintenance of communication lines, zemstvo schools and hospitals, care for trade and industry. The zemstvos were under the control of the central and local authorities, who had the right to suspend any decision of the zemstvo assembly. Despite this, the zemstvos played a huge role in the development of education and health care. And they became the centers of the formation of the liberal noble and bourgeois opposition. The structure of zemstvo institutions: It is a legislative and executive body. The chairmen were local marshals of the nobility. Provincial and county assemblies worked independently of each other. They met only once a year to coordinate actions. Executive bodies - provincial and district councils were elected at zemstvo meetings. Solved the problem of tax collection, while a certain% remained in place. Zemstvo institutions were subordinate only to the Senate. The governor did not interfere in the activities of local institutions, but only monitored the legality of actions.

Positivity in the reform:

omnisoslovnost

Disadvantages:

election

the beginning of the separation of powers is admitted to the center of the state institution,

the beginning of the formation of civil society consciousness could not influence the policy of the center

Unequal voting rights were delivered

contacts between zemstvos were prohibited

urban reform. (1870) "City Regulations" created all-estate bodies in the cities - city dumas and city councils headed by the mayor. They dealt with the improvement of the city, took care of trade, provided educational and medical needs. The leading role belonged to the big bourgeoisie. It was under the strict control of the government administration.

The candidacy of the mayor was approved by the governor.

Judicial reform :

1864 - New court statutes promulgated.

Provisions:

the estate system of courts was abolished

all were declared equal before the law

publicity was introduced

competitiveness of legal proceedings

presumption of innocence

irremovability of judges

unified system of justice

There are two types of courts:

1. Magistrates' courts - considered minor civil cases, the damage for which did not exceed 500 rubles. Judges were elected at county assemblies and approved by the senate.

2. General courts were of 3 types: Criminal and grave - in district court. Particularly important state and political crimes were considered in judicial chamber. The highest court was Senate. Judges in general courts were appointed by the tsar, and jurors were elected at provincial assemblies.

Disadvantages: small estate courts continued to exist - for the peasants. For political processes, a Special Presence of the Senate was created, meetings were held behind closed doors, which violated the attack of publicity.

Military reform :

1874 - Charter on military service on the all-class military service of men who have reached the age of 20. The term of active service was set in the ground forces - 6 years, in the navy - 7 years. Recruiting was abolished. The terms of active military service were determined by the educational qualification. Persons with higher education served 0.5 years. To raise the competence of the top military leadership, the military ministry was transformed into general staff. The whole country was divided into 6 military regions. The army was reduced, military settlements were liquidated. In the 60s, the rearmament of the army began: the replacement of smooth-bore weapons with rifled ones, the introduction of steel artillery pieces, the improvement of the horse park, the development of the military steam fleet. For the training of officers, military gymnasiums, cadet schools and academies were created. All this made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and, at the same time, to increase its combat effectiveness.

From military service were released if there was 1 child in the family, if he had 2 children, or if he had elderly parents on his support. Cane discipline was abolished. Humanization of relations in the army has passed.

Reform in the field of education :

1864 In fact, an accessible all-estate education was introduced. Zemstvo, parochial, Sunday and private schools arose along with state schools. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones. The curriculum in gymnasiums was determined by universities, which created the possibility of a system of succession. During this period, secondary education for women was developed, and women's gymnasiums began to be created. Women are beginning to be admitted to universities as free students. University arr.: Alexander 2 gave the universities more freedom:

students could create student orgs

received the right to create their own newspapers and magazines without censorship

all volunteers were admitted to the universities

students were given the right to choose a rector

stud self-management was introduced in the form of a council of a fact

corporative systems of students and teachers were created.

Significance of reforms:

contributed to the more rapid development of capitalist relations in Russia.

contributed to the beginning of the formation of bourgeois freedoms in the Russian society (freedom of speech, personality, organizations, etc.). The first steps were taken to expand the role of the public in the life of the country and turn Russia into a bourgeois monarchy.

contributed to the formation of civic consciousness.

contributed to the rapid development of culture and education in Russia.

The initiators of the reforms were some top government officials, the “liberal bureaucracy”. This explained the inconsistency, incompleteness and narrowness of most of the reforms. The assassination of Alexander II changed the course of the government. And the proposal of Loris-Melikov was rejected.

The implementation of reforms gave impetus to the rapid growth of capitalism in all areas of industry. A free labor force appeared, the process of capital accumulation became more active, the domestic market expanded and ties with the world grew.

Features of the development of capitalism in the industry of Russia had a number of features:

1)Industry wear multilayered character, i.e. large-scale machine industry coexisted with manufacturing and small-scale (handicraft) production.

2) uneven distribution of industry across the territory of Russia. Highly developed areas of St. Petersburg, Moscow. Ukraine 0- highly developed and undeveloped - Siberia, middle Asia, Far East.

3)Uneven development by industry. Textile production was the most advanced in terms of technical equipment, heavy industry (mining, metallurgical, oil) was rapidly gaining momentum. Mechanical engineering was poorly developed. Characteristic for the country was state intervention in the industrial sector through loans, government subsidies, government orders, financial and customs policy. This laid the foundation for the formation of a system of state capitalism. The insufficiency of domestic capital caused an influx of foreign capital. Investors from Europe were attracted by cheap labor, raw materials and, consequently, the possibility of making high profits. Trade. In the second half of the 18th century completed the formation of the all-Russian market. The main commodity was agricultural products, primarily bread. Trade in manufactured goods grew not only in the city, but also in the countryside. Iron ore and coal were widely sold. Wood, oil. International trade- bread (export). Cotton was imported (imported) from America, metals and cars, luxury goods from Europe. Finance. The State Bank was created, which received the right to issue banknotes. State funds were distributed only by the Ministry of Finance. A private and state credit system was formed, it contributed to the development of the most important industries (railway construction). Foreign capital was invested in banking, industry, railway construction and played a significant role in the financial life of Russia. Capitalism in Russia was established in 2 stages. 60-70 years were the 1st stage, when the restructuring of industry was going on. 80-90 economic recovery.

RUSSIAN HISTORY

ESSAY

Great reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century. Alexander II .

Content:

I.I.Alexander II before the coronation and in the first years of his reign.

II.II."Great Reforms" of 1863-1874.

A. The need for reform.

B. The abolition of serfdom.

B. Zemstvo reform.

D. Urban reform.

D. Judicial reform.

E. Military reform.

J. Financial reforms.

Z. Reforms in the field of education.

I. Reforms in the field of printing.

III.III.The assassination of the emperor.

IV.IV.The significance of the reforms of Alexander II in the history of the state.

I. I. Alexander II before the coronation and in the first years of his reign.

BUT Alexander II - Emperor of All Russia, the eldest son of Emperor Nikolai Pavlovich and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, was born in Moscow on April 17, 1818.

Naturally, great importance was given to the upbringing and education of the future monarch. His educators were General Merder (company commander at the school of guards ensigns, who had remarkable pedagogical abilities, “a meek disposition and a rare mind”), M. M. Speransky, E. F. Kankrin. No less significant was the influence of another mentor - the famous poet Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, the head of his class studies. I would like to dwell in more detail on the system of education of Zhukovsky, which provided not only general knowledge of the then accepted extensive set of subjects and four foreign languages, but also purely specialized knowledge: about the state, its laws, finances, foreign policy and formed a system of worldview. The basic principles of the upbringing of the Tsarevich looked like this:

WHO AM I? The doctrine of man, united by Christian doctrine.

WHAT WAS I? History, sacred history.

WHAT SHOULD I BE? Private and public morality.

WHAT AM I DESIGNATED FOR? Revelation religion, metaphysics, the concept of God and the immortality of the soul.

And at the end (and not at the beginning) law, social history, state economy, statistics arising from everything.

The acquired knowledge was reinforced by numerous travels. He was the first of the royal family to visit (in 1837) Siberia, and the result of this visit was to mitigate the fate of political exiles. Later, while in the Caucasus, the Tsarevich distinguished himself during the attack of the highlanders, for which he was awarded the Order of St. George 4th degree. In 1837, at the request of Nicholas I, he undertook a trip to Europe for educational purposes. He traveled to Switzerland, Austria, Italy and stayed for a long time in Berlin, Weimar, Munich, Vienna, Turin, Florence, Rome and Naples.

An important role in the life of Alexander II was played by a visit to Darmstadt, where he met Princess Maximiliana-Wilhelmina-Augusta-Sophia-Maria (born July 27, 1824), the adopted daughter of Louis II, Duke of Hesse, who soon became the wife of the Tsarevich, Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna.

From the age of 16, Alexander successfully took part in management affairs, first sporadically, and then systematically. At the age of 26 he became a "full general" and had a fairly professional military training. AT last years reign of Emperor Nicholas and during his travels he repeatedly replaced his father.

Alexander II ascended the throne on February 19, 1855 at the age of 36. He was to go down in history under the name of the Liberator. Already on the day of the coronation, August 26, the new manifesto of the sovereign was marked by a number of favors. Recruitment was suspended for three years, all state arrears, miscalculations, etc., were forgiven; various criminals were released, or at least the punishment was mitigated, including an amnesty for political prisoners - the surviving Decembrists, Petrashevites, participants in the Polish uprising of 1831; Recruitment of minor Jews was canceled, and recruitment between the latter was ordered to be carried out on a general basis; free travel abroad was allowed, etc. But all these measures were only the threshold of those global reforms that marked the reign of Alexander II.

During this period, the Crimean War was in full swing and took an unfavorable turn, where Russia had to deal with the combined forces of almost all the major European powers. Despite his peacefulness, which was also known in Europe, Alexander expressed his firm determination to continue the struggle and achieve peace, which was soon achieved. Representatives of seven states (Russia, France, Austria, England, Prussia, Sardinia and Turkey) gathered in Paris, and on March 18, 1856, a peace treaty was concluded. The peace of Paris, although not beneficial for Russia, was nevertheless honorable for her in view of such numerous and powerful opponents. However, its disadvantageous side - the limitation of Russian naval forces on the Black Sea - was eliminated during the life of Alexander II.

II. "Great reforms" of the 60-70s.

A. The need for reform.

P At the end of the Crimean War, many internal shortcomings of the Russian state were revealed. Changes were needed, and the country was looking forward to them. Then the emperor uttered the words that became for a long time the slogan of Russia: "Let her internal improvement be affirmed and improved; let truth and mercy reign in her courts; let the desire for enlightenment and all useful activity develop everywhere and with renewed vigor ..."

In the first place, of course, was the idea of ​​liberating the serfs. In his speech to representatives of the Moscow nobility, Alexander II said: "It is better to cancel it from above than to wait until it is itself canceled from below." There was no other way out, since every year the peasants expressed their dissatisfaction with the existing system more and more. The corvée form of exploitation of the peasant expanded, which caused crisis situations. First of all, the productivity of the labor of the serfs began to decline, as the landowners wanted to produce more products and thereby undermined the strength of the peasant economy. The most far-sighted landlords realized that forced labor was much inferior in productivity to hired labor (For example, a large landowner A.I. Koshelev wrote about this in his article “Hunting more than captivity” in 1847). But hiring workers required considerable expenses from the landowner at a time when serf labor was free. Many landowners tried to introduce new farming systems, apply the latest technology, purchase improved varieties of thoroughbred cattle, and so on. Unfortunately, such measures led them to ruin and, accordingly, to increased exploitation of the peasants. The debts of landowners' estates to credit institutions grew. Further development of the economy on the serf system was impossible. In addition, it, having existed in Russia much longer than in European countries took on a very rigid form.

However, there is another point of view regarding this reform, according to which, by the middle of the 19th century, serfdom was still far from exhausting its capabilities and opposition to the government was very weak. Neither economic nor social catastrophe threatened Russia, but by retaining serfdom, it could drop out of the ranks of the great powers.

The peasant reform entailed the transformation of all aspects of state and public life. A number of measures were envisaged to restructure local government, the judiciary, education and, later, the army. These were really major changes, comparable only to the reforms of Peter I.

B. The abolition of serfdom.

3 January 1857, the first significant step was taken, which served as the beginning of the reform: the creation of the Secret Committee under the direct supervision and chairmanship of the emperor himself. It included: Prince Orlov, Count Lanskoy, Count Bludov, Minister of Finance Brock, Count V.F. Adlerberg, Prince V.A. Dolgorukov, Minister of State Property M.N. Muravyov, Prince P.P. Gagarin, Baron M.A. Korf and Ya.I. Rostovtsev. The purpose of the committee was designated as "discussion of measures to organize the life of the landlord peasants." Thus, the government tried to get initiative from the nobility in resolving this issue. The word "liberation" has not yet been spoken. But the committee acted very sluggishly. More precise actions began to be carried out later.

February 1858. The secret committee was renamed the “Main Committee on the Landlord Peasants Retiring from Serfdom”, and a year later (March 4, 1859), Editorial Commissions were established under the committee, which reviewed the materials prepared by the provincial committees and drafted a law on the emancipation of the peasants. . There were two opinions here: the majority of the landlords proposed to free the peasants without land at all or with small allotments, while the liberal minority proposed to release them with land for redemption. At first, Alexander II shared the majority's point of view, but then he came to the conclusion that it was necessary to allocate land to the peasants. Historians usually associate such a decision with the strengthening of the peasant movement: the Tsar was afraid of a repetition of the “Pugachevism”. But no less important role was played by the presence in the government of an influential grouping, called the "liberal bureaucracy".

The draft "Regulations on the Peasants" was practically prepared at the end of August 1859, but for some time it was subject to minor corrections and clarifications. In October 1860, the Editorial Commissions, having completed their work, handed over the draft to the Main Committee, where it was discussed again and underwent further changes, but this time in favor of the landowners. On January 28, 1861, the project was submitted for consideration by the last instance - the State Council, which adopted them with some changes, in the sense of reducing the size of the peasant allotment.

Finally, on February 19, 1861, the "Regulations on the peasants who emerged from serfdom", which included 17 legislative acts, were signed by Alexander II. On the same day, the manifesto “On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of the state of free rural inhabitants” followed, in which it was proclaimed the release of 22.6 million peasants from serfdom.

The "Regulations" applied to 45 provinces of European Russia, in which there were 112,000 landowners' estates. First of all, it was declared obligatory for the landowner to allocate his former peasants, in addition to the estate land, arable and haymaking in a certain amount. Secondly, it was declared obligatory for the peasants to accept the allotment and keep in their use, for the duties established in favor of the landowner, the secular land allotted to them during the first nine years (until February 19, 1870). After nine years, individual members of the community were given the right both to leave it and to refuse to use field lands and lands if they bought their estate; the society itself also receives the right not to accept for its use such plots that individual peasants refuse. Thirdly, with regard to the size of the peasant allotment and the payments associated with it, according to general rules, it is customary to base on voluntary agreements between landowners and peasants, for which purpose to conclude a charter charter through mediators established by the situation, their congresses and provincial presences for peasant affairs, and in western provinces - and special verification commissions.

The “Regulation”, however, was not limited to the rules for allocating land to the peasants for permanent use, but made it easier for them to buy the allotted plots into their property with the help of a state redemption operation, and the government gave the peasants a loan for the land they acquired a certain amount with payment by installments for 49 years and, giving this amount to the landowner in state interest-bearing papers, he took all further settlements with the peasants upon himself. Upon approval by the government of the redemption transaction, all obligatory relations between the peasants and the landowner were terminated, and the latter entered the category of peasant proprietors.

"Regulations" were gradually extended to the peasants of the palace, appanage, ascribed and state.

But as a result of this, the peasantry remained bound by the community, and the land allocated to it turned out to be clearly insufficient to meet the needs of an ever-growing population. The peasant remained completely dependent on the rural community (the former “world”), which, in turn, was completely controlled by the authorities; personal allotments were transferred to the ownership of peasant societies, which periodically redistributed them “equalizing”.

In the spring and summer of 1861, the peasants, who did not receive, as expected, "full freedom", organized many uprisings. Outrage was caused by such facts as, for example: for two years the peasants remained subordinate to the landowner, were obliged to pay dues and perform corvée, were deprived of a significant part of the land, and those allotments that were given to them as property had to be redeemed from the landowner. During 1861 there were 1860 peasant uprisings. Peasant performances in the village of Bezdna, Kazan province, are considered one of the largest. Subsequently, disappointment with the inconsistency of the reform was growing not only among former serfs: articles by A. Herzen and N. Ogarev in Kolokol, N. Chernyshevsky in Sovremennik.

B. Zemstvo reform.

P after the peasant "Regulations" in the series administrative reforms one of the most important places is occupied, without any doubt, by the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions", which was published on January 1, 1864.

According to the regulation, non-estate elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvos - were introduced. They were elected by all estates for a three-year term and consisted of administrative bodies (county and provincial zemstvo assemblies) and executive bodies (county and provincial zemstvo councils). Elections to zemstvo administrative bodies - meetings of vowels (deputies) - were held on the basis of a property qualification, by curia. The first curia (landowners) consisted of owners of land from 200 to 800 acres or real estate worth from 15,000 rubles. The second curia (city) united the owners of urban industrial and commercial establishments with an annual turnover of at least 6,000 rubles and owners of real estate for at least 2,000 rubles. The elections for the third curia (rural peasant societies) were multistage. Zemstvo assemblies elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils - consisting of a chairman and several members.

Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions, their activities were limited mainly to solving local issues. They were responsible for public education, for public health, for the timely delivery of food, for the quality of roads, for insurance, for veterinary care, and much more.

All this required a lot of money, so the zemstvos were allowed to introduce new taxes, impose duties on the population, and form zemstvo capitals. With its full development, zemstvo activity was supposed to cover all aspects of local life. New forms of local self-government not only made it all-class, but also expanded the range of its powers. Self-government was so widespread that many were understood as a transition to a representative form of government, so the government soon became noticeable desire to keep the activities of zemstvos at the local level, and not allow zemstvo corporations to communicate with each other.

In the late 1970s, zemstvos were introduced into 35 out of 59 Russian provinces.

G. Urban reform (in continuation of the Zemstvo).

1 On June 6, 1870, the "City Regulations" were published, according to which in 509 out of 1130 cities elective self-government was introduced - city dumas elected for four years. The city duma (administrative body) elected its permanent executive body - the city government, which consisted of the mayor (also elected for four years) and several members. The mayor was simultaneously the chairman of both the city duma and the city government. City councils were under the control of government officials.

The right to elect and be elected to the city duma had the right only to residents with a property qualification (mainly owners of houses, commercial and industrial establishments, banks). The first electoral assembly included large taxpayers who contributed a third of city taxes, the second - smaller ones, paying another third of taxes, the third - all the rest. In the largest cities, the number of vowels (elected) averaged 5.6% of the population. Thus, the bulk of the urban population was excluded from participation in urban self-government.

The competence of city self-government was limited to solving purely economic issues (improvement of cities, construction of hospitals, schools, care for the development of trade, fire prevention measures, city taxation).

D. Judicial reform.

AT among the reforms, one of the leading places, undoubtedly, belongs to the judicial reform. This deeply thought-out reform had a strong and direct influence on the entire system of state and public life. She introduced into it completely new, long-awaited principles - the complete separation of the judiciary from the administrative and accusatory, the publicity and openness of the court, the independence of judges, the advocacy and the adversarial procedure of legal proceedings.

The country was divided into 108 judicial districts.

The essence of judicial reform is as follows:

The court is made oral and public;

The power of the judiciary is separated from the prosecution and belongs to the courts without any participation of the administrative power;

The main form of legal proceedings is the adversarial process;

The case on the merits can be dealt with no more than in two instances. Two types of courts were introduced: world and general. The magistrate's courts, represented by a magistrate, tried criminal and civil cases, the damage in which did not exceed 500 rubles. Justices of the peace were elected by district zemstvo assemblies, approved by the Senate, and could be dismissed only at their own request or by court order. The general court consisted of three instances: the district court, the judicial chamber, the Senate. The district courts heard serious civil suits and criminal (juror) cases. The Trial Chambers heard appeals and were the court of first instance for political and state affairs. The Senate was the highest judicial instance and could cancel the decisions of the courts submitted for cassation.

In cases of crimes involving punishments, connected with the deprivation of all or some of the rights and advantages of the state, the determination of guilt is left to jurors elected from local residents of all classes;

Eliminates clerical secrecy;

Both for intercession in cases and for the defense of defendants, there are sworn attorneys at the courts, who are under the supervision of special councils composed of the same corporation.

Judicial statutes extended to 44 provinces and were introduced into them for more than thirty years.

In 1863, a law was passed that abolished corporal punishment with gauntlets, whips, whips and brands on the verdicts of civil and military courts. Women were completely exempted from corporal punishment. But the rods were kept for the peasants (according to the verdicts of the volost courts), for the exiled, hard labor and penal soldiers.

E. Military reform.

AT military administration has also undergone transformations.

Already at the beginning of the reign, military settlements were destroyed. Degrading corporal punishment was abolished.

Particular attention was paid to raising the level of general education of army officers through the reform of military educational institutions. Military gymnasiums and cadet schools with a two-year term of study were created. They included persons of all classes.

In January 1874, all-class military service was proclaimed. The Supreme Manifesto on this occasion said: "Protection of the throne and the Fatherland is the sacred duty of every Russian subject ...". Under the new law, all young people who have reached the age of 21 are called up, but the government determines the required number of recruits every year, and draws only this number from the recruits (usually no more than 20-25% of recruits were called up for service). The call was not subject to the only son of the parents, the only breadwinner in the family, and also if the older brother of the recruit is serving or has served his service. Those enlisted in the service are listed in it: in the ground forces 15 years: 6 years in the ranks and 9 years in the reserve, in the navy - 7 years of active service and 3 years in the reserve. For those who received elementary education the term of active service is reduced to 4 years, those who graduated from a city school - up to 3 years, a gymnasium - up to one and a half years, and those who had higher education - up to six months.

Thus, the result of the reform was the creation of a small peacetime army with a significant trained reserve in case of war.

The system of military command and control has undergone fundamental changes in order to strengthen control over the locations of troops. The result of this revision was approved on August 6, 1864 "Regulations on the military district administrations." Based on this "Regulations", nine military districts were initially organized, and then (August 6, 1865) four more. In each district, a chief commander was appointed, appointed at the direct highest discretion, bearing the title of commander of the troops of the military district. This position may also be assigned to the local governor-general. In some districts, an assistant to the commander of the troops is also appointed.

To late XIX century, the number of the Russian army was (per 130 million population): officers, doctors and officials - 47 thousand, lower ranks - 1 million 100 thousand. Then these figures declined and reached 742,000 people, while the military potential was maintained.

In the 60s, at the insistence of the Ministry of War, railways were built to the western and southern borders of Russia, and in 1870 railway troops appeared. During the 70s, the technical re-equipment of the army was basically completed.

Caring for the defenders of the Motherland was manifested in everything, even in small things. For example, for more than a hundred years (until the 80s of the XIX century), boots were sewn without distinction between the right and left legs. It was believed that during a combat alarm, a soldier had no time to think about which boot to wear, on which leg.

Special treatment was given to the prisoners. Soldiers who were taken prisoner and were not in the service of the enemy, upon returning home, received a salary from the state for the entire time they were in captivity. The prisoner was considered a victim. And those who distinguished themselves in battles were waiting for military awards. Orders of Russia were especially highly valued. They gave such privileges that they even changed the position of a person in society.

J. Financial reforms.

One of the main means of raising the economic power of the country was considered to be the construction of a network of railways linking the central regions of the European part of Russia. In connection with it, foreign leave increased 10 times, and the import of goods almost also increased. The number of commercial and industrial enterprises increased markedly, as well as the number of factories and plants. Credit institutions appeared - banks, headed by the State Bank (1860).

It was at this time that the first coal-mining and metallurgical enterprises were created in Ukraine and oil-producing enterprises in Baku.

Z. Reforms in the field of education.

H public education also attracted the attention of the king. Of particular importance in this regard was the publication of a new and general charter of Russian universities on July 18, 1863, in the development of which, on the initiative of the Minister of Education A.V. Golovkin, participated in a special commission at the main board of schools, composed mainly of professors from St. Petersburg University. The charter granted the universities a fairly broad autonomy: the election of the rector, deans, professors was introduced, the University Council received the right to independently resolve all scientific, educational, administrative and financial issues. And in connection with the development of universities, science began to develop at a rapid pace.

According to the Regulations on Primary Public Schools approved on June 14, 1864, the state, church and society (zemstvos and cities) were to jointly educate the people.

On November 19, 1864, a new regulation on gymnasiums appeared, which proclaimed equality in admission to all estates. But because of the high pay, it was available only to children of wealthy parents.

Attention was also paid to women's education. Already in the 60s, instead of the former closed women's institutions, open ones began to be arranged, with the admission of girls of all classes, and these new institutions were under the authority of the institutions of Empress Maria. Similar gymnasiums began to be approved by the Ministry of Public Education. In 1870, on May 24, a new Regulation on Women's Gymnasiums and Progymnasiums of the Ministry of Public Education was approved. The need for higher female education led to the establishment of pedagogical courses and higher female courses in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan and Odessa.

I. Reforms in the field of printing.

In 1857, the government put the question of revising the censorship charter on the agenda. After the permission in 1858 to discuss in the press the problems of social life and the activities of the government, the number of periodicals (1860 - 230) and book titles (1860 -2058) increased sharply.

Already in 1862, the main department of censorship was closed and some of its duties were assigned to the Ministry of the Interior, and the other - directly to the Minister of Education.

On April 6, 1865, the “Temporary Rules on the Press” were approved, which exempted from preliminary censorship original works of at least ten pages, and translated works of at least twenty sheets, and some periodicals at the discretion of the Minister of the Interior. For periodicals, a large cash deposit was additionally required. Official and scientific publications were exempted from censorship.

The "Temporary Rules on the Press" operated practically unchanged for 40 years.

III. III. The assassination of the emperor.

And Emperor Alexander II, who caused delight and surprise of enlightened people of the whole world, also met ill-wishers. Pursuing incomprehensible goals, the organizers created a number of attempts on the life of the sovereign, who was the pride and glory of Russia. On March 1, 1881, the sovereign, for whom a large population was ready to lay down his life, died a martyr's death from a villainous hand that threw an explosive projectile.

On this fateful day, Emperor Alexander II decided to make a divorce (the procedure for sending out daily guards for a shift). The path lay along a narrow street, made up of the garden of the Grand Duchess, fenced with a stone fence the height of a man and a lattice of the Catherine Canal. The terrain is very impassable, and if it is true that the sovereign chose it in view of the anonymous threats he received, then it is difficult to imagine why an ambush awaited him precisely on this path, except because they noticed a large, against the usual, number of police on it. Be that as it may, but when the sovereign's carriage reached the Theater Bridge, there was an explosion that broke open the back of the carriage, which immediately stopped. The sovereign emerged from it unharmed, but one of the escorts, galloping behind, and a sapper officer, walking along the sidewalk along the stone wall of the Mikhailovsky Garden, were mortally wounded by a thrown bomb. The sovereign's coachman, sensing trouble, turned to him from the goat: "Let's go, sovereign!" The chief of police, galloping behind, jumped out of the sleigh with the same request to go faster. But the emperor did not listen and took a few steps back: "I want to see my wounded." At this time, the crowd managed to stop a healthy kid who threw a bomb. The sovereign turned to him: “So it was you who wanted to kill me?” But he did not succeed in finishing, as the second bomb exploded in front of him, and he lowered himself with the words: “Help.” They rushed to him, lifted him up, put the chief of police in the sledge (who himself received 45 wounds from small fragments of the bomb, but not a single fatal one) and drove him away. A little over an hour later, at 3:35 pm, Tsar Alexander II died in the Winter Palace.

The eminent Russian philosopher V.V. Rozanov called the assassination of the emperor “a mixture of Madness and Meanness”.

The political testament of Alexander II was destroyed. Alexander III, in the consciousness of his past delusions and in an effort to return to the ideal of the kings of Moscow, turned to the people with a manifesto, which affirmed the inviolability of autocratic power and the exclusive responsibility of the autocrat before God.

The Russian Empire thus returned to the old traditional paths on which it had once found glory and prosperity.

IV. Significance of the reign of Alexander II in the history of Russia.

BUT Alexander II left a deep mark on history, he managed to do what other autocrats were afraid to take on - the liberation of the peasants from serfdom. We enjoy the fruits of his reforms to this day.

The internal reforms of Alexander II are comparable in scale only to the reforms of Peter I. The tsar-reformer made truly grandiose transformations without social cataclysms and fratricidal war.

With the abolition of serfdom, commercial and industrial activity "resurrected", a stream of workers poured into the cities, and new areas for entrepreneurship opened up. Old ties were restored between cities and counties and new ones were created.

The fall of serfdom, the equalization of all before the court, the creation of new liberal forms of social life led to the freedom of the individual. And the feeling of this freedom awakened the desire to develop it. Dreams were created about the establishment of new forms of family and social life.

During his reign, Russia firmly strengthened its relations with the European powers, and resolved numerous conflicts with neighboring countries.

The tragic death of the emperor greatly changed the further course of history, and it was this event that 35 years later led Russia to death, and Nicholas II to a martyr's wreath.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE.

1. 1. S.F. Platonov "Lectures on Russian history", Moscow, publishing house "Higher School", 1993.

2. 2. V.V. Kargalov, Yu.S. Savelyev, V.A. Fedorov “History of Russia from ancient times to 1917”, Moscow, publishing house “ Russian word", 1998.

3. 3. "History of Russia from antiquity to the present day", edited by M.N. Zuev, Moscow, "Higher School", 1998.

4. 4. "History of the Fatherland for applicants to universities" edited by A.S. Orlov, A.Yu. Polunov and Yu.A. Shchetinov, Moscow, publishing house "Prostor", 1994.

Topic study plan

1. Reasons for reforms in the 1960s and 1970s 19th century
2. Reforms of local self-government.
a) Zemstvo reform
b) Urban reform
3. Judicial reform.
4. Reforms of the education system.
a) School reform.
b) University reform
5. Military reform.

Reforms of Alexander II (1855 - 1881) Peasant (1861) Zemskaya (1864) City (1870) Judicial (1864) Military (1874) Education (1863-1)

Reforms of Alexander II
(1855 - 1881)
Peasant (1861)
Zemskaya (1864)
Urban (1870)
Judicial (1864)
Military (1874)
In area
enlightenment (1863-1864)

*Historians of the 19th – early 20th centuries. rated these reforms as great (K.D. Kavelin, V.O. Klyuchevsky, G.A. Dzhanshiev). *Soviet historians considered them unfinished

*Historians of the 19th – early 20th centuries.
rated these reforms as great
(K.D. Kavelin, V.O. Klyuchevsky, G.A. Dzhanshiev).
*Soviet historians considered them
incomplete and
half-hearted
(M.N. Pokrovsky, N.M. Druzhinina, V.P.
Volobuev).

Name
Peasant
(1861)
Zemskaya (1864)
Urban (1870
G.)
Judicial (1864
G.)
Military (1874)
In area
enlightenment
(1863-1864)
Content
reforms
Their meaning
Them
limitations

Peasant Reform: Manifesto and Regulations February 19, 1861

Results
peasant
reforms
Worn unfinished
character,
gave rise to social
antagonisms
(contradictions)
opened the way
to development
bourgeois relations
in Russia
"Will"
without land
6

reforms
Their meaning
Krestyansk turning point,
aya (1861) line between
feudalism and
capitalism. Created
conditions for
statements
capitalist
way of life as
dominant.
Their shortcomings
Saved
feudal
vestiges;
peasants are not
received land in
complete
own,
should be
pay a ransom
lost part
earth (segments).

Local government reform

In 1864, the “Regulations
about zemstvo institutions. In counties
and provinces created bodies
local government -
zemstvos.

Zemstvo reform (1864). “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions”

The content of the reform
Creation of provincial and district
zemstvos -
elected bodies of local self-government
in the countryside
Functions of zemstvos
Maintenance of local schools, hospitals;
construction of local roads;
organization of agricultural statistics, etc.
9

10. Dictionary

Zemstvos are elected
local authorities
self-government
deciding economic
local questions.

11. Zemstvo reform (1864). “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions”

The structure of zemstvo institutions
Zemstvo administration
Zemstvo Assembly
executive agency
elected
for 3 years
governing body
in vowels
(vowels - elected members
zemstvo assemblies and city dumas)
were elected
population
on a census basis
by class
sign,
11
met annually

12. Zemstvo reform

In the zemstvo, including in its permanent bodies
(upravah) representatives of all estates worked together.
But the leading role was nevertheless played by the nobles, who looked at
"male" vowels from top to bottom. And peasants often
treated participation in the work of the zemstvo as a duty and
were elected to the vowels of the debtors.
Zemstvo Assembly in
provinces. Engraving by
drawing by K. A. Trutovsky.

13.

Curia - ranks, on
shared by voters
on property and
social signs in
pre-revolutionary Russia
elections.

14. Zemstvo reform

1 vowel (deputy) for landowning and peasant
curias was elected from every 3 thousand peasant allotments.
According to the city curia - from the owners of property,
equal in value to the same amount of land.
?
How many votes of the peasants was equal to the voice of the landowner,
having 800 dess., if the shower allotment was 4 dess.?
In this case, 1 vote of the landowner = 200 votes of the peasants.
Why, when creating Zemstvo bodies, it was not provided
equal suffrage for peasants,
townspeople and landowners?
Because in this case the educated minority
would have been "drowned" in the illiterate ignorant peasant masses.

15. Zemstvo reform

Zemstvo assemblies met once a year:
county - for 10 days, provincial - for 20 days.
The estate composition of the zemstvo assemblies
nobles
Merchants
Peasants
Other
county zemstvo
41,7
10,4
38,4
9,5
Provincial Zemstvo
74,2
10,9
10,6
4,3
?
Why among the provincial vowels the share of peasants
was noticeably lower than among the county?
The peasants were not ready to deal with distant
from their daily needs by provincial affairs.
And getting to the provincial town was far and expensive.

16. Zemstvo reform

Zemstvo assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky.
Zemstvos received the right to invite
the work of specialists in certain industries
households - teachers, doctors, agronomists -
zemstvo employees
Zemstvos were introduced at the county level and
provinces
Zemstvos decide not only local
economic affairs, but also actively
get involved in the political struggle

17.

Your comments.
Zemstvos.
Moscow nobleman Kireev
wrote about zemstvos:
“We, the nobles, are vowels; merchants,
tradesmen, clergy
consonants, the peasants are voiceless.
Explain what you wanted to say
author?

18. Electoral system in Russia

Principles
electoral
systems
Universal
Equal
direct
Only men
curia,
property
qualification
Multistage

19. Zemstvo reform

Zemstvo assembly in the province.
Engraving after a drawing by K.A. Trutovsky.
1865
?
What groups are divided into
Zemstvo vowels in the figure
K. Trutovsky?
Zemstvos were engaged
exclusively
economic
questions:
road construction,
fire fighting,
agronomic
helping the peasants
creation
food
stocks in case
crop failure
content
schools and hospitals.
For this purpose they gathered
land taxes.

20.

Off-road in the Tver province.
Country doctor.
Hood. I.I. Tvorozhnikov.
Thanks to
zemstvo doctors
villager
first received
qualified
medical assistance.
The local doctor was
station wagon:
therapist, surgeon,
dentist
obstetrician.
Sometimes operations
had to do
in a peasant's hut.

21. Zemstvo reform

A special role among the zemstvo
employees were played by teachers.
?
In what do you think
was this role?
Zemsky teacher not only
taught children arithmetic
and literacy, but was often
The arrival of the teacher in the village.
and the only literate
Hood. A. Stepanov.
man in the village.
Thanks to this, the teacher became for the peasants
bearer of knowledge and new ideas.
It was among the zemstvo teachers that there were especially many
liberal and democratically minded people.

22. Zemstvo reform

Lesson in the Zemstvo school
Penza province. 1890s
?
What, judging by the photo,
distinguished the zemstvo school
from government or
parochial?
In 1865–1880
in Russia there were 12 thousand.
rural zemstvo schools, and
in 1913 - 28 thousand.
Zemstvo teachers taught
over 2 million literacy
peasant children, incl.
girls.
True, initial
training has not been
compulsory.
Studying programs
worked out
Ministry
enlightenment.

23. Zemstvo reform (1864). “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions”

contributed to the development
Meaning
education,
healthcare,
local improvement;
became centers
liberal social movement
introduced initially in 35 provinces
(by 1914 they operated in 43 out of 78 provinces)
Limitation
volost zemstvos were not created
acted under the control of the administration
(governors and ministries of the interior)
23

24.

reforms
Zemskaya
(1864)
Their meaning
Around Zemstvos
grouped
the most energetic
democratic
intelligentsia.
The activity was
aimed to
improvement
the masses of the people.
Their shortcomings
class
elections;
limited circle
questions
solved
zemstvos.

25. Urban Reform

City reform began to be prepared in 1862, but because of the assassination attempt
on Alexander II, its implementation was delayed.
The city regulation was adopted in 1870.
The highest body of city self-government
remained the City Council.
Elections were held in three curiae.
Curia were formed on the basis of a property qualification.
A list of voters was compiled in descending order of the amount of paid
them city taxes.
Each curia paid 1/3 of taxes.
The first curia was the richest and smallest,
the third is the poorest and most numerous.
What do you think: city elections were held
on an all-estate or non-estate basis?
?

26. Urban Reform

City government:
Urban
thought
(administrative
organ)
Voters
1st Curia
elects
city ​​head
Urban
council
(executive
organ)
Voters
2nd curia
Voters
3rd curia

27. Urban Reform

Samara
mayor
P.V. Alabin.
The head of the city government was
elected mayor.
In large cities, the mayor
usually chose a nobleman
or a wealthy guild merchant.
Like zemstvos, city dumas and councils
were in charge of exclusively local
landscaping:
paving and street lighting, maintenance
hospitals, almshouses, orphanages and
city ​​schools,
trade
and industry
water supply device
and urban transport.

28. City reform of 1870 – “City position”

essence
Creation of bodies in the cities,
similar to zemstvos
by function and structure
city ​​head
supervised
City government
elected
City Duma as part of vowels
were elected by the population on a non-estate basis
28

29.

reforms
Urban
(1870)
Their meaning
Contributed
wide
segments of the population to
management that
served as a prerequisite
to form in
Russian civil
society and legal
states.
Their shortcomings
Activity
urban
self-government
controlled
state.

30. Judicial reform

31. Judicial reform - 1864

Principles of legal proceedings
Zemstvo assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky.
no estate
- the court's decision
does not depend on
class
accessories
accused
Selectivity -
justice of the peace
and jurors
Glasnost - on
court sessions
could
be present
public, press
could report
trial
process
Competitiveness -
participation in court
prosecutor's process
(accusation) and
lawyer (protection)
Independence -
couldn't judge
influence
administration

32. Judicial reform of 1864

Basis for reform
Judicial Statutes
introduction of jury trial
32

33. Judicial reform of 1864

Basis for reform
Judge
appointed
Ministry
justice
(principle
irremovability of judges)
Judicial Statutes
court introduction
jurors
Sentencing
according
with the law
based on the jury's verdict
33

34. Judicial reform of 1864

jurors
are chosen
from representatives of all classes (!)
based on property qualification
12 people
Take out
verdict (decision)
about guilt, its degree
or the innocence of the defendant
34

35. Judicial reform

Judges received high
salary.
Guilt decision
the accused was taken out
jurors
after hearing
witnesses and arguments
prosecutor and lawyer.
Juror
could become Russian
citizen from 25 to 70 years old
(qualifications - property and
settlement).
The court's decision could be
appealed.

36. Judicial reform of 1864

Additional elements
holding
judicial reform
Were created:
special courts for military personnel
special courts for clergy
magistrates' courts
to deal with minor civil and criminal offenses
36

37. Judicial reform of 1864

The structure of the judiciary in Russia
Senate
supreme judicial and cassation
(cassation - appeal,
lower court judgment appeal)
organ
Judicial chambers
District courts
Advocate
prosecutor
12 jurors (qualification)
Justices of the Peace
courts to consider
the most important things
and appeals
(complaint, appeal for reconsideration)
to decisions of district courts
Courts of First Instance.
Handles complex criminal cases
and civil cases
petty criminal and civil cases
37

38. Judicial reform

Misdemeanors and civil litigation
(claim amount up to 500 rubles)
dealt with the World Court.
World judge
dealt with things alone
could impose a fine (up to 300 rubles),
arrest for up to 3 months or imprisonment
imprisonment for up to 1 year.
Such a trial was simple, quick and cheap.
World judge.
Modern drawing.

39. Judicial reform

Elected Justice of the Peace
zemstvos or city dumas from
number of persons over 25 years of age, with
not lower than secondary education
and judicial experience from three
years.
The justice of the peace should
own real estate
for 15 thousand rubles.
County Congress of Justices of the Peace
Chelyabinsk district.
Appeal decisions
justice of the peace could be on
county convention
world judges.

40. Judicial reform

Modern drawing.
Public Participation:
Participated in the process
12 non-professional
judges - jurors
assessors.
jurors
issued a verdict:
"guilty";
"guilty,
but deserves
indulgence";
"not guilty".
Based on the verdict, the judge
rendered a verdict.

41. Judicial reform

Jurors.
Drawing from the beginning of the 20th century.
?
What can be said
about the composition of the board
jurors, judging
by this picture?
jurors
were elected provincial
zemstvo assemblies
and city councils
based
property qualification,
without regard to class
accessories.

42. Judicial reform

Competitiveness:
In a criminal trial, the accusation
was supported by the prosecutor, and the defense
the defendant was carried out by a lawyer
(attorney at law).
In a jury where the verdict depended
not from professional lawyers,
the role of the lawyer was enormous.
Major Russian lawyers:
K.K. Arseniev, N.P. Karabchevsky,
A.F. Koni, F.N. Plevako, V.D. Spasovich.
Fedor Nikiforovich
Plevako
(1842–1908)
appears in court.

43. Judicial reform

Publicity:
Admission to court hearings
public.
Judicial reports published
in press. Newspapers have special
court reporters.
Portrait of a lawyer
Vladimir Danilovich
Spasovich.
Hood. I.E. Repin.
1891.
Lawyer V.D. Spasovich:
"To a certain extent we are knights of the word
alive, free, more free
now than in print, which will not be appeased
the most zealous ferocious chairmen,
because while the chairman thinks
stop you, the word has already galloped
three versts and you can't get him back."

44. Judicial reform of 1864

Meaning
judicial reform
Created the most advanced
in the then world judicial
system.
Big step
in the development of the principle
"separation of powers"
and democracy
Saving Items
bureaucratic arbitrariness:
punishment
administratively
etc.
preserved a number of vestiges of the past:
special courts.
44

45. Military reform of the 60s - 70s. 19th century

Immediate
push -
defeat
Russia
in the Crimean
war 1853-1856
45

46. ​​Directions of military reform

Directions
Military
educational
establishments
Universal
military
duty
Rearmament
army and
fleet
The result is a mass army of a modern type

47. Military reform

Milyutin D.A.,
military
minister,
initiator
reforms.

48. Military reform

Dmitry Alekseevich
Milyutin
(1816–1912),
war minister
in 1861–1881
The first step in military reform was
repeal in 1855
military settlements.
In 1861, on the initiative of the new military
Minister D.A. Milyutin
service life has been shortened
from 25 to 16 years old.
In 1863 the army was abolished
Physical punishment.
In 1867 was introduced
new military court charter,
based on general principles judicial
reforms (glasnost, competitiveness).

49. Military reform

In 1863, a reform was carried out
military education:
cadet corps converted
to military schools.
Military gymnasiums gave a broad general
education (Russian and foreign
languages, mathematics, physics,
natural science, history).
The teaching load has doubled
but physical and military
training has been reduced.
Dmitry Alekseevich
Milyutin
(1816–1912),
war minister
in 1861–1881

50. 1) The creation of military gymnasiums and schools for the nobility, cadet schools for all classes, the opening of the Military Law Academy (1867) and the Naval

1) Creation of military gymnasiums and
schools for the nobility,
cadet schools for all classes,
opening of the Military Legal
Academy (1867) and
Naval Academy (1877)

51. According to the new charters, the task was to teach the troops only what is necessary in the war (shooting, loose formation, sapper business), the time was reduced

According to the new charters,
the task is to teach the troops only that
necessary in war (shooting,
loose system, sapper business),
reduced time for combat
training, bodily
punishment.

52. Military reform

?
What should be the main measure?
in the course of military reform?
Recruitment cancellation.
?
non-commissioned officer
Russian army.
Hood. V.D. Polenov.
Fragment.
What were the disadvantages
recruiting system?
Inability to quickly increase the army
in wartime, the need to maintain
large army in peacetime.
Recruitment was suitable for serfs,
but not for free people.

53. Military reform

?
Wahmister
dragoon regiment.
1886
What could replace
recruiting system?
Universal conscription.
Introduction of universal conscription
in Russia with its vast territory
required the development of the road network.
Only in 1870 was a commission created
to discuss this issue,
and January 1, 1874
manifesto was published
on the replacement of recruitment duty
universal military service.

54. Military reform

All men were subject to the call
at the age of 21.
Service life was 6 years in the army
and 7 years in the Navy.
The only ones exempted from conscription
breadwinners and only sons.
?
"Listed."
Hood.
ON. Kovalevsky.
Russian soldier
1870s in full
hiking layout.
What was the principle
the basis of military reform:
omnipresence or incompetence?
Formally, the reform was classless,
but in fact estate
largely preserved.

55. Military reform

?
What did they show
remnants of estates
in the Russian army
after 1874?
That the officer
the corps remained
mostly noble,
rank and file -
peasant.
Portrait of a Lieutenant
life guards
Hussar regiment
Count G. Bobrinsky.
Hood. K.E. Makovsky.
Drummer
life guards
Pavlovsky regiment.
Hood. A. Detail.

56. Military reform

During the military reform
benefits have been established for
recruits who had an average
or higher education.
Graduated from the gymnasium served 2 years,
graduates of the university - 6 months.
In addition to the reduced service life
they had the right to live not in the barracks,
and in private apartments.
Volunteer
6th Klyastitsky
hussars

57. Smooth-bore weapons were replaced with rifled ones, cast-iron guns were replaced with steel ones, the Kh. Byrd rifle was adopted by the Russian army

Smoothbore weapons were replaced
rifled,
cast iron tools were replaced with
steel,
adopted by the Russian army
rifle H. Berdan (berdanka),
the construction of the steam fleet began.

58. Military reform

?
In what way do you think social groups military
reform caused discontent and what were his motives?
The conservative nobility was dissatisfied with the fact that
that people from other classes got the opportunity
become officers.
Some nobles resented the fact that they could be called
soldiers along with the peasants.
The merchants were especially dissatisfied,
previously not subject to recruitment duty.
Merchants even offered to take care of the disabled if
they will be allowed to pay off the draft.

59. Military reforms of the 60s - 70s. 19th century

The most important element of the reform is
replacement of the recruiting system
universal conscription
Compulsory military service
for men of all classes from 20 years old
(6 years in the army, 7 years in the navy)
followed by a reserve
There were benefits for people
having higher and secondary education
(rights of volunteers),
the clergy were released
and some other categories of the population
Meaning
creation of massive combat-ready armed forces;
increasing the country's defense capability
59

60.

Military reform of 1874
The meaning of the reform:
the creation of a mass army of modern
type,
raised the authority of military service,
blow to the social order.
Disadvantages of the reform:
miscalculations in the system of organization and
armament of the troops.

61. Education reforms

61

62. Education reforms

school reform
1864
Formation of a new structure of primary and secondary education
Public schools
county
3 years
learning
Parish
since 1884
parochial
schools
Progymnasium
Urban
4 years
learning
6 years
learning
3 years
learning
Elementary education
62

63. School reform (Secondary education)

For the children of nobles and merchants were intended
classical and real gymnasiums.
"Charter of gymnasiums and progymnasiums" November 19, 1864
Progymnasium.
Training period
4 years
classical gymnasium
7 class,
study period 7 years
Real gymnasium
7 class
Term of study 7 years
Cooked
for admission
to the gymnasium.
located
in county
cities.
In a programme
classical gymnasiums
ancient
and foreign languages
ancient history,
ancient literature.
In a programme
real gymnasiums
dominated
maths, physics
other
technical subjects

64. School reform

In 1872, the period of study in classical gymnasiums was
increased to 8 years (7th grade became two years old),
and from 1875 they officially became 8-class.
Real gymnasiums retained a 7-year term of study
and in 1872 they were transformed into real schools.
If graduates of classical gymnasiums entered
to universities without exams, the realists had to
take exams in ancient languages.
Without exams, they entered only technical universities.
?
What caused these restrictions?
for graduates of real schools?
In the classical gymnasiums, the children of the nobility more often studied,
in real life - the children of merchants and commoners.

65. University reform

Andrey Vasilievich
Golovnin
(1821-1886),
Minister of Education
in 1861–1866
University reform has become
first after the abolition of serfdom
rights that was caused
student unrest.
New university charter
instead of the Nikolaev charter of 1835
was adopted June 18, 1863.
The initiator of the new charter was
Minister of Education A.V. Golovnin.
The universities were given autonomy.
University councils were created
and faculties that elected
rector and deans,
awarded academic titles
distributed funds
by departments and faculties.

66. University reform

Andrey Vasilievich
Golovnin
(1821-1886),
Minister of Education
in 1861–1866
Universities have their own
censorship, received foreign
literature without customs clearance.
Universities have
own court and protection,
the police had no access
on the territory of the universities.
Golovnin proposed to create student
organizations and get them involved in
university government, but
State Council rejected it
offer.
?
Why was this proposal
excluded from the charter of universities?

67. Reform in the field of public education

Changes in the education system
University charter
school charter
1863
1864
Autonomy
University Council established
Deciding all internal
questions
Rector election and
teachers
Restrictions lifted
for students
(their wrongdoings
considered
student court)
Gymnasiums
Classic
Prepared for
admission to
university
Real
Prepared for
admission to
higher
technical
educational
establishments

68. Women's education

Student.
Hood. ON THE. Yaroshenko.
In the 60s and 70s. appeared in Russia
women's higher education.
Women were not admitted to universities
but in 1869 the first
Higher women's courses.
The most popular courses are
open V.I. Guerrier in Moscow (1872)
and K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin
in Petersburg (1878)
On the courses Guerrier was only
verbal-historical faculty.
At Bestuzhev courses - mathematical
and verbal-historical department.
Studied in math
2/3 listeners.

69.

Education reforms
(1863-1864)
Significance of reforms:
expansion and improvement
education at all levels.
Disadvantages of the reforms:
inaccessibility of secondary and higher
education for all segments of the population.

70.

reforms
Their meaning
Their shortcomings
Judicial The most advanced in the then Preserved series
vestiges: special
(1864) The world's judicial system.
courts.
Miscalculations in the system
Military Establishment of a mass army
organizations and
(1874) modern type, raised
the authority of military service, armament of the troops.
blow to the social order.
Extension and
inaccessibility
AT
middle and higher
areas of improvement
education for
enlightenment of education at all levels.
all layers
eniya
population.
(1863-1864)

71. Results and significance of the reforms

brought
to a significant acceleration of the development of the country
brought Russia closer
to the level of the leading powers of the world
They were incomplete and incomplete.
In the 80s were replaced by counter-reforms of Alexander III
71

72. Significance of reforms

The advancement of the country along the path of capitalist development, along the path
Zemskoe
meeting
in the province.
by drawing
K.A. Democracy
Trutovsky.
transformation
feudal
MonarchyEngraving
into the bourgeois
and development
The reforms were a step away from
landed state to
legal
The reforms showed
that positive developments in
society can be achieved
not revolutions, but
transformations from above
in peaceful way

73. Summing up

?
What does it consist of historical meaning reforms of the 60s–70s?
Thanks to the reforms of the 60-70s. many daily questions
lives were transferred from the jurisdiction of the bureaucracy
in the conduct of society in the face of zemstvos and city dumas;
the equality of Russian citizens before the law was established;
significantly increased the level of literacy of the population;
Universities got a greater degree of freedom
scientific and educational activities;
censorship for the central press and book publishing was softened;
the army began to be built on the basis of a classless universal military
duty, which corresponded to the principle of equality before the law and
allowed to create prepared reserves.

Carried out in the 60-70s of the 19th century brought with them cardinal changes that affected all the most important aspects of the life of not only the state, but also society. In such a relatively short period of time, a number of reforms were implemented in such areas as the economy, education, culture, administration, and military affairs. In this article, bourgeois reforms will be briefly reviewed and described on all counts.

Russian emperor Alexander 2

In 1855, during a cannonade that thundered near the walls of the besieged Sevastopol, Nicholas 1 suddenly died. The title of emperor passes to his eldest son. Later, he will go down in the great history of Russia as Alexander 2 the Liberator.

The new emperor ascended the throne as an already formed personality - at the age of 36. It must be said that up to this point he did not have his own specific political or economic program, since he was not an adherent of either liberals or reactionaries.

Prerequisites

Alexander Nikolaevich did not perceive and did not share ideas and worldviews that were far from life. He preferred to act, but at the same time he did not go ahead. He was well aware that without compromises and some concessions on his part, it was impossible to effectively manage the state. Therefore, Alexander 2 was sure of the need for transformations in the political circles that govern the state.

The new emperor sought to change the established order that had existed for centuries on the territory of Russia. And he began by returning the Decembrists from Siberia and allowing citizens to freely travel abroad. In addition, he placed new people, more intelligent and educated, in many very important government posts. Also, his brother Konstantin, a staunch liberal, appeared in the Cabinet of Ministers.

In the middle of the 19th century, the new government, as well as conservative circles, already clearly understood that the peasant question must be resolved at all costs. Attempts by the authorities to somehow soften serfdom did not lead to anything, since a whole army of landowners opposed this.

Finally, the prerequisites for bourgeois reforms in Russia regarding the peasant question have finally matured. Serfdom has outlived itself economically. The landlord households, which were kept afloat only thanks to the labor of enslaved peasants, fell into decay. This greatly worried the authorities and the government, which allocated huge amounts of money to support the landowners and their farms.

Abolition of serfdom

The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s could not but affect the bulk of the population Russian Empire- peasantry. Many agreed that reforms in this area should be carried out in the first place. To do this, in 1857 the government created the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs.

To carry out this reform, Alexander 2 issued an order. It spoke of the need to create a number of committees that would develop a project for the liberation of the peasants. Here are the main provisions of this regulation:

• all land must be kept by the landowners as their personal property;
• peasants could receive land plots from the landowner only for working off or dues;
• give peasants permission to buy their estate from the landowner.

Based on this, the Main Committee presented its draft reform and sent it to the State Council for consideration. On February 19, 1861, the tsar approved the "Regulations on the Peasants". Metropolitan Philaret also drew up a royal manifesto on this occasion. And already on March 5, both documents were made public, and from that moment on, the bourgeois reforms of Alexander 2, concerning the peasant question, were launched.

What conditions were placed before them so that they could free themselves from serfdom? Of course, they were not profitable for the peasants. The provisions of 1861 created the most favorable conditions for maintaining the enslaving dependence of the main population of the country on the landowners. In addition, the bourgeois reforms of the 19th century forced the peasants to lease their masters' lands on obviously difficult conditions.

Zemstvo reform

It began on January 1, 1864. The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century, concerning not only county, but also provincial zemstvo institutions, assumed the creation of fundamentally new local governments. Prior to this law, they were bureaucratic bureaucrats and estates. This meant that the peasants were judged by the landlords, and the noblemen guarded their dominance at the state level.

Now, in accordance with the new "Regulations", zemstvo institutions were required to consist of representatives (elected vowels) of all estates without exception, but taking into account the property qualification, i.e. ownership of a business or land. The election of vowels was carried out separately and assumed 3 groups of voters: landowners, city dwellers and peasants.

As a result, the bourgeois reforms of Alexander 2, which introduced the so-called all-estate zemstvo, again transferred the entire leading role to the bourgeoisie and landowners, and the problems that they could solve concerned only local and economic needs. In addition, all their activities were under the control of the leaders of the nobility and governors.

urban reform

It was published on June 16, 1870. According to this provision, city dumas were created, which played the role of administrative bodies, as well as city councils in the form of executive bodies. Thus, the bourgeois reforms of the 1860-1870s, concerning both local zemstvo and city self-government, were built on the same basis.

New provisions did not allow them to go beyond the narrow framework of solving only economic issues. City councils, for example, were engaged in the improvement of the city, developed fire-fighting measures, equipped schools and hospitals, took care of trade, etc. The dependence of city self-government not only on the governors, but also on the government was even greater than that of the zemstvos.

Judicial reform

New commercial and industrial activities, industrial relations, as well as city and zemstvo councils needed updated courts. The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century could not but affect such important areas of public relations.

The courts had to be reformed in such a way that they became free from any influence of the noble administration. In addition, they had to guarantee legal equality for all classes and protect the right to property. To do this, Alexander 2 on November 20, 1864 signed an order on the introduction of judicial reform, supplemented by new charters. They established the principle of universality.

As part of the new reform, 2 types of courts were created. The first is the district, whose duties included the proceedings in civil and criminal cases and the court chambers, which play the role of cassation instances. The second type were magistrates' courts, considering only various minor offenses. An institute of sworn attorneys or lawyers was also created, which provided legal assistance to citizens.

Bourgeois reforms 60-70 years. they also introduced the presence of military courts, which were intended to conduct political trials. But at the same time, special volost courts for peasants and special courts for clergy remained. And this, it should be noted, violated the new principle of all-estate.

Military conversions

The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century also affected the army. This need was caused, first of all, by the defeat of the Russian Empire in the Crimean War and those foreign policy tasks that could be solved solely with the help of the army. She at all times stood guard over the preservation of the unity of the state, and without her it was impossible to resolve issues relating to interstate relations.

Also, the army is the most important body of the tsarist autocracy, with the help of which it fought the unrest that flared up from time to time in many parts of the country. It must always be strong, politically stable, and most importantly combat-ready.

The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s, concerning the transformation of the army, were the first to update the War Ministry, and the entire state was divided into military districts. Recruitment sets of soldiers have been cancelled. Instead, they introduced universal military service. It concerned men over the age of 20 years. Also changed the terms of military service. Instead of the previous 25, a 6-year term was established for soldiers and a 7-year term for employees in the navy.

Education reform

Alexander 2 understood that the bourgeois reforms in Russia would not give the desired effect if the country did not have literate and well-trained specialists. To do this, they began to create new types educational institutions. Gymnasiums were divided into classical ones with an 8-year term of study and real ones, later called schools. The latter trained specialists for various branches of industry and trade. In addition, new universities have opened in different cities of the country. Higher education was also introduced for women.

Importance of Reforms

The significance of the bourgeois reforms can hardly be overestimated. After serfdom was abolished, capitalism in Russia was finally and irrevocably established. From a backward agricultural country, it began to rapidly turn into an agrarian-industrial one.

Also, the abolition of serfdom led to the decomposition of the peasantry itself as a class. This process played an extremely important role in the formation of two new classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century were of great importance for the Russian Empire and its further development. Thanks to them, the country turned into a bourgeois monarchy. But, despite the fact that the reforms were very important, they still turned out to be half-hearted and somewhat inconsistent.