Russia in the second halfXIXcentury
Crimean War 1853 - 1856
The reason for this war was the so-called "dispute over the keys" of Christian churches in the Holy Land. The fact is that by this time, part of the keys to the churches of the Holy Land was in the hands of Catholic priests, part in the hands of the Orthodox. But both sides wanted to have the keys to all Christian churches in the Holy Land.
The keys to churches in the Holy Land, at the insistence of France, were given to the Catholics. In the spring of 1853, Russia demanded in an ultimatum from the Turkish sultan to give the keys to the churches in Bethlehem to Orthodox priests and ordered the Russian troops to enter the possessions of Turkey - the Danube autonomous principalities. In response, the Turkish Sultan in October 1853 declared war on Russia.
The war simultaneously took place in the Danube and Caucasian theaters of operations. Initially, the war was successful for Russia. Russian troops in the Caucasus won a number of brilliant victories. The Russian fleet under the command of Admiral P.S. Nakhimov won one of his outstanding victories in his history - near the Turkish harbor of Sinop. The largest Turkish naval base was located in Sinop harbor. In a well-protected bay, there are 14 sailing and 2 steam ships. Admiral P.S. Nakhimov decided to strike at her in order to cut off the enemy's sea communications. As a result of a four-hour battle, the Turks lost all their ships and over 3000 were killed, all coastal fortifications were destroyed. P.S. losses Nakhimov were 37 people. killed and 216 wounded.
The victory of the Russian fleet in the Sinop Bay is inscribed in golden letters in the history of the Russian navy, along with the Battle of Gangut (1714) and the Battle of Chesme (1770).
In the spring of next year there was a sharp complication of the international situation. Turkey came to the aid of England, France, Sardinia, Austria.
September 14, 1854 huge Allied fleet - 300 transport ships under the cover of 89 warships - approached the coast of Crimea. The allies surrounded Sevastopol - the main naval base of the Black Sea Fleet. Sevastopol already at that time played an exceptional role in the Black Sea. The loss of Sevastopol meant the loss of Crimea and the inability of Russia to pursue an active foreign policy in the Black Sea and the Balkans. The Black Sea squadron included 26 linear (large) ships, 5 of them were sunk at the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay. The city was impregnable from the sea, but it was defenseless from the land. The Allies landed a well-armed army ashore. For an open battle with such a strong enemy, the Russian fleet was weak. Nevertheless, it was decided not to surrender the city.
The crews of all ships (24.5 thousand people) went ashore and began to defend the city together with soldiers and local residents. Since September 1854, the defense of the city was headed by Admiral V.A. Kornilov and military engineer E.I. Totleben. In a short time, sailors, soldiers, townspeople erected several rows of defensive fortifications around the city. On October 17, a three-day bombardment of the city was carried out. She didn't lead to anything. The defenders of the city did not give up. Then the enemy proceeded to lay siege to the city. 30 thousand garrison of the city held back the siege of 120 thousand. allied armies. After the death on October 5, 1854, V.A. Kornilov, the defense of the city was headed by P.S. Nakhimov. The ring around the city was gradually shrinking. In July 1855, Admiral P.S. was mortally wounded. Nakhimov. In August 1855, up to 2 - 3 thousand defenders of the city perished daily. In early September, Malakhov Kurgan, the key height of the city, fell. On August 27, 1855, the defenders left the ruins of Sevastopol.
Sevastopol occupies a special place in Russian history. Two defenses - during the Crimean, as well as during the Great Patriotic War - turned Sevastopol into a national shrine of Russia.
The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War was a terrible blow for Nicholas I, a military man. At the beginning of February 1855 he caught a slight cold, but did not undertake any treatment. On February 12, after receiving a message about the defeat of Russian troops near Evpatoria, his condition deteriorated sharply. As a result of the sudden development of paralysis, on February 18, 1855, he died. There are versions based on numerous memoirs that, allegedly, Nicholas I took poison. The truth is unlikely to be established, since this legend is in the spirit of Shakespeare's tragedies. It is unlikely that such a strong man as Nicholas I would show sinful weakness, knowing that all his deeds will be carefully studied by descendants. It is unlikely that he wanted to remain in the memory of his descendants as a weak person. But the defeat of Russia, of course, crushed his spirit, and this hastened his death. The emperor bequeathed to his sons: "Serve Russia ...".
The new Emperor Alexander II Nikolayevich came to the throne. He was determined to end the Crimean War.
In 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty took place. Under its terms, Russia was forbidden to have a fleet on the Black Sea and naval bases. Russia gave Turkey Kars, part of Bessarabia. The southern borders of Russia were open to any enemy invasion. Russia lost its leading position in the Balkans and the Middle East and did not play its former role in European affairs.
The main reason for the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War was the economic backwardness of Russia.
The Paris Peace Treaty weakened Russia's position on the Black Sea, but the struggle against the highlanders in the Caucasus continued. But it got harder and harder.
The Caucasus was already seething. Chechnya and part of Dagestan became the center of resistance in the east of the Caucasus, while Abkhazians, Circassians and Adygs fought against the Russian government in the west. At first, the mountaineers were scattered. But after the defeat Russian-Turkish war 1828 - 1829 Turkish sultan - the spiritual head of the entire Muslim world - declared a ghazavat (holy war) of all Muslims against the "infidels" - Christians. In the 30s. in the mountains of the Caucasus appeared murids - preachers of the holy war. Muridism was especially widespread among the inhabitants of the eastern part of the Caucasus Mountains - Chechnya and Dagestan. The famous Shamil appeared in the mountains of Dagestan. He was a very brave, strong man. He was well versed in the laws of Islam, knew the Koran by heart. He produced a magical effect on the highlanders: they were ready to go with him to certain death. In 1834, all of Chechnya and Dagestan recognized Shamil as a prophet-imam. From 1830 to 1840 the highlanders won a number of victories over the Russian troops. In the central part of Chechnya, Shamil created a strong theocratic state - an imamate with its capital in Vedeno. But the laws in this state were so cruel that soon the highlanders began to show dissatisfaction with Shamil's policy.
The Russians continued to build roads, bridges, and found villages. The highlanders, seeing that the Russians did not harm them, began to move away from Shamil.
In 1856, Alexander II appointed Prince A.I. Baryatinsky - a brilliant young military leader and a talented administrator. The new commander-in-chief strengthened the Caucasian army and instructed General N.I. Evdokimov has the task of conquering Chechnya - a "hornet's nest" in the Caucasus. A.I. Baryatinsky with troops acted in Dagestan. During 1858, the whole of Chechnya was conquered by Russian troops, and during 1859 - Dagestan.
Shamil with a detachment of the most devoted warriors of 600 people. took refuge in his last stronghold - the village of Gunib in the mountainous part of Eastern Dagestan. The aul stood on a huge hard-to-reach rock. On the night of August 26, 1859, the troops surrounded the mountain in a dense ring. The commander-in-chief himself arrived - Prince A.I. Baryatinsky. At night, the Russians sounded the alarm, as if at the beginning of an attack. Highlanders in that direction opened continuous firing. Meanwhile, on the other side, which was considered completely impregnable due to its steepness, the soldiers climbed to the top of the mountain. And when it dawned, Shamil saw a whole regiment in front of him. For reflection Shamil A.I. Baryatinsky took 20 minutes. After a brief hesitation, Shamil decided to give up. Under arms, Shamil was invited to A.I. Baryatinsky. A loud soldier's "cheers" rushed through the ranks when Shamil passed through the ranks. The commander-in-chief announced to the prisoner that he would be sent to Petersburg, and the emperor himself would decide his fate. In the evening of the same day, A.I. Baryatinsky sent Shamil a black bear fur coat, gifts for his wives, daughters-in-law, and children. On the whole route, Shamil, surprisingly for him, was greeted cordially.
In Moscow, Shamil toured the Kremlin, was at the opera. He stayed in Petersburg for two weeks. What he saw shocked Shamil. He said: "If I had known Russia before, I would never have fought with it. Russia is big, Chechnya is small. Chechnya cannot fight Russia."
Shamil lived out his days with his family in Kaluga, where he was given a large pension. In Kaluga in 1869, Alexander II let Shamil go to Mecca to perform the Hajj. Before leaving, being of sound mind and solid memory, Shamil said: "I wish the Russian emperor to continue to successfully manage the highlanders for their own good."
In 1862, the commander-in-chief of the Caucasian army instead of A.I. Baryatinsky was appointed brother of the emperor, Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich. May 21, 1864 - the birthday of the emperor - all Russian troops operating in the Western part of the Caucasus Mountains united. The priests served a prayer service before the troops. Not a single warring tribe remained in the Caucasus. Alexander II replied to his brother about the pacification of the Caucasus with a telegram: "Thank you, Evdokimov and our glorious troops."
The half-century struggle of the mountain peoples with the Russians is over. A new page has begun in the history of the Caucasus.
The era of great reforms
On February 19, 1855, the eldest son of Nicholas I, Alexander II Nikolayevich (1855 - 1881), ascended the throne.
Alexander Nikolaevich, at the request of his father, was brought up in a simple environment. Nicholas I said that he wanted to educate in his son, first of all, a person. The poet V.A. was chosen as the tutor of the Tsarevich. Zhukovsky, a smart, educated, noble person. Six months V.A. Zhukovsky prepared a plan for raising an heir. The purpose of upbringing and education V.A. Zhukovsky proclaimed "education for the benefactor." The best teachers of that time were chosen to teach Alexander Nikolayevich. The heir mastered French, English, German, Polish. Count M.M. Speransky introduced him to legislation and government. Other people introduced me to Russia's relations with other states, to the science of the national economy. The father made sure that the Tsarevich became a "military man." Alexander Nikolayevich from childhood could spend hours watching parades, divorces of the St. Petersburg guards. Alexander Nikolaevich was under the strong influence of his father, adopted many of his qualities, but was a gentle and generous person. In 1837, according to the established tradition, the heir went on a trip to Russia. In 1838, a long trip abroad took place. He visited Denmark, Prussia, Italy, Austria. During this trip, the heir met Princess Maria of Darmstadt, who in 1841 became his wife Maria Alexandrovna. Upon his return, Alexander Nikolayevich was appointed a member of the State Council, and then a committee of ministers.
Thus, even before accession to the throne, Alexander Nikolayevich was well acquainted with the affairs of the highest military and civil administration.
On the first day of his accession to the throne, Alexander Nikolayevich was animated by the most sincere intention to do everything to eliminate the shortcomings of Russian life.
On the day of the coronation, August 26, 1856, an amnesty was granted to the Decembrists, 9,000 people were exempted from police supervision, the censorship committee was closed, the restriction on the number of university students was lifted, the departure of Russian citizens abroad was allowed, many dignitaries of Nikolaev were dismissed by Alexander II.
Compared to the harsh Nikolaev rule, this was a new policy. Poet F.I. Tyutchev called it the word thaw.
Alexander II was determined to eradicate the shortcomings of Russian life. He considered serfdom to be the main disadvantage. By this time, the idea of abolishing serfdom had become widespread among the "top": the government, among officials, the nobility, and the intelligentsia. Alexander II also considered serfdom the greatest evil and decided to destroy it.
Meanwhile, this was one of the most difficult problems that Alexander II inherited. There were 25 million serfs in the country. Serfdom was formed in Russia for centuries - from 1497 to 1649 - and was closely connected with various aspects of the life of the Russian peasant. The peasant depended on the feudal lord in personal, land, property, and legal relations. The world around the Russian peasant has not changed for centuries. Now the peasant had to be freed from the guardianship of the landowner, to give him personal freedom.
It was necessary to solve the most difficult task:
free the peasant with or without land;
at whose expense to endow it with land - the state did not have such an amount of land.
In historical science, there are different opinions regarding the reasons that forced the autocracy to abolish serfdom. In the Soviet period, the prevailing point of view was that serfdom had outlived itself: the lack of interest of the peasants in the results of their labor, the tightening of exploitation on landlord estates led to a noticeable stagnation and degradation of agriculture. The income of the landed estates fell. Serfdom hampered the development of productive forces in agriculture, hindered the development of industry and trade. This led to an increase in social tension at the turn of the 50s - 60s. 19th century Social tension was expressed in the rise of the peasant movement and the speeches of radical public figures - N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov and others. As a result, in the 60s. in Russia there was a revolutionary situation. According to V.I. Lenin, the revolutionary situation did not develop into a revolution, since in Russia in those years there was no revolutionary class. The revolutionary forces were so weak that, by carrying out bourgeois reforms, the government was able to remove the revolutionary situation.
The main provisions of the other point of view are that serfdom has far from exhausted its possibilities, anti-government actions were extremely weak. Neither economic nor social catastrophe threatened Russia. The main misfortune of the Russian peasant at that time was not the lack of land and freedoms, but looseness, unwillingness to work, withdrawal to other religions. But, while maintaining serfdom, Russia could drop out of the ranks of the great powers. The peasant reform was caused primarily by foreign policy factors, the need to maintain Russia's status as a great power.
During the reign of Nicholas I, a large amount of preparatory material for the peasant reform was collected. According to P.D. Kiselyov, shortly before his death, in a conversation about serfdom, Nicholas I said to the heir: "It is much better for this to happen from above than from below."
And Alexander II decided. At the beginning of 1857, a Secret Committee was established to prepare the peasant reform. The government then decided to inform the public of its intentions, and the Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee. The nobility of all regions was to create provincial committees to develop a peasant reform. In all committees, a real struggle unfolded over the question: to free the peasants with land or without land. In Western Europe, the peasants were freed without land, according to F.M. Dostoevsky, "in what the mother gave birth." The king was inclined to think that the peasants still needed to be released with the land.
At the beginning of 1859, Editorial Commissions headed by Ya.I. Rostovtsev. The commissions began to prepare a draft peasant reform. In September 1860, the developed reform project was discussed by the deputies sent by the committees of the nobility, and then transferred to the highest state bodies.
In mid-February 1861, the Regulations on the emancipation of the peasants were considered and approved by the State Council.
On February 18, 1861, on the sixth anniversary of the death of his father Nicholas I, the emperor prayed for a long time at his tomb in the Peter and Paul Cathedral. The next day, February 19, documents on the abolition of serfdom were brought to him for signing.
It was a great law. Alexander II knew how profound changes in Russian life would follow its signing. He ordered everyone to leave the office. The king wanted to be alone with his conscience.
Manifesto "On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of the state of free rural inhabitants";
"Regulations" on the peasants who emerged from serfdom.
These two documents contained the essence of the peasant reform.
The manifesto was announced in both capitals on a big religious holiday - Forgiveness Sunday - March 5, 1861, in other cities - in the next week. The authorities seemed to be asking for forgiveness from the Russian peasantry for all the insults that they had inflicted on them.
The manifesto and "Regulations" dealt with three main issues:
the personal liberation of the peasants;
giving them land;
redemption deal.
Personal liberation. The manifesto provided the peasants with personal freedom and general civil rights. From now on, the peasant could own movable and immovable property, conclude transactions, and act as a legal entity. He was freed from the guardianship of the landowner, could marry without permission, enter the service and in educational institutions, change his place of residence, move into the class of philistines and merchants.
The government took into account that the concept of individual, private freedom was alien to the peasant consciousness. Therefore, the community was preserved for the first time. Communal ownership of land, redistribution of allotments, mutual responsibility for paying taxes and performing state duties were preserved.
The peasants remained the only class that paid the poll tax, had a recruiting duty and could be subjected to corporal punishment.
Allotment of land to peasants. The allocation of land to the peasants was regulated by the "Regulations". The size of the allotments depended on the fertility of the soil. The territory of Russia was conditionally divided into three bands: black earth, non-chernozem, steppe. In each of them, the highest and lowest sizes of the peasant field allotment were established. Within these limits, a voluntary deal was concluded between the peasant community and the landowner. Their relationship was finally fixed by charters. If the landowner and the peasant did not come to an agreement, then mediators were involved to resolve the dispute. Peace mediators mainly defended the interests of the nobles, but some public figures, in particular L.N. Tolstoy, biologist K.A. Timiryazev and others actively defended the peasants. In different regions, the peasants received from 2 to 4 acres of land per audit soul. To conduct a commodity economy, the peasant needed from 5 to 8 acres of land. In the country as a whole, the peasants received 20% less land than they cultivated before the reform. This is how the concept of "segments" appeared, as if taken away by the landowners from the peasants. The peasants continued to consider this land theirs and fought for the return of the cuts until 1917.
Redemption deal. When receiving land, the peasants had to pay its cost. The peasants did not have the money needed to buy the land. These peasants were called "temporarily liable". In order for the landlords to receive the redemption sums at the same time, the state provided the peasants with a loan in the amount of 80% of the value of the allotments. Within 49 years, the peasants had to return the loan to the state with an accrual of 6% per annum. Redemption payments were abolished by the government in 1906.
The remaining 20% was to be paid to the landowner by the peasant community. Until the peasants paid these 20%, they had to continue to pay the landowner dues and perform certain duties.
The redemption operation did not infringe on the rights of landowners, did not worsen the financial situation of the state. All the costs of the reform were paid by the peasants.
From 1858 to 1863, the appanage (belonging to the imperial family) peasants were reformed, and in 1866, the state peasants were reformed.
Significance of the abolition of serfdom. The peasant reform of Alexander II had a huge historical meaning. It brought freedom to 25 million peasants, it opened the way for the development of bourgeois relations. A new era began in the history of Russia - the rapid development of bourgeois relations. The abolition of serfdom marked the beginning of other important transformations. The moral significance of the reform was that it put an end to serf slavery.
The continuation of the abolition of serfdom in Russia were:
urban;
judicial;
educational reforms;
press reforms.
Their main goal is to bring the state system and administrative management in line with the new social structure, in which the multi-million peasantry received personal freedom.
The zemstvo reform was carried out in 1864. According to the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions", non-estate elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvos - were introduced. Zemstvos were elected for three years and consisted of administrative bodies (provincial and county zemstvo assemblies) and executive bodies (provincial and county zemstvo councils). Due to the high property qualification they were dominated by landowners. The scope of their activities was limited to economic issues of local importance: the arrangement and maintenance of communication lines, zemstvo schools, hospitals, care for trade and industry. The zemstvos were under the control of the central and local authorities, who had the right to suspend any decision of the zemstvo assembly.
The zemstvos played an important role in the development of education and public health.
City reform. In 1870, the "City Regulations" were published, according to which elective self-government - city dumas - was introduced in 509 cities. All estates in the city elected representatives to the city duma for 4 years. The city duma elected its permanent executive body - the city council. The city government consisted of the mayor and several members. The mayor was simultaneously the chairman of the city duma and the city council. The Duma and the Council dealt with the improvement of the city, taking care of trade, medicine and education. In the city dumas, in connection with the high property qualification, the leading role belonged to the big bourgeoisie. Like the zemstvos, they were under the strict control of the government administration.
The judicial reform was carried out in 1864. It was the most radical of all reforms, as it reflected the latest trends in world judicial practice.
The former court - class, closed, was canceled. The all-estate court was introduced, its independence from the administration, the irremovability of judges, publicity, and the adversarial nature of the trial. The trial became oral, adversarial. The court sessions became open to the public. The prosecutor accused the defendant, defended - the sworn attorney. The question of the guilt of the defendant was decided by jurors - representatives of society. Jurors - 12 people - were appointed by lot from representatives of all classes. After listening to the debate, the jury delivered a verdict: "guilty", "not guilty", "guilty, but deserves leniency." Based on the verdict of the jurors, the court delivered a sentence.
Various judicial instances with strictly delimited competence were established. The lower court was the world court, which consisted of one person - the justice of the peace. The magistrate was elected for three years by the county zemstvo assembly or the city duma. The Magistrate's Court dealt with petty misdemeanors and civil cases with claims up to 500 rubles. Litigation in the magistrate's court was simplified. The next court instance was the district court.
In his competence were criminal and serious cases. Particularly important state and political crimes were considered in the judicial chamber. The Senate became the highest court. At that time, Russian general criminal legislation did not have such a measure of punishment as the death penalty. Only special judicial bodies could sentence to death - military courts, the Special Presence of the Senate. To resolve conflicts among the peasants, the estate volost court, consisting of local peasants, was retained. This was explained by the fact that the legal concepts of the peasants were very different from the general civil ones. The volost court judged on the basis of the customs that existed in the area. Corporal punishment was a widespread measure of punishment of the volost court. They existed until 1904.
military reform. In 1861, D.A. became Minister of War. Milyutin. He stayed at his post for 20 years, and in 1861-1874. under his leadership, a whole series of military reforms was carried out. YES. Milyutin became the creator of the new Russian army. The goal of the reforms is to create a combat-ready army with trained personnel, modern weapons and well-trained officers. In 1874, a decree was issued on universal military service. He abolished recruiting and introduced all-class military service for men over the age of 21. The government every year determined the number of recruits, and from among the recruits, by lot, they took only this number. Usually no more than 20-25% of conscripts were called up for service.
Those taken into service were listed on it:
in the ground forces 6 years in active service and 9 years in the reserve;
in the Navy - 7 years in active service and 3 years in the reserve.
The term of active service was largely reduced depending on the educational qualification. For those who received elementary education the term of active service was reduced to 4 years, those who graduated from a city school - up to 3 years; gymnasium - up to one and a half years. Persons with higher education served for six months. In the 60s. the rearmament of the army began - the replacement of smooth-bore weapons with rifled ones, the introduction of a system of steel artillery pieces, and the improvement of the equestrian park. Railways were built to the western and southern borders of Russia. Particular importance was attached to the development of the military steam fleet. To improve the general educational level of officers, two-year cadet schools and military gymnasiums were created. In order to develop higher military education, military academies were created: the General Staff, Artillery, Engineering, etc. The system of military command and control was improved. During the years of the reforms, initially nine, then four more military districts were created. The commanders of the military districts were placed at the head of the military districts. The size of the army was gradually reduced. By the end of the XIX century. it decreased from 1 million 100 thousand people. up to 742 thousand per 130 million population.
As a result of the military reform, the combat effectiveness of the Russian army was significantly increased, and its strength was significantly reduced in peacetime. At the same time, a well-prepared reserve in case of war made it possible, if necessary, to quickly create a strong army.
Reforms in the field of education. In 1863, a new general university charter was issued, in the development of which professors from St. Petersburg University participated. According to the new charter, the universities were given broad autonomy: the right to choose the rector, deans, professors. University councils received the right to independently decide all scientific, educational, administrative and financial issues. Concerning student government, then even at the beginning of the reign of Alexander II, it was allowed to attend lectures at universities for "volunteers" both men and women. This led to riots at a number of universities. Therefore, according to the university charter of 1863, students were not given such broad rights as the teaching staff. According to the charter, students did not have the right to create their own associations and were subject to a disciplinary court, whose members were elected from among the professors by the university council. When entering the university, students gave a subscription to obey the established university rules.
In order to prevent student unrest in the future, it was decided to reform secondary and primary education. On June 14, 1864, the Regulations on Primary Public Schools were approved, according to which from now on the state, church and society (zemstvos) were to be engaged in the education of the people. On November 19, 1864, the "Charter of Gymnasiums and Progymnasiums" appeared. The charter proclaimed the principle of accessibility of secondary education for all classes. But a rather high tuition fee was set, which, of course, gave the right to enter only children from wealthy families.
Gymnasiums were divided into two types:
classic;
real (both those and others - seventh grade).
Classical gymnasiums provided a liberal arts education, which was based on the teaching of ancient languages: Latin, Greek. In real gymnasiums, the volume of teaching mathematics and natural sciences increased due to the reduction of hours for studying the humanities.
The goal of real gymnasiums is to provide a general education to people from all classes with certain practical skills in any profession.
In 1871, a new statute of the gymnasium was issued, according to which those who graduated from the classical gymnasium had the right to enter the university without exams. Those who graduated from real gymnasiums could mainly enter higher technical educational institutions. They had difficulty accessing universities. According to the charter of 1864, progymnasiums were also established - four-year educational institutions corresponding to the first four classes of the seven-year classical gymnasium. Those who graduated from the progymnasium could enter the fifth grade of the classical gymnasium.
Measures were taken to develop women's education. Before the reforms of Alexander II in Russia, there were only closed institutes and private boarding schools for girls "from the noble estates" (from noble families). In 1870, the Regulations of the Ministry of Public Education on women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums appeared. Open gymnasiums for girls from all classes began to appear. At the same time, the Church began to open diocesan women's schools. With the aim of developing higher education for women in a number of cities - St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kazan, Kyiv, Odessa - pedagogical and higher courses for women were opened.
Reforms in the field of printing. From the beginning of the comprehensive reforms in society, the question of a censorship committee was raised. In 1862 it was closed, some of its functions were assigned to the Ministry of the Interior, and some - to the Ministry of Public Education. In 1865, it was allowed to discuss in the press the activities of the government and the problems of public life. In 1865, "Temporary Rules" concerning the press were introduced. Preliminary censorship was abolished on books intended for the wealthy and educated part of society, as well as on central, scientific publications. The publication of periodicals required the payment of a large cash deposit, the publication of some periodicals required the permission of the Minister of the Interior. Preliminary censorship was maintained on provincial and popular literature for the people.
The value of the reforms. The abolition of serfdom and the bourgeois reforms carried out during the reign of Alexander II are a significant event in the history of Russia. For the abolition of serfdom, the people nicknamed Alexander II the Liberator. Russia has largely come closer to the European socio-political model. The first step was taken to expand the role of the public in the life of the country and turn Russia into a bourgeois monarchy. The way was opened for the peaceful modernization of Russian society. The rapid growth of the economy and culture of the country began. The bourgeois reforms of Alexander II entered Russian history as "great reforms".
But the comprehensive reforms of Alexander II had a downside. The acquisition of personal freedom by 25 million Russian peasants, democratic freedoms, the creation of a new structure of local government, a change in legal proceedings, the emergence of a new social structure of society, etc., led to a change in the centuries-old way of Russian life. It soon became clear that, in addition to the beneficial results, one of the results of the reforms was an increase in tension in society. The internal life of the state was upset, the treasury was empty, foreign loans were growing. The revival of commercial and industrial activity was accompanied by widespread financial fraud and ruin. Peasants poured into the city from the countryside, but the city was not ready to receive such an amount of unskilled labor. Peasants everywhere showed dissatisfaction with the reform. The Russian peasant could not "digest" the idea that he had to pay for the land. Rumors stubbornly circulated in the countryside that "the wrong Manifesto" had been read to the peasants. In society, property inequality, poverty, and crime were rapidly growing.
An opinion appeared in society that "the great reform of 1861" was a "great deception". The tsar-reformer began to cause hatred. On April 4, 1866, student Dmitry Karakozov fired at the tsar. The attempt by an ordinary person on the life of the Anointed of God caused a shock in Russian society. Contemporaries left evidence that on that day to the poet A.N. A pale, shaking F.M. suddenly ran into Maikov. Dostoevsky. Seeing no one, he kept repeating: "He shot, ... shot, ... shot." But this shot has become a symbolic sign that from now on "everything is allowed." The revolutionary populists sentenced the tsar to death. The real hunt for the king began. There were 7 assassination attempts on him. And Alexander II at that time was going through a personal drama: he realized that his policy of liberalization had failed. The king grew old, haggard, lost weight. Empress Maria Alexandrovna had long been ill and bedridden. The king was saved by a new love - the young princess Ekaterina Dolgorukaya. She was 34 years younger than the king and bore him three children. Despite the protests of the family, the tsar settled E.M. Dolgoruky with children in the Winter Palace. Empress Maria Alexandrovna died quietly alone in the summer of 1880. A month and a half later, the tsar married E.M. Dolgoruky and thought about crowning her.
March 1, 1881 Alexander II was mortally wounded by a bomb thrown by student I. Grinevitsky.
Russia responded to the great reforms by assassinating the reformer tsar.
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For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://websites.pfu.edu.ru/IDO/ffec/
Second half of the 19th century usually called the era of reforms and associated with the name of Alexander II, who ascended the throne on February 19, 1855. Emperor Nicholas I left his heir the Crimean War, which ended in the defeat of Russia and the signing of an unfavorable peace treaty in Paris in 1856.
10.1. social order
In the second half of the XIX century. the territory of Russia totaled 19 million square meters. km and was divided into 78 provinces and 19 regions. The population, according to the first census in 1897, was 126.4 million people, of which 16.7 million - urban population. The estate structure of the society looked like this: 71.1% - peasants, 10.7% - bourgeois, 6.6% - foreigners, 2.3% - Cossacks, 1.5% - nobles, 0.55% - merchants and honorary citizens , 0.5% - clergy, 0.8% - declassed elements.
The dominant position in the country still belonged to the noble landowners. The nobles occupied key positions in the state apparatus and were the backbone of the autocracy.
The development of capitalism contributed to the formation of two new social groups: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
Agriculture occupied a central place in the country's economy. Capitalist relations began to develop in the countryside, and the stratification of the peasantry began. A rural bourgeoisie appeared, which, along with the landowners, exploited the poor. The class struggle intensifies in the countryside.
The workers begin to fight for their rights. Strikes and strikes began at capitalist enterprises in the city.
With the accession of Alexander II to the throne, an amnesty was declared for the Decembrists, Petrashevists and participants in the Polish uprising of 1830-1831. In 1857, a decision was made to liquidate military settlements, the peasants were exempted from tax arrears, recruiting was suspended for three years. The free issue of foreign passports is allowed. The social atmosphere began to change in the country. A stream of reformist notes and proposals rushed to St. Petersburg. Everyone wrote: governors, clerical officials, generals, Slavophiles, Westernizers. Such activity took on the character of a reformist boom, but the factor of the country's international prestige and the personal obligations of Alexander II, accepted at the conclusion of peace in Paris, played a decisive role in the implementation of the reforms.
10.2. Peasant reform
Serfdom in Russia was too similar to slavery, which in the XIX century. became simply immoral. On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed the Manifesto on the liberation of peasants from serfdom and the Regulations on peasants who emerged from serfdom, but without land. Peasants received personal freedom and legal rights. They could now, without the permission of the landlord, marry, go to court, conclude transactions, acquire ownership of movable and immovable property and pass it on by inheritance, open their own business, move to other estates. However, class inequality persisted: the peasants continued to bear recruitment duties and were subjected to corporal punishment, from which the privileged classes were exempted. In order to become owners of the land, the peasants had to buy it from the landowner. Before the redemption, the peasant was considered "temporarily liable" in relation to the landowner, paid dues and worked off the corvée. The landowners retained the rights of the patrimonial police and supervision of the organs of peasant self-government. The terms for the redemption of land by the peasants were not determined and depended on the will of the landowner. The temporarily obligated state of the peasants ceased only in 1883.
The conditions for the purchase of land were extremely difficult. The formula for calculating the cost of land developed by the government increased its value by 1.5 times. The peasants had no money, so the state provided the peasants with a loan in the amount of 80% of the value of the land allotment, the peasant community itself paid 20% of the value of the land to the landowner. The debt to the state had to be returned within 49 years in the form of redemption payments with an accrual of 6% per annum. By 1906, when redemption payments were abolished, the peasants paid the state about 2 billion rubles, i.e. almost 4 times the real value of the land in 1861.
Some landlords, by agreement with the peasants, gave them a quarter of their legal allotment, and took the rest of the land for themselves. Very soon such communities became impoverished on their tiny allotments.
Peasants who gained independence lived in the conditions of rural communities. The body of self-government was a gathering, at which a village headman and tax collector were elected. Villages were united into a volost, where a volost administration and a class peasant volost court were created, which had the right to resolve property disputes between peasants and judge them for petty crimes. The volost court could sentence peasants to corporal punishment, community service, fines and arrest for up to 7 days.
The activities of the rural and volost administration were controlled by amicable mediators, who were appointed by the Senate from among the local noble landowners. The mediators had broad powers, they were not subordinate to either the governor or the minister and had to follow only the instructions of the law.
The land was owned by the community. The allocation of land to the peasants was carried out according to the revision souls. Women were not given land. The peasants were obliged to take the allotment provided to them and only after 9 years they received the right to refuse it. The community was responsible for each of its members with mutual responsibility and tied the peasants to the land. Staying in the community was actually compulsory. Without the consent of the gathering, the peasant could not permanently leave his village, and the gathering was reluctant to give such consent, because. annual payments for land descended on the whole society. In addition to communal land tenure, there was also a court-district hereditary principle of land tenure. The peasant could only dispose of the household plot.
The peasants did not expect such a reform. They received with surprise and indignation the news that they had to continue to serve the corvée and pay dues. Peasant unrest and riots began, which were suppressed with the help of the army.
The peasant reform did not turn out the way the progressive people of that time dreamed of seeing it, but nevertheless it was of great historical significance. It opened wide prospects for Russia's capitalist development. A new era has begun in its history. The moral significance of this reform, which put an end to serfdom, was also great.
10.3. Zemstvo and city reforms
After the abolition of serfdom, Alexander II carried out a number of reforms in the system of local self-government. In 1863, the Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions established that zemstvo institutions were created in the provinces and districts in the form of administrative and executive bodies, which were elected for a period of three years from representatives of all estates according to a multi-stage system. To participate in the elections, a high property qualification was established, so the nobles, whom the autocracy considered their main support, prevailed in the zemstvo assemblies. The peasants elected one representative from 10 households to the volost meeting, the volost meeting elected electors who elected zemstvo vowels (deputies) of the uyezd zemstvo assembly. District zemstvo assemblies elected provincial zemstvo councillors.
In Siberia and in the Arkhangelsk province, where there were no landlords, as well as in the Don Army Region, in the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where Cossack self-government existed, zemstvos were not created.
The sphere of activity of zemstvos was limited only to economic problems of local importance: the arrangement and maintenance of schools and hospitals, means of communication, the development of trade and industry. Control over zemstvos was exercised by the central and local administration, which had the right to cancel the decisions of the zemstvos if they were contrary to laws or state interests.
Zemstvos played a positive role in the development of the Russian countryside. By 1880, 12 thousand zemstvo schools had been created and a large number of medical institutions. Peasant savings and loan associations were organized. With the advent of the Zemstvo, the balance of power in the Russian provinces began to change, a rural intelligentsia appeared: doctors, teachers, agronomists. Many representatives of the rural intelligentsia showed high standards of service to the people. The most enlightened and liberal landowners usually went to the zemstvo service, they became vowels of the zemstvo assemblies, members and chairmen of the administrations. All this contributed to the fact that soon the zemstvos began to play an important political role in the country.
In 1870, a reform of city government was carried out. In 509 cities, new governing bodies are being created - city dumas, which were elected for a period of four years. The city council, which consisted of the mayor and two members, was a permanent body of the Duma. The mayor was simultaneously the chairman of the Duma and the council. Only wealthy citizens enjoyed the right to vote and be elected. People who did not pay taxes were deprived of the right to participate in elections. City Dumas were subordinate to the Senate. The mayor in office was approved by the Minister of the Interior, and in small towns - by the governor.
City dumas carried out a lot of work on the improvement and development of cities, but in the social movement they were not as noticeable as the zemstvos.
10.4. Military reform
During Crimean War it turned out that the Russian regular army lags sharply behind the European countries in military-technical armament. Taking into account the lessons of the Crimean War, the Minister of War, General D.A. Milyutin reformed the entire military system. He managed to change the structure and weapons of the army, renew the officer corps, alleviate the position of the soldiers, and introduce new principles of recruitment. The term of soldier's service was reduced from 25 to 16 years. The old recruitment was replaced by universal military service, which, according to the law of 1874, extended to the male population of all classes who had reached the age of 20. Soldiers who served their term of active military service were enrolled in the militia until they reached the age of 40. From active service were exempted: the only son of the parents, the only breadwinner of the family with underage brothers and sisters, for health reasons, representatives of small peoples. The terms of service depended on education: those who graduated from primary school served 4 years, those who graduated from a city school - 3 years, those who graduated from a gymnasium - 1.5 years, those with higher education - 6 months. Illiterate soldiers were taught to read and write. The system of higher education for officers has been expanded. Junker schools were created to train military engineers, cavalrymen and artillerymen. At this time, new border districts were formed, subordinate to the military district administration. A new branch of the armed forces is being created - the railway, the construction of strategic railways and highways, going to the western border of Russia, begins. At the same time, military factories are being reconstructed, equipment is being updated and the latest technical innovations are being introduced. Russia and Germany became monopolists in the production of steel tools.
A new military-judicial charter is adopted, in accordance with which three judicial instances are established: regimental, military district and main military court. Decisions of military courts were approved by regimental and district commanders. YES. Milyutin achieved the abolition of corporal punishment in the army.
The reform played an important role in increasing the combat effectiveness of the Russian army, which with honor passed the first serious test in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.
10.5. financial reform
As a result of the financial reform, the Peasant and Noble Banks were created. In 1860, the State Bank was established, which began to lend to commercial and industrial enterprises, as well as accept deposits, give loans, and discount bills. The main result of the reform was the establishment of budget transparency, financial control and progressive changes in the tax system. The only responsible manager of all income and expenses was the Minister of Finance. The poll tax was replaced by taxes, the taxation system was abolished, and the free sale of wine, vodka and tobacco products was introduced with the payment of excise taxes to the treasury.
10.6. Education and press reforms
Significant changes have taken place in the education system. In 1864, the Charter was adopted high school, Charter of the gymnasium, Regulations on public schools. There were three stages in the education system. Primary schools became the first step: zemstvo, parochial, Sunday and private schools with a three-year term of study. There they taught reading, writing, arithmetic, the Law of God. The second stage was the gymnasium - classical and real. They studied the natural and human sciences, as well as foreign languages. Children of all classes were accepted there, education was paid. Universities remained the highest level, in which people who graduated from the gymnasium were admitted. Under the new charter of 1863, the right to make decisions on administrative, financial and scientific and pedagogical issues was returned to the universities, i.e. former autonomy, liquidated by Nicholas I in 1835
In 1865, "Provisional Rules" on printing were introduced. They abolished preliminary censorship on a number of printed publications intended for the educated part of society, as well as central periodicals.
10.7. Judicial reform
The judicial reform of 1864 is treated in the literature as the most consistent. The history of the preparation of this reform goes back to the first half of the 19th century. Back in 1803, M.M. Speransky proposed a broad program to improve the judicial system in Russia. The starting point for the preparation of judicial reform is the summer of 1857, when the State Council received the draft Charter of Civil Procedure of Count D.N. Bludnov. By the beginning of 1861, 14 bills to change the judicial system and legal proceedings were submitted to the State Council for consideration. In 1862, the draft "Basic Provisions of Legal Proceedings" was sent to the courts, and on November 20, 1864, Alexander II approved the main documents of judicial reform: the Charter of Criminal Procedure, the Charter of Civil Procedure and the Charter on Punishments Imposed by Justices of the Peace. According to these charters, the courts began to be divided into local, general and military. Local courts included volost and magistrate courts and congresses of justices of the peace. They considered petty criminal and minor civil cases with the amount of the claim not more than 500 rubles. Justices of the peace were elected by district zemstvo assemblies and city dumas. The district was divided into world sections, within which the activities of justices of the peace were carried out. Congresses of justices of the peace considered complaints and protests against decisions of justices of the peace.
The General Court consisted of three instances. The lower courts were the district courts that existed in the provinces, and the judicial chambers for criminal and civil cases. District courts were appointed by the emperor for several districts and consisted of the chairman and members of the court. They considered all cases, with the exception of official and political ones. The district courts and judicial chambers consisted of judicial investigators, bailiffs and the prosecutor's office. The court chambers also had a council of sworn attorneys. The jury rendered a verdict on the guilt of the defendant, and the staff judge determined the punishment. Appeals from the jury's verdict were not accepted.
In the judicial chambers, more important cases were considered, including those on malfeasance and state crimes. The judicial chambers were entrusted with the consideration of complaints and protests against the verdicts of the district court. When considering cases in the judicial chambers, class representatives participated, including the mayor and the volost foreman.
A separate system consisted of three instances of military courts: regimental, military district and main military court. A different order of action of courts was used in peacetime and in wartime.
The highest court was the Senate, which had the right to interpret laws. Departments of the Senate considered cassation appeals, protests and requests for review of cases due to newly discovered circumstances.
In the course of the reform, the activities of the prosecutor's office changed. It is entrusted with the responsibility of supporting the prosecution in court, supervising the activities of the courts and the investigation, as well as places of deprivation of liberty. Under the Senate, the positions of two chief prosecutors were established, and the positions of prosecutors and fellow prosecutors were introduced in the judicial chambers and district courts. The Prosecutor General headed the prosecutorial system. All prosecutors were appointed by the emperor.
In parallel, new institutions are being formed: the bar, sworn attorneys, judicial investigators.
The governing body of the Bar Association was the Council of Attorneys at Law. For registration of transactions, certification of business papers and documents, a system of notary offices was established.
As a result of the judicial reform, there was a separation of the court from the administration, the preliminary investigation from the court. Russian justice has become equal to the advanced justice of Western countries.
In 1862, the police system was reformed. In the counties, unified police departments began to be created, which included: the mayor, his office, the district police officer with the court. The counties were divided into camps headed by the bailiff. A little later, the positions of police officers were introduced. In the cities, the police were led by a police chief, who was subordinate to district guards and policemen. In 1880, the provincial gendarmerie departments and the police department were created, which were entrusted with the duties of suppressing and preventing crimes and investigating cases of state crimes and monitoring the activities of police institutions. The provincial police were subordinate to the governor and the governor-general, who, in turn, were subordinate to the minister of the interior.
The police concentrated all repressive power in their hands. She was entrusted with an inquiry. She had the right to apply preventive measures: taking into custody or house arrest, establishing supervision, deprivation of a residence permit, etc. Administrative measures began to be applied to violators of the law. The local administration and police authorities could close commercial and industrial enterprises, press organs, prohibit meetings, expel "suspicious" persons in an administrative manner.
In 1879, the Main Prison Administration was established. Corporal punishment and branding of imprisoned women have been abolished. In 1871, the punishment of exiles with gauntlets was abolished, but the rods were used as punishment until February 1917. The labor of prisoners, especially convicts in Siberia and Sakhalin, began to be used more actively. A system of medical care for prisoners is being introduced. Those who served hard labor were transferred to the position of settlers.
Reforms of the 60s - 70s. - a major event in the history of Russia. Eliminating a number of obsolete phenomena, creating new, modern self-government bodies and courts, they contributed to the growth of the country's productive forces, its defense capability, the development of civic consciousness among the population, the spread of education, and the improvement of the quality of life. Russia joined the pan-European process of creating advanced, civilized forms of statehood. But these were only the first steps. The vestiges of serfdom were still strong in local government, the privileges of the nobility remained practically untouched. The reforms did not affect the upper levels of power either. The emperor retained the status of an unlimited monarch. The State Council remained the highest deliberative body. Alexander II, although he hatched the idea of the first Russian constitution, did not have time to implement it. He was killed on March 1, 1881 by the People's Volunteer revolutionaries. The outstanding Russian philosopher V.V. Rozanov called the murder of the emperor "a mixture of madness and meanness." Alexander II entered the history of Russia as the Tsar-liberator, but he fully deserves the title of the Transformer.
10.8. Counter-reforms of the 80s - 90s
Alexander III (1881 - 1894), shocked by the murder of his father, took the path of open reaction. In April 1881, he published a manifesto "On the inviolability of autocracy." In August 1881, the Regulations on Measures for the Preservation of State Security and Public Peace were adopted. Under the Ministry of the Interior, a Special Council was created, consisting of a deputy minister of the interior and four officials, which was empowered to pass sentences in cases of political crimes. All local power was transferred to the governor-general, who received the right to close commercial and industrial enterprises, prohibit meetings, and apply administrative penalties to any citizen suspected of revolutionary activity. Significantly increased the rights of the police and gendarmerie.
According to the new Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions, the zemstvo was transformed. Zemstvo chiefs began to be appointed governors from local nobles. The nobility got the opportunity to elect most of the elected zemstvo leaders. The peasants lost the right to choose vowels, they were appointed by the governor from among the peasant electors.
In 1889, the Regulations on zemstvo district chiefs were introduced. The world court in the village was abolished. Zemstvo chiefs concentrated administrative and judicial power in their hands. Rural and volost gatherings turned out to be completely dependent on them. Zemsky chiefs could arrest the village headman, the volost foreman, fine all the participants in the gathering, cancel any of their sentences. The general leadership of the zemstvo chiefs in the county was carried out by the leaders of the nobility. A number of laws were passed that made it difficult for individual peasants to leave the community and land redistribution. In such an environment, it was difficult for the peasant to break out of growing poverty. A social explosion was growing in the village.
The city counter-reform pursued the same goals as the zemstvo one: to weaken the elective principle, to narrow the range of issues addressed by the city self-government bodies, and to expand the scope of government powers. City government was, in fact, turned into a kind of public service.
Significant changes have taken place in the judicial system. Magistrates' courts survived only in three major cities- Moscow, Petersburg and Odessa. In other regions, they were replaced by zemstvo district chiefs, whose positions were granted exclusively to nobles with a high property qualification. Zemstvo chiefs received the right to resolve all contentious issues individually. In cities, the Minister of Justice began to appoint city judges.
The role of the cassation instance was performed by provincial presences, which consisted of officials. The courts were given the right to consider cases behind closed doors, which drastically reduced publicity in civil proceedings. Cases of "resistance to the authorities" were withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the jury.
Toughened up administrative control for higher education institutions. The new university charter of 1884 abolished their autonomy. University courts were abolished, student organizations were banned, the appointment of rectors and professors by the government was introduced, tuition fees almost doubled, conscription benefits for those with higher education were limited, and the minimum period of military service was extended. The circular "On Cook's Children" recommended that children not from noble families not be admitted to the gymnasium. In secondary and higher educational institutions, the admission of persons of Jewish nationality was limited.
In 1882, the Provisional Rules on the Press were introduced, which increased punitive censorship. The administration received the right to close any newspapers and magazines, deprive publishers and editors of the right to continue their professional activities. The editorial offices were obliged to disclose the pseudonyms of their authors at the request of the authorities.
The counter-reforms carried out "in the vital interests of the people" turned out to be powerless in the face of the very course of life. The zemstvo reform turned a significant part of the zemstvo against the autocracy, the urban bourgeoisie and the proletariat also demanded that the autocracy grant more and more rights. The spirit of freethinking has increased in the universities. But the real results of the counter-reforms fully made themselves felt by the most severe social upheavals at the beginning of the 20th century.
10.9. Development of law
During the period under review, Russian law adapted to the conditions of bourgeois society. All subjects of the state became subjects of law. Legal capacity came from the age of 21. The concept of a legal entity was approved. Numerous industrial and commercial charters appeared that regulated the legal status of private enterprises, partnerships and joint-stock companies.
Property was divided into movable and immovable, generic and acquired. Protected estates, transactions on which were prohibited, are specially highlighted. A three-year right to redeem the family estate was provided. The right to develop the subsoil was assigned to the community.
Inheritance differed by will and by law. Family estate could pass only to legal heirs. The right of ownership was protected by a statute of limitations, the term of which was determined by 10 years.
The peasant household could only be inherited by family members, and the land allotment could be inherited by persons assigned to the community. When inheriting by law, spouses received a seventh share, daughters a fourteenth part of immovable property and an eighth part of movable property. Illegitimate children were excluded from inheritance, adopted children received only acquired property. The freedom to make wills was limited to the obligatory share of direct heirs.
In family relations, the power of the husband was preserved. Registration of the conclusion and dissolution of marriage was carried out by the church. The conditions for marriage were clearly defined. Divorce was allowed in exceptional cases. The rights of illegitimate children are defined. Since 1891, they could be legitimized through a subsequent marriage. The punishment for adultery remained.
The law of obligations affirms the principle of contractual freedom. Contracts, supply, property and personal employment, lease of enterprises, loans, purchase and sale, sale and settlement agreements were practiced. Agreements between landowners and peasants for the lease of land became widespread. Contracts were concluded in serf and domestic order. Obligations were secured by means of a pledge, guarantee, deposit and payment of a penalty in the event of a violation committed by the debtor.
Labor law. Factory law begins to develop. Laws are issued to regulate the labor and wages of workers. In 1861, the Regulations "On the Hiring of Workers for State and Public Works" were adopted. In 1886, a special regulation on hiring for rural work was issued. Among the regulations in this area can be called the Charter on the industry of factory and factory, the Craft Charter, the Trade Charter, the Exchange Charter, the Bill of Exchange Charter, the Charter on Commercial Insolvency. Working hours are limited to 11.5 hours. Restrictions are also being introduced on the use of the labor of children and adolescents. Factory inspectorates and special provincial presences were created to supervise the observance of factory legislation.
Criminal law. Sources of criminal law were legal acts: the Code of Punishment of Criminal and Correctional; Charter on the punishments imposed by justices of the peace; Statute on Detainees; Charter on exiles; Naval, Military, Customs, Excise statutes, as well as church punitive laws.
The subjects of crimes are not only individuals, but also legal entities. A crime is any illegal act. In the first place were crimes against faith, the state and the order of government. Careless and deliberate actions and three forms of complicity in a crime were distinguished: osprey, conspiracy and gang. For each category of participants, a measure of punishment was determined. Permissive, concealers, non-informers were considered guilty. Punishments were divided into criminal and correctional. When determining punishment, class affiliation was taken into account. Serious crimes were singled out, which were punishable by death by hanging and hard labor from 4 to 20 years and indefinitely. Corrective punishments included exile, imprisonment, arrest, and fines.
For malfeasance, the perpetrators were removed from office and dismissed from service. There were other types of punishments: confiscation of property, deprivation of estate and family rights, open and covert police supervision, church repentance, forced treatment and guardianship. Criminal liability came from the age of seven.
The death penalty was not applied to persons under 17 and over 70 years of age.
procedural law. In 1864, the Charter of Criminal Procedure was adopted. The criminal process was divided into three stages: investigation, trial, execution of the sentence. Democratic principles of justice were proclaimed: publicity, competitiveness, the right of the accused to defense, as well as the presumption of innocence, according to which any person was considered innocent until the court proved his guilt. If the guilt of the defendant was not fully proven, and some evidence was available, then he remained in suspicion. In this case, this person took the so-called cleansing oath, or he was taken on bail. The charter provided for the expansion of publicity and the participation of society in the person of jurors in the administration of justice. In 1872, the order of legal proceedings in cases of state crimes was changed. Such cases began to be considered in the special presence of the Senate. In 1882, the punitive power of justices of the peace was strengthened. They were given the right to imprison the guilty for a period of one and a half years. In 1889, the number of cases under the jurisdiction of the jury was significantly reduced. The investigation was carried out by investigators and gendarmes.
Civil cases began with the filing of a statement of claim. The participation of lawyers was allowed in the consideration of the case. Reconciliation of the parties was allowed. Competitiveness and publicity are the basis of civil proceedings. The court based its decisions on the evidence presented by the parties. The court was forbidden to collect additional evidence. The lawsuit in the magistrate's court was usually filed orally; keeping the minutes of the court was not obligatory.
10.10. State and Church
Throughout the 19th century the position of the Russian Orthodox Church was determined by laws adopted by Peter I. The most important articles of the Petrine Spiritual Regulations were included in the Code of Laws Russian Empire. The first article of the Code contained a religious rationale for royal power, and thus consolidated the long-standing alliance of the Orthodox Church and the autocracy. The law declared Orthodoxy to be the "primary and dominant" faith. The emperor was obliged to adhere only to the Orthodox faith. He was declared "the supreme protector and guardian of the dogmas of the dominant church and the guardian of orthodoxy and every deanery in the church." This gave the autocracy the right to manage church affairs and to persecute religious dissent. The law allowed to profess any religion, if it was loyal to the autocracy. The transition from non-Christian to Christian confessions was allowed, and the transition in the opposite direction was prohibited. The law assigned to the church the conduct of all acts of civil status.
In the middle of the XIX century. the number of Orthodox clergy was approximately 60 thousand people. It was divided into black (7 thousand people) and white (53 thousand). Higher clergy were appointed from among the monks - bishops, bishops, archbishops and metropolitans. The Synod was the highest body of church administration. Its members were appointed by the king. All the most important resolutions of the Synod were subject to the highest approval. Dioceses were the main link of local church administration. At the head of the diocese were bishops, who were called "spiritual governors". Monasteries were allowed to acquire real estate and accept gifts from parishioners. Among the monasteries, the Trinity-Sergius and Alexander Nevsky Lavra, Optina Pustyn and others stood out. The monk Seraphim of Sarov gained great fame among the people.
Theological academies operated in Kyiv, St. Petersburg, Moscow and Kazan. Until the middle of the century, the Orthodox clergy constituted a closed class, but since 1867 young men from all classes were allowed to enter the seminary. At the same time, the right to transfer the parish by inheritance (son or son-in-law) was abolished.
FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA
The international position of Russia and the development of a new foreign policy after the Crimean War.
The Crimean War and the Peace of Paris in 1856 became a turning point in the history of European international relations. Russia has lost the role of the mighty military power of the continent, which it has played since Congress of Vienna. Bonapartist France, in terms of its influence and military power, came to the fore for a whole decade.
The most important condition of the Treaty of Paris was, as is known, the prohibition of Russia to have a navy and coastal fortifications on the Black Sea. The same restriction applied to the Ottoman Empire, but in fact it had little effect, since the bases of the Turkish navy were outside the Black Sea waters. It was this regime of the Black Sea that was meant by its neutralization, although in case of war, the fleets of the Western powers could enter there with the consent of the Sultan. Thus, the neutralization was actually one-sided and threatened Russia's security. With the loss of Southern Bessarabia, transferred in accordance with the treaty to the Moldavian Principality, Russia also lost control over the mouth of the Danube.
The Crimean War dealt a tangible blow to the positions and prestige of Russia in the Balkans. The predominant influence in the Middle East passed to England, France and Austria. Under the terms of the Peace of Paris, all the great powers were declared guarantors of the autonomy of the Danubian Principalities and Serbia within the framework of the Ottoman Empire. Thus, the Russian protectorate over the Danubian principalities was liquidated. Moreover, Austria, France and Great Britain concluded an agreement on the use of force in case of possible violations of the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire and on the joint support of the provisions of the Treaty of Paris. The new system of international relations that has developed between the great powers in the Middle East has received in science the name of the Crimean system.
Evidence of the diplomatic defeat of Russia was the collapse of the hopes of the tsarist government to support Austria. The transition of Vienna to the side of the anti-Russian coalition and the vacillation of Prussia during the Crimean War clearly showed that the foreign policy system of Nicholas I and his foreign minister K. V. Nesselrode could not stand the test of time and suffered a complete collapse.
It became obvious that the principles of "monarchist solidarity" and legitimism were no longer suitable for determining the foreign policy of the empire. The government of Alexander II was no longer in a position to carry out armed counter-revolutionary intervention in the affairs of Western Europe, and in the future was forced to put up with the successes of the bourgeois-national movements in a number of countries.
The need for changes in foreign policy stemmed not only from the new alignment of forces in the international arena, but also from the internal situation in Russia itself. It was necessary to provide a respite for the implementation of bourgeois reforms and the reorganization of the armed forces.
The turn in foreign policy also led to a change in the leadership of the diplomatic department. On April 15, 1856, Prince A. M. Gorchakov headed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The new minister went through a large and serious diplomatic school, gained considerable authority as an envoy extraordinary and plenipotentiary to the German Confederation in Frankfurt am Main, and an ambassador in Vienna. It is characteristic that Count Nesselrode did not like Gorchakov and in every possible way hindered his promotion through the ranks.
Gorchakov headed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for almost a quarter of a century and had a huge influence not only on foreign policy, but also on the internal affairs of the country. For conscientious service in 1862 he was granted the rank of Vice-Chancellor, and in 1867 - Chancellor.
The new direction of foreign policy was substantiated by the minister in a report to Alexander II and formulated in a well-known circular dated August 21, 1856, sent to Russian embassies and missions to European states. Russian ministry Foreign Affairs stated that the cooperation of the great powers on the basis of the principles of the Holy Alliance of 1815 had exhausted itself, and that Russia was unwilling to sacrifice its interests to maintain these principles. Desire was emphasized Russian emperor to devote the main concerns to internal affairs, and to spread their activities beyond the borders of the empire only when the interests of Russia demand it unconditionally. The abandonment of the former active role on the continent was, however, temporary. This was unequivocally hinted at by the phrase of the circular that Russia was "concentrating," which had to be understood in the sense that the country was recovering from the losses it had suffered and was gathering strength. This phrase went around the whole of Europe and became, as it were, the motto of Russia's foreign policy after the Crimean War.
Gorchakov saw one of the main tasks of foreign policy in the abolition of the neutralization of the Black Sea. It was also necessary to restore lost positions and influence in the Balkans. Thus, according to Gorchakov, the "double defect" of the Paris Treaty would be eliminated. The solution of these problems required the search for new ways and diplomatic combinations.
Russian diplomacy during the struggle for the revision of the Paris Peace.
Tsarist Russia could not count on a revision of the Peace of Paris without the support of some other European power. Especially favorable opportunities, according to Alexander II and A. M. Gorchakov, were opened by rapprochement with France. The conclusion of an alliance or, in particular, the development of cooperation with it seemed quite real. From the time of the Congress of Paris, Napoleon III himself persistently sought rapprochement with Russia.
The Crimean War did not bring any territorial gains to France. Formally, since the war, France has been in alliance with England, but this alliance has cracked. Wishing to weaken the advantage of London in the Balkans, the French government was not averse to supporting Russia in some Middle Eastern affairs. In return, Napoleon III expected to receive assistance from St. Petersburg in the implementation of his aggressive plans in Western Europe, in particular in the fight against Austria over Northern Italy.
The real goals of Napoleon III were not a mystery to Russian diplomacy, but at that time England and Austria were the main opponents of St. Petersburg. The tsarist government felt the hostile intrigues of England everywhere: in the Caucasus, and in Persia, and in Turkey.
To the celebrations on the occasion of the coronation of Alexander II in August 1856, Napoleon III sent one of the most proxies- his half-brother C. de Morny, leaving him the ambassador of Russia. The Duke of Morny was married to the Russian Princess Trubetskoy and was famous in Paris as the head of the "Russian Party". It is clear that in both Russian capitals he was received with joy.
The former Minister of State Property, Count P. D. Kiselev, was appointed Ambassador of Russia to Paris. This outstanding statesman enjoyed great influence at court, and his appointment testified to the importance attached in St. Petersburg to this diplomatic post. The reception given to Kiselev in the French capital was also quite cordial. In this regard, one of the Viennese newspapers even ironically wrote: "Petersburg and Moscow cannot be more Russian than today's Paris."
A sign of further improvement in relations between the two powers was the visit to France in May 1857 of the brother of the tsar, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich. Finally in September
In 1857, a meeting between Napoleon III and Alexander II took place in Stuttgart with the participation of foreign ministers. Both emperors were officially invited to the celebrations on the occasion of the birthday of the King of Württemberg, who was related to both courts. But all of Europe understood that the real purpose of the meeting went far beyond the usual meeting of relatives. In fact, Napoleon III and Alexander II discussed the possibility of concerted action in Italy and the Balkans.
In the course of further diplomatic relations between St. Petersburg and Paris, the French side, in the event that Russia entered the war with Austria, offered her to annex Galicia, but did not promise anything definite in the matter of revising the Paris Treaty. However, A. M. Gorchakov firmly adhered to his position, tried to avoid drawing his country into a military conflict only to ensure French interests. But he also did not want to push Napoleon III "into the arms of England". Therefore, the diplomats of both countries considered more and more new draft treaties.
Finally, on February 19, 1859, in Paris, P. D. Kiselev and French Foreign Minister A. Valevsky signed a secret treaty, according to which Russia, in the event of a conflict between Paris and any third party, had to adhere only to neutrality. The agreement did not provide for any concentration Russian troops on the Galician border, nor the elimination of the most difficult for Russia provisions of the Paris Peace. While not contributing to the solution of the main foreign policy task of St. Petersburg, it greatly facilitated the victory of France and Sardinia over Austria. And yet, the diplomatic line of A. M. Gorchakov provided Russia with a way out of international isolation and the conclusion of a more or less equal treaty.
A positive result of Russia's rapprochement with France was the establishment of cooperation in the Balkans. It should be borne in mind that in the period from 1856 to 1871, the Russian government wanted to maintain the status quo in the Balkan region and was wary of the imminent emergence of an Eastern crisis, that is, a general uprising of the Balkan peoples and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Petersburg quite rightly believed that the aggravation of the situation in the Balkans was used to the detriment of Russia by its more powerful rivals: England, France and Austria. At the same time, Russian diplomacy took care not to alienate the Balkan peoples and, to the extent possible, supported their desire for liberation. Of course, this assistance was provided to the extent that it met the interests of the Russian Empire and corresponded to its real capabilities.
Cooperation between Russia and France in the Balkans was most productive in 1856-1859. During the aggravation of relations between Turkey and Montenegro, they supported the latter and sought to conclude an agreement between the warring parties. St. Petersburg and Paris also acted in concert when discussing the issue of the Danube principalities at the Paris Conference in 1858. The decision taken here accelerated the creation in 1859 of the united state, which in 1862 received the name "Romania". The Russian Foreign Ministry was clearly aware that the unification of the Danube principalities would weaken Turkey, and at the same time deal a blow to the Treaty of Paris, which fixed their separation.
The Russian government attached particular importance to strengthening its influence in Serbia. The Serbs still felt the oppression of the Sultan, although they enjoyed internal autonomy. Turkish troops occupied the citadel in Belgrade and a number of other fortresses. There were constant skirmishes between the Turks and the Serbs. Serbia was economically dependent on Austria, where Serbian agricultural products were exported. Austria owned part of the Serbian lands and did not want to strengthen the economic and political independence of Serbia.
When the Serbian government under Prince Mikhail Obrenović began to increase the army and declared the princely power hereditary, the Porte, with the support of England and Austria, demanded the abolition of these measures. Russia and France spoke out in favor of Serbia.
In the summer of 1862, the excesses of the Ottomans in Serbia led to bloody events. To resolve the conflict, an international conference was convened at Kanlij near Constantinople. Russia and France agreed on a position on the Serbian issue even before its opening. The final text of the protocol was signed at Canlidge after long disputes with the representatives of England and Austria. Two of the six Turkish fortresses on Serbian territory were liquidated, but Turkish guns still remained in the Belgrade citadel. The Serbian government was not satisfied with what had been achieved and continued to increase its army. Under these conditions, the St. Petersburg Cabinet agreed to provide material assistance to Serbia. About 400 wagons with weapons (39 thousand guns and 3 thousand sabers) were transported to Belgrade. However, the Russian government saw its task at that time in not only not forcing events, but, on the contrary, in restraining Serbia from premature actions.
The coordinated actions of Russia and France in the development of the Canlidge Protocol were the last act of Russian-French cooperation in Balkan affairs before the uprising in Poland in 1863, when relations between the two countries sharply escalated. The matter never came to a discussion with France of the question of revising the Peace of Paris.
The diplomatic action of England, France and Austria against Russia during the Polish uprising of 1863 drastically changed the alignment of European forces. The intervention of the Western powers did not alleviate the position of the Poles, but had important international consequences. At the top of the Russian government, it increased opposition to the course of rapprochement with France. Rapprochement with Prussia was put forward as an alternative direction. It is characteristic that back in October 1862, instead of P. D. Kiselev, A. F. Budberg, a supporter of the Russian-Prussian alliance, was appointed to the post of ambassador in Paris.
The aggravation of Russia's relations with the Western powers during the Polish uprising played into the hands of Prussia. O. Bismarck, who had long planned to unite Germany "with iron and blood" under the leadership of Prussia, was the first to make attempts to bring the two countries closer together. Already in the first days of the Polish uprising, General Alfensleben was sent to St. Petersburg to develop a plan for joint action against the insurgents. But A. M. Gorchakov believed that the situation in Poland could be defuse by liberal concessions and opposed an agreement with Prussia. At the same time, Alexander II, who was impressed by the traditional dynastic ties with this country, decided in his own way.
On January 27 (February 8), 1863, the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs had to sign a convention with Prussia. Prussia agreed to give the tsarist troops the opportunity to freely pursue the Polish insurgents on Prussian territory and to help them in this with their own forces. Both sides also pledged to mutually exchange information regarding Polish propaganda.
When Bismarck began to implement the plan for the unification of the German lands, in St. Petersburg they did not interfere with him. The conditions of Russia's foreign policy isolation and the country's internal difficulties had an effect. Therefore, during the war of Prussia and Austria against Denmark in 1864, Russia remained neutral. True, at first Alexander II and Gorchakov tried to restrain Bismarck with verbal persuasion. They well understood that the Prussian expansion not only upsets the balance in Europe in favor of Prussia, but also brings the latter closer to the Danish straits.
As a result of the war, Prussia captured Schleswig and thus occupied important strategic positions between the Baltic and the North Sea. The defeat of Denmark caused serious fears in the landlord and bourgeois circles of Russia. Moskovskiye Vedomosti, in the words of M. N. Katkov, bitterly exclaimed: “God knows, Peter the Great would have built Petersburg if he had foreseen that this was possible!” But, in the end, the Russian press also put the question of the Black Sea and the prospects for the abolition of the articles of the Paris Treaty in the first place.
A. M. Gorchakov hoped for the preservation of the "balance" of forces between Austria and Prussia, in which the Russian government since the Seven Years' War saw one of the guarantees for maintaining its influence on the affairs of Western Europe. However, attempts to persuade Bismarck to moderation proved futile. Little of, Austro-Prussian War 1866 led to the further strengthening of Prussia, which soon liquidated the German Confederation of Powers. The system of international treatises has not stood the test of time.
At the same time, Gorchakov made a final attempt to sound out the position of Napoleon III on the question of canceling the neutralization of the Black Sea. But during the negotiations of 1866-1867. it became clear that Russia could not count on the support of France. In addition, France, together with Austria, began to oppose Russia in the Balkans. Under these conditions, Gorchakov finally came to the conclusion that only an agreement with Prussia could create a counterbalance to the participants in the Crimean coalition.
In August 1866, while Gorchakov was still vainly groping for grounds for concrete negotiations with Napoleon III, the Russian government at the same time informed Bismarck of their desire to hold bilateral negotiations with Prussia. This caused an immediate response. The Prussian general Manteuffel arrived in Petersburg. He assured that Prussia would support Russia's demands for the abolition of the articles of the Paris Treaty, which were the most difficult for her, when this issue was officially raised by Russian diplomacy. In return, the tsarist government agreed to maintain benevolent neutrality during the unification of Germany.
On the other hand, the visit of the Tsar and Gorchakov to Paris during the World Exhibition in the summer of 1867 demonstrated the unwillingness of the French side to make any kind of rapprochement. The point is also that Napoleon III, even in the event of a possible Franco-Prussian war, did not attach serious importance to the position of Russia. Embarrassment in the government spheres of Russia was also caused by the lenient sentence of the French court (forced labor) to Berezovsky, who shot Alexander II during this visit to France.
Under such conditions, an even closer rapprochement between Russia and Prussia took place. In 1868, an oral agreement (which had the force of a treaty) was concluded between the two countries on mutual obligations in the event of a Franco-Prussian war.
Shortly before the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the tsar again confirmed to Bismarck his promise, in the event of Prussia's intervention in the conflict with France, Vienna, to deploy a three hundred thousandth army on the border with Austria-Hungary, which, if necessary, would even "occupy Galicia." In August 1870, Bismarck, in turn, informed Petersburg that Russia could count on support in revising the Paris Treaty.
The brilliant victories of Prussia turned the entire military-political situation in Europe upside down. The uprising of September 4 in Paris, the fall of the Second Empire and the proclamation of a republic in France this time did not cause any commotion in Petersburg from the point of view of the political system in this country. Alexander II, in principle, of course, condemned the republic as a form of government, but in Napoleon III he saw only a usurper, a violator of legitimism and a fierce enemy of Russia.
At the same time, the exorbitant strengthening of Prussia gave rise to anxiety in Russian government spheres. The prospect of creating a German empire worried A. M. Gorchakov and Minister of War D. A. Milyutin. Explicit anti-Prussian sentiments were demonstrated by the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich, married to the Danish princess Dagmar, who well remembered the humiliation of her homeland in 1864. The Tsarevich believed that Russia would sooner or later feel "Prussian friendship and gratitude." Regarding the possible "ungratefulness" of Prussia, Gorchakov also wrote in one of his reports to the tsar. Alexander II did not write anything on this document. Apparently, he understood the validity of Gorchakov's doubts, but it was unpleasant for him to fix on paper distrust of his uncle, King Wilhelm I, with an affirmative note.
Meanwhile, A. M. Gorchakov clearly hurried Alexander II and insisted on immediate action to eliminate the results of the Paris peace. Especially stubbornly on the issue of lifting restrictions on the Black Sea, Gorchakov was supported by the Russian ambassador to Constantinople N.P. Ignatiev, who, through his extensive network of agents, was well informed about the situation in the Ottoman Empire and its provinces.
On October 15, 1870, Gorchakov's proposal was discussed at a meeting of the Council of Ministers. The Chancellor considered it possible to raise the question of the return of South Bessarabia to Russia. Among the tsarist ministers there was no unity of views. Many feared that Russia's performance could lead to undesirable consequences. It was proposed to first find out the positions of the European governments. Gorchakov objected. He believed that the solution of the issue should not be referred to the European countries, because in this case there is a real threat of establishing the steadfastness of the Paris Treaty, and then the revision of its terms by peaceful means will become completely impossible. The chancellor rightly noted that Prussia still feels the need to support Russia, but hopes for her "gratitude" in the future are very problematic. Therefore, he warned against delay in action. Gorchakov also foresaw that in the current situation, dissenting countries would only be able to switch to a “paper war”. At the suggestion of D. A. Milyutin, it was decided to confine ourselves to a statement on the elimination of the articles of the treatise that limited Russia's rights in the Black Sea, but not to touch upon territorial issues.
On October 19 (31), 1870, A. M. Gorchakov’s circular about Russia’s decision not to comply with part of the articles of the Paris Treaty was sent to the Russian embassies for delivery to the governments of the states that signed this treaty. The moment was chosen very well. Gorchakov's circular caused shock in Europe. All European cabinets, including the Prussian government, were dissatisfied with him. However, they had to limit themselves to verbal protests. Unexpected support was provided by the United States, which said it had never recognized the decisions of the Paris Congress to limit Russia's rights in the Black Sea.
Great importance for the success of Russia also had the fact that Western countries failed to persuade Turkey to protest against Gorchakov's circular. In addition to the impressions of the military successes of Prussia, the position of Russian diplomacy, primarily the political activity of the energetic N. P. Ignatiev, also played a certain role in this.
In Prussia, Gorchakov's circular aroused rejection, and Bismarck tried in every possible way to delay the solution of the issue. Only the persistence of the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs forced Prussia to fulfill the promises made earlier. But Bismarck did not want to turn England against Prussia by open support of Russia; he also did not want the emergence of a Russian-English conflict, which could lead to a new European war. In order to reconcile the parties, Bismarck proposed convening a special conference in St. Petersburg to discuss the Black Sea issue. However, the British government objected to the proposed venue for the conference and named London instead of St. Petersburg.
The conference opened in the English capital on January 5, 1871 and lasted about two months. Russia was represented by the ambassador to England F. I. Brunnov. Along with representatives of the European powers, the delegate of Turkey also took part in the meetings. The Porte, although under pressure from England and Austria, kept itself fairly independent. Its representative decisively rejected the Allies' proposal for the establishment of their naval base in the Black Sea and the free passage of their warships through the straits.
On March 1 (13), 1871, the London Convention was signed by representatives of Russia, Turkey, Prussia, Austria-Hungary, England, France and Italy. She eliminated all restrictions for Russia and Turkey on the Black Sea. From that time on, Russia could keep a navy there and build naval bases. In peacetime, the straits were recognized as closed to military ships of all countries. However, guarantees against the invasion of the naval forces of foreign states were largely nullified by the right of the Sultan to open the straits for the warships of "friendly and allied powers." Since England was still the most powerful maritime power, this regime of the straits was her small victory at the conference.
In general, the abolition of the neutralization of the Black Sea was the biggest success of Russian diplomacy. It allowed Russia to strengthen the defensive line of the southern border of the state, more intensively engage in the development of the Black Sea lands, and expand foreign trade through the straits. In addition, the London Protocol raised Russia's prestige in the Balkans and restored its influence in Turkey. A. M. Gorchakov, as the initiator of this act, added the honorary title "Most Serene" to the title of prince.
The period of the second half of the XIX - early XX centuries. is rightfully considered silver age Russian culture (a detailed table is presented below). The spiritual life of society is rich and diverse.
The political changes that occurred after the reforms of Alexander II were not as significant as the social and psychological changes. Having received great freedom and food for thought, scientists, writers, philosophers, musicians and artists, it would seem, are striving to make up for lost time. According to N. A. Berdyaev, having entered the XX century. Russia has gone through an era comparable in importance to the Renaissance, in fact, this is the time of the Renaissance of Russian culture.
The main reasons for the rapid cultural growth
A significant leap in all areas cultural life countries contributed:
- new schools opening in large numbers;
- an increase in the percentage of literate, and, accordingly, reading people to 54% by 1913 among men and 26% among women;
- an increase in the number of applicants to enter the university.
Government spending on education is gradually increasing. In the second half of the XIX century. the state treasury allocates 40 million rubles a year for education, and in 1914 at least 300 million. The number of voluntary educational societies, which could be attended by the most diverse segments of the population, and the number of public universities are increasing. All this contributes to the popularization of culture in such areas as literature, painting, sculpture, architecture, science is developing.
Culture of Russia in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries.
Russian culture in the second half of the XIX century. | Russian culture at the beginning of the 20th century. |
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Literature | Realism remains the dominant trend in literature. Writers try as truthfully as possible to tell about the changes taking place in society, denounce lies, and fight injustice. The abolition of serfdom has a significant influence on the literature of this period, therefore, in most works, folk colors, patriotism, and the desire to protect the rights of the oppressed population predominate. During this period, such literary luminaries as N. Nekrasov, I. Turgenev, F. Dostoevsky, I. Goncharov, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, A. Chekhov worked. In the 90s. A. Blok and M. Gorky begin their career. | At the turn of the century, the literary predilections of society and the writers themselves changed, new trends in literature appeared, such as symbolism, acmeism and futurism. 20th century - this is the time of Tsvetaeva, Gumilyov, Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam (acmeism), V. Bryusov (symbolism), Mayakovsky (futurism), Yesenin. Boulevard literature is gaining popularity. Interest in it, in fact, as well as interest in creativity, is growing. |
Theater and cinema | The theater also acquires folk features, the writers who create theatrical masterpieces try to reflect in them the humanistic moods inherent in this period, the richness of the spirit and emotions. the best | 20th century - the time of acquaintance of the Russian layman with the cinema. The theater did not lose its popularity among the upper strata of society, but the interest in cinema was much greater. Initially, all films were silent, black and white and exclusively documentary. But already in 1908, the first feature film “Stenka Razin and the Princess” was shot in Russia, and in 1911 the film “Defense of Sevastopol” was shot. The most famous director of this period is Protazanov. Ilms are based on the works of Pushkin and Dostoyevsky. Melodramas and comedies are especially popular with viewers. |
Music, ballet | Until the middle of the century, musical education and music were the property of an extremely limited circle of people - salon guests, household members, theatergoers. But towards the end of the century, a Russian musical school took shape. Conservatories are opening in major cities. The first such institution appeared in 1862. | There is a further development of this trend in culture. The famous singer Diaghileva, who toured not only in Russia but also abroad, contributed to the popularization of music. Russian musical art was glorified by Chaliapin and Nezhdanova. N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov continues his creative path. Symphonic and chamber music developed. Ballet performances are still of particular interest to the viewer. |
Painting and sculpture | Painting and sculpture, as well as literature, did not remain alien to the trends of the century. Realistic orientation prevails in this area. Famous artists such as V. M. Vasnetsov, P. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, V. D. Polenov, Levitan, Roerich, Vereshchagin created beautiful canvases. | On the threshold of the XX century. many artists write in the spirit of modernism. A whole society of painters "The World of Art" is being created, within the framework of which M. A. Vrubel works. Around the same time, the first paintings of an abstractionist orientation appeared. In the spirit of abstract art, V. V. Kandinsky and K. S. Malevich create their masterpieces. P. P. Trubetskoy becomes a famous sculptor. |
At the end of the century, there is a significant increase in domestic scientific achievements. P. N. Lebedev studied the motion of light, N. E. Zhukovsky and S. A. Chaplygin laid the foundations of aerodynamics. The studies of Tsiolkovsky, Vernadsky, Timiryazev determine the future of modern science for a long time. | At the beginning of the XX century. the public becomes aware of the names of such prominent scientists as the physiologist Pavlov (studied reflexes), the microbiologist Mechnikov, the designer Popov (invented the radio). In 1910, for the first time in Russia, they designed their own domestic airplane. Aircraft designer I.I. Sikorsky developed aircraft with the most powerful Ilya Muromets and Russian Knight engines for that period. In 1911, Kotelnikov G.E. developed a backpack parachute. New lands and their inhabitants are being discovered and explored. Entire expeditions of scientists are sent to hard-to-reach regions of Siberia, the Far East, and Central Asia, one of them is V.A. Obruchev, author of Sannikov Land. Develop Social sciencies. If earlier they were not yet separated from philosophy, now they are acquiring independence. P. A. Sorokin became the most famous sociologist of his time. Historical science is further developed. P. G. Vinogradov, E. V. Tarle, and D. M. Petrushevsky are working in this area. Not only Russian, but also foreign history is subjected to research. |
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Philosophy | After the abolition of serfdom, Russian ideological thought reached a new level. The second half of the century is the dawn of Russian philosophy, especially religious philosophy. Such well-known philosophers as N. A. Berdyaev, V. V. Rozanov, E. N. Trubetskoy, P. A. Florensky, S. L. Frank work in this field. | The development of the religious trend in philosophical science continues. In 1909, a whole philosophical collection of articles, Milestones, was published. Berdyaev, Struve, Bulgakov, Frank are published in it. Philosophers are trying to understand the significance of the intelligentsia in the life of society, and above all that part of it that has a radical attitude, to show that the revolution is dangerous for the country and cannot solve all the accumulated problems. They called for social compromise and the peaceful resolution of conflicts. |
Architecture | In the post-reform period, the construction of banks, shops, railway stations began in cities, the appearance of cities was changing. Building materials are also changing. Glass, concrete, cement and metal are used in buildings. |
In the Art Nouveau style, the Yaroslavsky railway station is being built, in the neo-Russian style - the Kazansky railway station, and neoclassicism is present in the forms of the Kievsky railway station. |
Russian scientists, artists, artists and writers are gaining fame abroad. Achievements of Russian culture of the period under review receive worldwide recognition. The names of Russian travelers and discoverers adorn the maps of the world. The art forms that originated in Russia have a significant impact on foreign culture, many of whose representatives now prefer to be equal to Russian writers, sculptors, poets, scientists and artists.
Alexander succeeded to the throne after the death of his father in 1855. The Russian press and universities got more freedom.
As a result of the unsuccessful Crimean War (1853-1856), the empire found itself on the edge of a social and economic abyss: its finances and economy were upset, the technological gap from the advanced countries of the world was increasing, the population remained poor and illiterate.
The request for reforms was made by Alexander II in March 1856, shortly after his accession to the throne.
In the middle of the nineteenth century, Russia was the largest state in the world. The vast majority of the Russian population were peasants. The main categories of the peasantry were specific, state and landlord peasants.
The leading organizational unit of the peasant economy was the peasant family - tax, When corvée economy the processing of the manor's field was carried out by the free labor of serfs. At quitrent farm serfs were released for quitrent: they could engage in any kind of household, an annual payment to the landowner. There were cases when quitrent peasants became richer than their landowners. The noble households were also in a state of deep crisis. Agriculture in Russia needed a radical reform.
On a national scale, small-scale production, represented by domestic industry and handicrafts (flax spinning, wool processing, linen weaving and felting), prevailed. In the middle of the XIX century. the specialization of small-scale industry is intensified, and in a number of areas specialized centers appear in which commodity producers of one specific branch of industry accumulate. Large industry in the middle of the XIX century. represented by manufactories and factories. started in the country industrial revolution. Backlog Russian state from Europe was huge. The most important reason for the inefficient work of Russian industry was serfdom. Another negative factor was the lack of qualified labor force.
reforms
The beginning of one of the central reforms dates back to 1864, new "Judicial Charters" were issued, which changed the order of legal proceedings in the empire. Before the reform, the courts were under the strong influence of the authorities. According to the judicial reform, instead of class courts, a court was introduced out-of-class. Judges were given irremovability and independence. Introduced adversarial court, which allowed for an objective and detailed investigation. In addition, the court became vowel. The system of courts was also changed - for the analysis of small cases - world courts. To analyze petty cases that arise in a peasant environment - volost courts, to deal with more serious cases in provincial cities - district courts with criminal and civil divisions. The Senate was assigned the function of general supervision over the state of legal proceedings in the country.
Simultaneously with the change in the system of courts and legal proceedings, the system of punishments was significantly relaxed. Thus, various types of corporal punishment were abolished.
In 1874 was published Charter on universal military service. Previously, the Russian army was formed as a result of recruiting, wealthy people could pay off 25 years of military service by hiring a recruit. Under the new law for military service all men over the age of 21 were to be called up. Those recruited had to serve six years in the ranks and nine years in the reserve. Then, until they reached the age of 40, they had to be in the militia.
The system of soldier training has changed. Soldiers were taught to fulfill the sacred duty of protecting their Fatherland, they were taught to read and write
Education reform began in 1863, when the Charter of universities - the professorial corporation was given self-government, and the Council of Professors at each university could elect all university officials. By 1863, the first attempt in Russia to create a higher educational institution for women dates back.
Access to the gymnasium became equally open to. Gymnasiums were of two types - classical and real. AT classical the study of the humanities was considered the main one. AT real Gymnasiums emphasized the study of mathematics and natural sciences. In 1871, Emperor Alexander signed a new charter of gymnasiums - a classical gymnasium is the only type of general education and non-class school. Since the end of the 50s, women's gymnasiums for students from all classes, as well as women's diocesan schools for the daughters of persons of the clergy .. Under Alexander II, new type secular elementary school - zemstvo, who were under the care of the zemstvos and quickly became numerous. Appeared free peasant schools, created by peasant societies. continued to exist church parish schools. In all provinces were created public Sunday schools. Training in all types primary schools was free
The general state list of income and expenses was now subject to annual publication, i.e. public budget was introduced. A system of nationwide control has been created. Estimates for all departments for the next year were reviewed regularly and centrally. It was also introduced "unity of cash desk" - the order in which the movement of all sums of money in the treasuries of empires was subject to the general order of the Ministry of Finance. The banking system in the country was being reformed: in 1860 the State Bank was established. Tax reform was also carried out. One of the most important changes was the abolition of wine leases. all wine sold was taxed excise - special tax in favor of the treasury.
In 1875, when the uprising of the Serbs against the Turks broke out. This contributed to the spread of patriotic feelings in Russian society. At the beginning of 1877, at the initiative of Russia, a conference of European diplomats was held, which demanded that the Sultan yield. The Sultan refused. Then in April 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey. In the winter of 1878, the Sultan asked for peace. The provisional peace treaty was signed in San Stefano. The terms of the San Stefano peace treaty were protested by England and Austria, who did not want Russia to strengthen in this region. At the Berlin Congress, the articles of the treaty were revised. By Berlin treatise ( July 1878), It led to a deterioration in relations between Russia and the leading European countries - England, Austria, Germany. Thus, Russia was unable to help the Slavic peoples and increase its influence in the Balkans and remained almost isolated, without reliable allies and friends.
Consequences of the reforms
The country's economy revived, the growth of the urban population accelerated, cities began to play a more significant role in the development of the country. Road construction and transport began to develop at a faster pace than before. The construction of a road network made it possible to increase turnover foreign trade Russia, the number of commercial and industrial enterprises has increased. The state of the state has improved. budget.
The nobility lost its monopoly position in the country, although the highest state officials were appointed from among the nobles. officials and nobles headed the governing bodies. The nobles experienced a severe financial crisis. The lands of the nobility gradually passed to the peasants and the commercial and industrial class.
The ruin of the nobility the redistribution of landed property and the growth of anti-government sentiment among the youth of the nobility became the most important result of the transformations of the 60-70s of the XIX century.
Russian society now consisted of civilly equal classes. All were equally called up for military service, could be engaged in any business on equal grounds. The process of democratization of society became the most important consequence of Alexander's reforms. For some n igilism was a life credo. Being critical of the existing system, they did not consider it necessary for themselves to obey the established rules. Magazines played the greatest role in propaganda work in the 1950s and 1960s.
Revolutionary and anti-government sentiments sharply intensified in society. Underground organizations were also formed, whose goal was to fight against the existing regime as a whole and personally against Emperor Alexander II. Most of them were concentrated in St. Petersburg and Moscow. In 1861 an organization was created "Land and Freedom" advocating the convocation of a classless people's assembly and an elected government, complete self-government of peasant communities and the creation of a voluntary federation of regions. A secret revolutionary circle of Ishutins adjoined it, they set themselves the task of preparing a revolutionary coup in Russia. Member of the Ishutin circle Karakozov April 4, 1866 shot at Alexander II at the gates of the Summer Garden in St. Petersburg. Karakozov was arrested and executed. The shot led to mass arrests, increased censorship. The government has moved away from reforms.
In the 1970s, the revolutionary movement in Russia grew and took on an increasingly extremist character. At the beginning At the end of the 70s, two new organizations were formed on the basis of "Land and Freedom": "Black redistribution", who wanted to achieve the redistribution of land in favor of the peasants and the nationalization of the land, and "People's Will" which prioritizes the political struggle, the destruction of the autocracy, the introduction of democratic freedoms and terror against the highest officials in the state. The main "object" - Alexander II. Under these conditions, the "Supreme Administrative Commission" was established. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II died - in St. Petersburg, the Narodnaya Volya blew up the royal crew with a bomb.
The era of great liberal reforms is over.
Alexander III His son Alexander III. Alexander III considered his main goal to be the strengthening of autocratic power and state order. The main direction of his domestic policy is to suppress revolutionary uprisings in the country and to revise the laws adopted under Alexander II in order to make it impossible for them to spread further.
Alexander dismissed some ministers, and the Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich. Of those close to the throne, he stood out in particular K.P. Pobedonostsev(1827-1907). He considered the main direction to be the creation of a strong monarchist Russia by restoring the church life in Russian life: V. K. Plehve(1864-1904), Minister of the Interior. Thanks to his actions, all personal freedoms in the country were limited. Censorship was also tightened.
The government has made important reforms in the area taxation and finance. AT In 1885, the poll tax was abolished. Various taxes were also introduced (land, insurance_. In 1888, the state budget became deficit-free.
The government continues to focus on agricultural sector - main branch of the country's economy. Efforts were aimed at alleviating the situation of the peasants. The Peasant Land Bank was established to help peasants buy and sell land. A number of laws were issued that went down in history as counter-reforms - they tied the peasants to the rural community and the landowner's estate, limited the economic freedom of the peasants. Introduction in 1889 of the institute land chiefs,- strengthened government guardianship over the peasants. The same goal was pursued by the publication published in 1890. new regulation on zemstvos - the role of the nobility in zemstvo institutions was more strengthened. H new regulation on city self-government in 1892 strengthened the rights of the administration.
To support the nobles, in 1885 was established Noble land bank..
To streamline relations between workers and manufacturers, it was adopted factory law,- systems of fines for misconduct. For the first time, the duration of the working day was legally stipulated. established work standards for women and children.
The tsarist administration took steps to develop domestic industry. Foreign capital was attracted to the country (ferrous metallurgy and mining industry). Foreign capital determined the development of mechanical engineering and the electrical industry. The industrial revolution continued in the country.
The priority direction of the government's activity was the construction of railways. Already in the 90s, the railway network covered almost half of all Russian cities and connected Moscow and St. Petersburg. However, the main mode of transport is horse-drawn, and the type of roads is dirt, which hampered the economic development of the country.
The most common type of urban settlements were small towns.
In the second half of the XIX century. In the western and central regions of the empire, industry developed much faster. The development of the domestic market and the growth of agricultural marketability had an impact on the relationship between Russia and other states.
Foreign policy The era of 1881-1894 turned out to be calm for Russia: Russia did not fight with other states. In the second half of the XIX century. Its territorial growth continued. In the 1950s and 1960s, it included Kazakh and Kyrgyz lands. By 1885, the whole of Central Asia had already become part of the Russian Empire. In 1887 and 1895 between Russia and England agreements were concluded that determined the border with Afghanistan.
Russia still imported machinery and equipment and a variety of consumer goods, and exported mainly agricultural products - grain, hemp, flax, timber, livestock products.
The fall in grain prices had a negative impact on the relationship between Russian and German landlords. customs war between Russia and Germany was especially tense in 1892-1894, and in 1894 a trade agreement was signed that was unfavorable for Russia.
Since that time, the contradictions between Germany and Russia have been intensifying, which at the beginning of the 20th century. lead to a clash of these powers in the First World War.
At the end of the XIX century. about 130 million people lived in the empire. Russia was a multinational state. Orthodoxy was the state religion in the empire. Orthodoxy was the most important basis of education and culture in Russia.
culture
A world-scale event was the discovery in 1869 of the periodic law of chemical elements - DI. Mendeleev.
There was a telephone connection.
In 1892 construction of tram lines began.
Literature - Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev.
Painting - The realistic direction is represented by the work of the Wanderers (Repin, Surikov, Shishkin, Polenov). In a romantic manner - Aivazovsky.
Music - Tchaikovsky, (Borodin, Mussorgsky. Rimsky-Korsakov - A mighty handful of hands. Balakirev)