Old Russian chronicle XII century "The Tale of Bygone Years" introduces us to a very interesting event which happened in 862. It was in this year that the Varangian Rurik was invited by the Slavic tribes to reign in Novgorod.

This event became fundamental in counting the beginning of statehood Eastern Slavs and received the conditional name "The Calling of the Varangians." It is from Rurik that the countdown of the rulers of the Russian lands begins. Our history is very rich. It is filled with both heroic and tragic events, and all of them are inextricably linked with specific personalities that history has arranged in chronological order.

Novgorod princes (862-882)

Novgorod princes of the pre-Kiev period. The state of Rurik - this is how the emerging Ancient Russian state. According to The Tale of Bygone Years, this time is associated with the calling of the Varangians and the transfer of the capital to the city of Kyiv.

Kyiv princes (882-1263)

TO Kyiv princes we refer rulers Old Russian state and Kyiv principality. From the end of the 9th to the beginning of the 13th century, the throne of Kiev was considered the most prestigious, and it was occupied by the most authoritative princes (as a rule, from the Rurik dynasty), who were recognized by the other princes in the order of succession to the throne. At the end of the 12th century, this tradition began to weaken, the influential princes did not personally occupy the throne of Kiev, but sent their proteges to it.

Ruler	Years of government	Note




Yaropolk Svyatoslavich

Svyatopolk Vladimirovich	1015-1016; 1018-1019

Izyaslav Yaroslavich
Vseslav Bryachislavich
Izyaslav Yaroslavich
Svyatoslav Yaroslavich
Vsevolod Yaroslavich
Izyaslav Yaroslavich
Vsevolod Yaroslavich
Svyatopolk Izyaslavich

Mstislav Vladimirovich the Great
Yaropolk Vladimirovich
Vyacheslav Vladimirovich
Vsevolod Olgovich
Igor Olgovich	August 1146
Izyaslav Mstislavich
Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky
Vyacheslav Vladimirovich	August 1150
Izyaslav Mstislavich	August 1150
	August 1150 - early 1151
Izyaslav Mstislavich
Vyacheslav Vladimirovich		co-ruler
Rostislav Mstislavich	December 1154
Izyaslav Davydovich

Izyaslav Davydovich
Mstislav Izyaslavich
Rostislav Mstislavich
Izyaslav Davydovich
Rostislav Mstislavich
Vladimir Mstislavich	March - May 1167
Mstislav Izyaslavich
Gleb Yurievich
Mstislav Izyaslavich
Gleb Yurievich
Mikhalko Yurievich
Roman Rostislavich

Yaropolk Rostislavich		co-ruler
Rurik Rostislavich
Yaroslav Izyaslavich
Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich	January 1174
Yaroslav Izyaslavich	January - 2nd half 1174
Roman Rostislavich
Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich
Rurik Rostislavich	late August 1180 - summer 1181
Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich
Rurik Rostislavich	summer 1194 - autumn 1201
Ingvar Yaroslavich
Rurik Rostislavich
Rostislav Rurikovich	winter 1204 - summer 1205
Rurik Rostislavich
Vsevolod Svyatoslavich Chermny	August - September 1206
Rurik Rostislavich	September 1206 - Spring 1207
Vsevolod Svyatoslavich Chermny	spring - October 1207
Rurik Rostislavich	October 1207 - 1210
Vsevolod Svyatoslavich Chermny	1210 - summer 1212
Ingvar Yaroslavich
Mstislav Romanovich
Vladimir Rurikovich
Izyaslav Mstislavich	June - late 1235
Vladimir Rurikovich	late 1235-1236
Yaroslav Vsevolodovich	1236 - 1st half of 1238
Vladimir Rurikovich
Mikhail Vsevolodovich
Rostislav Mstislavich
Daniel Romanovich
Mikhail Vsevolodovich
Yaroslav Vsevolodovich

Grand Dukes of Vladimir (1157-1425)

The Grand Dukes of Vladimir are the rulers of North-Eastern Rus'. The period of their reign begins with the separation of the Rostov-Suzdal principality from Kyiv in 1132 and ends in 1389, after the entry of the Vladimir principality into the Moscow principality. In 1169, Andrei Bogolyubsky captured Kyiv and was proclaimed the Grand Duke, but did not go to Kyiv to reign. From that time on, Vladimir received the status of grand duke and turned into one of the most influential centers of the Russian lands. After the start Mongol invasion Vladimir princes are recognized in the Horde as the oldest in Rus', and Vladimir becomes the nominal capital of the Russian lands.

Ruler	Years of government	Note

Mikhalko Yurievich
Yaropolk Rostislavich
Mikhalko Yurievich

Yuri Vsevolodovich
Konstantin Vsevolodovich
Yuri Vsevolodovich
Yaroslav Vsevolodovich
Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich	1246 - early 1248
Mikhail Yaroslavovich Khorobrit	early 1248 - winter 1248/1249
Andrey Yaroslavovich

Yaroslav Yaroslavovich Tverskoy
Vasily Yaroslavovich Kostroma


Dmitry Alexandrovich Pereyaslavsky	December 1283 - 1293
Andrey Alexandrovich Gorodetsky
Mikhail Yaroslavovich Tverskoy
Yuri Danilovich
Dmitry Mikhailovich Terrible Eyes (Tverskoy)
Alexander Mikhailovich Tverskoy
Alexander Vasilievich Suzdalsky
		co-ruler

Semyon Ivanovich Proud
Ivan II Ivanovich Red

Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy	early January - spring 1363
Dmitry Konstantinovich Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod

Vasily Dmitrievich

Moscow princes and grand dukes (1263-1547)

During the period of feudal fragmentation, Moscow princes were increasingly at the head of the troops. They managed to get out of conflicts with other countries and neighbors, seeking a positive solution to their own political issues. The Moscow princes changed history: they overthrew the Mongol yoke, returned the state to its former greatness.

Ruler	Years of government	Note
	nominally 1263, actually from 1272 (no later than 1282) - 1303
Yuri Danilovich

Semyon Ivanovich Proud
Ivan II Ivanovich Red


Vasily II Vasilyevich Dark
Yuri Dmitrievich	spring - summer 1433
Vasily II Vasilyevich Dark
Yuri Dmitrievich Zvenigorodsky
Vasily Yurievich Kosoy
Vasily II Vasilyevich Dark
Dmitry Yurievich Shemyaka
Vasily II Vasilyevich Dark
Dmitry Yurievich Shemyaka
Vasily II Vasilyevich Dark
		co-ruler Basil II

Ivan Ivanovich Young		co-ruler
Dmitry Ivanovich Vnuk		co-ruler
		co-ruler of Ivan III

Russian tsars

Rurikovichi

In 1547 the sovereign of all Rus' and Grand Duke Moscow Ivan IV Vasilyevich the Terrible was crowned king and took the full title "Great Sovereign, by the grace of God the Tsar and Grand Duke of All Rus', Vladimir, Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov, Ryazan, Tver, Yugra, Perm, Vyattsky, Bulgarian and others"; later, with the expansion of the borders of the Russian state, the title was added "Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Siberia", "and the ruler of all the Northern countries."

Godunovs

The Godunovs are an ancient Russian noble family, which, after the death of Fyodor I Ivanovich, became the Russian royal dynasty (1598-1605).

Time of Troubles

At the very beginning of the 17th century, the country was struck by a deep spiritual, economic, social, political and foreign policy crisis. It coincided with the dynastic crisis and the struggle of boyar factions for power. All this has brought the country to the brink of disaster. The impetus for the beginning of the Troubles was the suppression royal dynasty Rurikovich after the death of Fyodor I Ioannovich and the not very clear policy of the new royal dynasty of the Godunovs.

Romanovs

The Romanovs are a Russian boyar family. In 1613, a Zemsky Sobor was held in Moscow to elect a new tsar. The total number of electors exceeded 800 representing 58 cities. The election of Mikhail Romanov to the throne put an end to the Troubles and gave rise to the Romanov dynasty.

Ruler	Years of government	Note
Mikhail Fedorovich
Patriarch Filaret		Co-ruler of Mikhail Fedorovich from 1619 to 1633 with the title "Great Sovereign"

Fedor III Alekseevich
Ivan V Alekseevich		Ruled until 1696 with his brother
		Until 1696 he ruled jointly with his brother Ivan V

Russian emperors (1721-1917)

The title of Emperor of All Russia was adopted by Peter I on October 22 (November 2), 1721. This adoption took place at the request of the Senate after the victory in the Great Northern War. The title lasted until the February Revolution of 1917.

Ruler	Years of government	Note
Peter I the Great
Catherine I

Anna Ioannovna

Elizaveta Petrovna

Catherine II the Great

Alexander I
Nicholas I
Alexander II
Alexander III
Nicholas II

Provisional government (1917)

In February 1917, the February Revolution took place. As a result, on March 2, 1917, Emperor Nicholas II abdicated the Russian throne. Power was in the hands of the Provisional Government.

After the October Revolution of 1917, the Provisional Government was overthrown, the Bolsheviks came to power and began building a new state.

These people can be considered formal leaders only because the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Committee of the RCP (b) - VKP (b) - CPSU after the death of V. I. Lenin was actually the most important state position.

Kamenev Lev Borisovich		Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee
Sverdlov Yakov Mikhailovich		Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee
Vladimirsky Mikhail Fedorovich		And about. Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee
Kalinin Mikhail Ivanovich		Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, from 12/30/1922 - Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, from 01/17/1938 -
Shvernik Nikolai Mikhailovich		Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR
Voroshilov Kliment Efremovich		Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR
Brezhnev Leonid Ilyich		Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR
Mikoyan Anastas Ivanovich		Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR
Podgorny Nikolai Viktorovich		Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR
Brezhnev Leonid Ilyich
Kuznetsov Vasily Vasilievich
Andropov Yury Vladimirovich		Chairman of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Council, at the same time General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU
Kuznetsov Vasily Vasilievich		And about. Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR
Chernenko Konstantin Ustinovich		Chairman of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Council, at the same time General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU
Kuznetsov Vasily Vasilievich		And about. Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR
Gromyko Andrey Andreevich		Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR
Gorbachev Mikhail Sergeevich		Chairman of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Council, at the same time General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU

General Secretaries of the Central Committee of the RCP(b), VKP(b), CPSU (1922-1991)


Khrushchev Nikita Sergeevich		First Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU
Brezhnev Leonid Ilyich		Until 04/08/1966 - First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, from 04/08/1966 - General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee
Andropov Yury Vladimirovich
Chernenko Konstantin Ustinovich
Gorbachev Mikhail Sergeevich

President of the USSR (1990-1991)

Presidency Soviet Union was introduced on March 15, 1990 by the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR with the introduction of appropriate amendments to the Constitution of the USSR.

Presidents of the Russian Federation (1991-2018)

The post of President of the RSFSR was established on April 24, 1991 on the basis of the results of the All-Russian referendum.

- He was present at the martyrdom of his grandfather, Emperor Alexander II.
– He received an extensive and versatile education at the university level, knew the national history and foreign languages well.
– A believer and devoted to the Church, a Christian, rigorously attended Sunday and holiday services.
- He sacredly believed in the God-given origin of royal decisions, if they were made sincerely and with a pure heart; that God works through his Anointed One on the throne; considered archaic autocracy beneficial for Russian society.
- Political romantic, beloved sovereign - Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.
- Shared illusory ideas about the loyal monarchism of the Russian people; in the spirit of the archaic-autocratic tradition, perceived Russia as his patrimony (“Master of the Russian Land”).
- During the coronation celebrations in Moscow on May 18, 1896, when more than two thousand people were killed and maimed in a stampede on the Khodynka field, he nevertheless continued the festivities at a secular ball given by French diplomats.
– Conservative in views, moderate in management methods. He showed himself as the ruler of average abilities. I considered myself first and foremost a career officer and felt better in a military environment than among civilian bureaucrats.
- Tried to limit the growth of armaments on the world stage and wanted to avoid military conflicts in Europe, the initiator of the convening of the Hague Peace Conference in 1899, was nominated for Nobel Prize peace (1901).
– A moderate anti-Semite, the day before great war 1914 banned the admission to military educational institutions and the production of officer ranks of Jewish Christians.
- Prior to marriage, he was love relationship with ballerina M. F. Kshesinskaya.
- Married to Alexandra Feodorovna (Victoria Alice Helena Louise Beatrice of Hesse-Darmstadt), who since 1915 has acquired a significant negative influence on political management, as well as some personnel appointments in the empire.
- By the will of his wife, he allowed occultists, mystics, false elders, holy fools (Nizier, Papus, Rasputin, etc.) to the Imperial Court, who discredited the throne, the sovereign and the royal family.
- Unlike his father, he is not independent, although he tried to emphasize his independence, he was under the strong influence of his wife.
- He often hesitated and was distinguished by inconsistency in making political decisions.
– An exemplary family man, a loving and caring father, he considered the well-being and safety of the family to be the highest value. 5 children were born in the marriage.
- Delicate, restrained, aristocratic and at the same time easy to communicate with. He had a broad outlook and an excellent memory, but at the same time he did not have the necessary qualities for a comprehensive perception and a broad assessment of state and political problems.
- Enthusiasm for flattery; tired of reports if they were truthful, so he imagined the real state of affairs in the empire superficially and distortedly.
- Fatalist. He was fond of hunting, photography and cars, was interested in sports. Kuriles.
- In July 1914, he tried to stop the outbreak of war in Europe and find a compromise with the German Emperor Wilhelm II.
– During the years of the Great War, he repeatedly visited the location of the army in the field, including near the enemy, which made a favorable impression on the troops.
- Cavalier of St. George.
- Despite the objections of many statesmen, he took office Supreme Commander Russian armed forces, without having the necessary experience and abilities for that.
- Having become commander-in-chief, he continued to remain in the rank of guards colonel. With his composure, he positively influenced the atmosphere and the state of affairs at Headquarters.
- When making the most important operational decisions, he was more guided by the wishes of the allies than by the national interests and capabilities of the army.
- He was rather indifferent to the high losses of troops, considering them inevitable.
- Since 1915, while at the Mogilev Headquarters, he began to engage in state affairs to a lesser extent, in fact, entrusting the management of the empire to his wife, in correspondence with whom he often shared information that constituted a military secret.
- In the winter of 1916-1917, he repeatedly left the Headquarters and the high command, if his presence in the family was required.
- In the period 1915-1917, he stubbornly ignored numerous warnings about the need to change policy, to compromise with the Duma and society in order to avoid the collapse of the monarchy; steadily losing personal authority not only among the people, but also among loyal monarchists, as well as relatives.
- After starting riots in Petrograd on February 23, 1917, while at Headquarters in Mogilev, he showed passivity and indifference to reports on the situation in the capital, so orders to restore order were given belatedly.
- He abdicated the Russian throne on March 2, 1917, believing it to be good for the army and the Fatherland, in the hope of calming all-Russian unrest. When abdicating, he illegally deprived the right to the throne of Tsarevich Alexei Nikolaevich, thereby destroying the established order of succession to the throne; released the troops from the oath to the heir and contributed to the collapse of the constitutional-monarchical system.
- After the arrest by the Bolsheviks, in custody (1917-1918), he behaved meekly, humbly and with great dignity.
- Canonized by ROCOR
with family and servants as a martyr in 1981; He was glorified by the Russian Orthodox Church as a martyr in 2000 together with his family.

Emperors

ROMANOVS – the royal (in 1613–1721) and imperial (in 1721–1917) dynasties of Russia.

At the origins of the Romanov dynasty, they usually put Andrei Ivanovich Kobyla (? - until 1351) - the boyar of the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan I Kalita. Chronicles and genealogical lists say that Andrei Ivanovich Kobyla had five sons, from them the Lodynins, Konovnitsyns, Kobylins, Kolychevs, Neplyuevs, Sheremetevs and others descend from them.

The Romanov family descended from the youngest son of Andrei Kobyla, the boyar Fyodor Andreevich Koshka (? - 1393). He had a son Ivan (Boyar Vasily I) and a grandson Zachary. The middle son of Zakhariy, Yuri Zakharyevich (died in 1505) was a boyar and governor under Ivan III. The surname of the Romanovs came from one of his sons, Roman Yuryevich Zakharyin (died in 1543). He had several children. Among them are Anastasia Romanovna Zakharyina-Yuryeva (1530–1560), who in 1547 became queen and the first wife of Ivan IV Vasilyevich.

The son of Roman Zakharyin-Yuryev and the brother of Empress Anastasia, the boyar Nikita Romanovich Zakharyin-Yuryev (? - 1586) became the ancestor of the Romanov dynasty. This surname was borne by his son, Fyodor Nikitich Romanov (c. 1554–1633), who later became Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Filaret.

In 1613, at the Zemsky Sobor, the son of Patriarch Filaret, Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (1596–1645), the first Russian tsar from the Romanov dynasty, was elected tsar.

At 17 - beg. 18th century all Russian tsars bore the surname of the Romanovs: Alexei Mikhailovich (1629–1676, tsar from 1645), Fedor Alekseevich (1661–1682, tsar from 1676), Ivan V Alekseevich (1666–1696, tsar from 1682), Peter I Alekseevich (1672–1725, tsar from 1682, emperor from 1721). In 1682-1689, under the juvenile Ivan and Peter, the state was ruled by Princess Sofya Alekseevna (1657-1704). In 1721, Peter I declared Russia an empire. Since that time, Russian sovereigns bore the title of emperors.

After the death of Peter I in 1725, his wife Ekaterina I Alekseevna (d. 1727) became Empress of Russia. Then the grandson of Peter I and the son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich Peter II Alekseevich (1715–1730, emperor since 1727) ascended the Russian throne. After the death of Peter II in 1730, the Romanov dynasty ended in a direct male generation. There were no more direct male heirs among the Romanovs. In 1730–1740 the empress was Anna Ivanovna (1693-1740), daughter of Ivan V, niece of Peter I. In 1740-1741. under the young Ivan VI (1740–1764), his mother Anna Leopoldovna (1718–1746), who was the granddaughter of Ivan V, ruled.

In 1741–1761 the Russian state was ruled by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna (1709–1761), the natural daughter of Peter I. With the death of Elizaveta Petrovna in 1761, the dynasty ended in a direct female line - there were no more women bearing the surname Romanov.

Even during the life of Elizabeth Petrovna, Peter (1728–1762), the grandson of Peter I in the female line, the son of the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp Karl Friedrich and Anna, Peter's daughter, was declared the heir to the throne. In 1761 he ascended the throne under the name Peter III. But in 1762 he was overthrown from the throne by his wife Catherine, born Sophia Frederick Augusta, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst. In 1762-1796 she was the Russian Empress Catherine II. In 1796, Paul I (1754–1801), the son of Peter III and Catherine II, ascended the throne. Since then, one of the names of the dynasty in historical literature is the Romanovs-Holstein-Gottorps. Emperors from the Romanov dynasty continued to reign in the 19th - early. 20th century: Alexander I Pavlovich (1777–1825, emperor since 1801), Nicholas I Pavlovich (1796–1855, emperor since 1825), Alexander II Nikolaevich (1818–1881, emperor since 1855), Alexander III Alexandrovich (1845–1894, emperor since 1881), Nicholas II Alexandrovich (1868–1918, emperor in 1894–1917).

All R. 19th century The Romanov dynasty was divided into four branches, which came from the four sons of Nicholas I: Alexandrovich, Konstantinovich, Nikolaevich and Mikhailovich.

On March 2, 1917, Nicholas II abdicated in favor of his brother, Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich. March 3, 1917 Mikhail Alexandrovich refused to take the throne until the decision of the Constituent Assembly. This day is considered the last day of the Romanov dynasty in Russia.

In 1918, Nikolai Alexandrovich and his family were shot in Yekaterinburg. Other Romanovs, Grand Dukes and members of their families, were killed in 1918–1919. Some Romanovs managed to emigrate.

PETER I THE GREAT (30.05. 1672-28.01.1725) - tsar since 1682, the first Russian emperor since 1721.

The youngest son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich from his second marriage with N. K. Naryshkina. From the age of four, he grew up without a father. A ten-year-old child witnessed the Streltsy rebellion that broke out after the death of his half-brother, the childless Tsar Fedor Alekseevich (1682), and which became a reflection of the struggle between two groups - supporters of the Miloslavskys, relatives of the first wife of Alexei Mikhailovich, and supporters of the Naryshkins. Initially, supporters of the Naryshkins elevated Peter to the throne, bypassing his older half-brother Ivan. However, after the performance of the archers, incited by the Miloslavskys, a compromise decision was made: both brothers were crowned king. Ivan V was declared the "senior", and Peter I - the "junior" tsar, their elder sister Princess Sofya Alekseevna, the daughter of Alexei Mikhailovich from his first marriage, became the regent and de facto ruler of the state.

In his teenage years, Peter, along with his mother, preferred to live not in the Kremlin, but in the village of Preobrazhenskoye near Moscow. Here he indulged in the usual boyish fun - the game of war, which soon grew into a serious passion for military affairs. By his will, “amusing” regiments were created - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky, which later became the first guards regiments in Russia, the “amusing” fortress Preshburg was built, and “amusing” ships were built.

Peter made friends with many foreigners who lived in the German Quarter, not far from Preobrazhensky. Communicating with the Germans, the British, the French, the Swedes, the Danes, Peter was more and more asserted in the opinion that Russia was significantly behind Western Europe. He saw that in his homeland sciences, education, no strong army, there is no fleet. The Russian state, huge in its territory, had almost no influence on the life of Europe.

In January 1689, the wedding of Peter and Evdokia Lopukhina took place, in 1690 a son, Alexei Petrovich, was born in this marriage. In the summer of 1689, the archers began to prepare a new uprising against Peter I. The young tsar fled in fear to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, but it turned out that most of the troops went over to his side. The instigators of the uprising were executed, and Princess Sophia was removed from power. Peter and Ivan became independent rulers. Sickly Ivan almost did not take part in state activity, and in 1696, after his death, Peter I became the sovereign tsar.

Peter received his first baptism of fire in the war with Turkey in 1695-1696. during the Azov campaigns. Then Azov was taken - the stronghold of Turkey on the Black Sea. In a more convenient and deeper bay, Peter laid the new harbor of Taganrog.

In 1697–1698 with the Great Embassy, under the name of Peter Mikhailov, the tsar first visited Europe. He studied shipbuilding in Holland, met with the sovereigns of various European powers, hired many specialists for service in Russia.

In the summer of 1698, when Peter was in England, a new streltsy uprising broke out. Peter urgently returned from abroad and brutally cracked down on the archers. He and his associates personally chopped off the heads of the archers.

Over time, from a hot-tempered young man, Peter turned into an adult man. He was over two meters tall. Constant physical labor further developed his natural strength, and he became a real strong man. Peter was an educated person. He had a deep knowledge of history, geography, shipbuilding, fortification, and artillery. He was very fond of making things with his own hands. No wonder he was called the "king carpenter." Already in his youth, he knew up to fourteen crafts, and over the years he acquired a lot of technical knowledge.

Peter loved fun, jokes, feasts and feasts, sometimes lasting for several days. In moments of reflection, he preferred a quiet study and a pipe to tobacco. Even in adulthood, Peter remained very mobile, impulsive and restless. His companions could barely keep up with him, skipping. But the turbulent events of his life, the upheavals of his childhood and youth, affected Peter's health. At the age of twenty, his head began to shake, and during the excitement, convulsions passed through his face. He often had nervous attacks and bouts of unjustified anger. In a good mood, Peter presented his favorites with the richest gifts. But his mood in a few seconds could change dramatically. And then he became uncontrollable, could not only scream, but also use his fists or a club. Since the 1690s Peter began to carry out reforms in all areas of Russian life. He used the experience of Western European countries in the development of industry, trade and culture. Peter emphasized that his main concern was "the benefit of the Fatherland." His words, spoken to the soldiers on the eve of Poltava battle: “Now the hour has come that will decide the fate of the Fatherland. And so you should not think that you are fighting for Peter, but for the state handed over to Peter, for your family, for the Fatherland, for the Orthodox faith and the church ... And know about Peter that life is not dear to him, if only Russia would live in bliss and glory for your welfare." Peter sought to create a new, powerful Russian Empire, which would become one of the strongest, richest and most enlightened states in Europe.

In the 1st quarter 18th century Peter changed the system government controlled: instead of the Boyar Duma, the Senate was created, in 1708-1715. provincial reform was carried out, in 1718–1721. orders are replaced by colleges. A regular army and navy were created, recruitment and compulsory military service for the nobles were introduced. By the end of Peter's reign, about a hundred plants and factories were operating, and Russia began to export manufactured goods: iron, copper and linen. Peter took care of the development of culture and education: many educational institutions were opened, the civil alphabet was adopted, the Academy of Sciences was founded (1725), theaters appeared, new printing houses were equipped, in which more and more new books were printed. In 1703 the first Russian newspaper Vedomosti was published. Foreign specialists were invited from Europe: engineers, craftsmen, doctors, officers. Peter sent Russian youths abroad to study sciences and crafts. In 1722, the Table of Ranks was adopted - a legislative act that brought all state ranks into the system. The service became the only way to obtain a state rank.

Since 1700, a new chronology from the Nativity of Christ and the celebration of the New Year on January 1, adopted in Western Europe, were introduced in Russia. On May 16, 1703, on one of the islands at the mouth of the Neva River, Peter I founded the fortress of St. Petersburg. In 1712 St. Petersburg officially became the new capital of Russia. Stone houses were built in it and the streets were paved with stones for the first time in Russia.

Peter began to pursue a policy of limiting church power, church possessions were transferred to the state. Since 1701, property issues were withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the church. In 1721, the power of the patriarch was replaced by the power of the Synod, a collegiate body that headed the church administration. The synod reported directly to the sovereign.

After the conclusion of peace with Turkey in 1700 in the field of foreign policy, Peter I considered the struggle with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea to be the main task. In the summer of 1700, Russia entered the war, called the Northern. During the years of the Great Northern War (1700–1721), Peter proved himself to be a talented commander and an excellent strategist. He beat the Swedish army several times - the best in Europe at that time.

The king repeatedly showed personal courage. On May 7, 1703, near the Nyenschanz fortress, Russian soldiers under his command in thirty boats captured two Swedish ships. For this feat, Peter was awarded highest order in the Russian state - the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called. On June 27, 1709, during the Battle of Poltava, the tsar personally led one of the battalions of the Novgorod regiment and did not allow the Swedish troops to break through. The Northern War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Nystadt between Sweden and Russia. All the Baltic lands she conquered (Estland, Livonia, Courland, Ingermanland) and the opportunity to have a fleet in the Baltic Sea remained behind Russia. The victory in the Northern War turned Russia into a powerful state with borders from the Baltic to Seas of Okhotsk. Now all European states had to reckon with it.

In 1710–1713 Russia participated in the war with Turkey. In 1711, Peter I led the Prut campaign, which ended in failure. Russia ceded the city of Azov to Turkey, and also promised to tear down the fortresses of Taganrog, Bogoroditsk and Kamenny Zaton. As a result of the Persian campaign of 1722-1723. Russia acquired land on the southern coast of the Caspian Sea. On October 22, 1721, the Senate presented Peter I with the title of Emperor of All Russia, the title of "Great" and "Father of the Fatherland." Since then, all Russian sovereigns began to be called emperors, and Russia turned into the Russian Empire.

Peter's reforms had not only positive consequences. In the 1st quarter 18th century a powerful bureaucratic system of government was formed, subordinate only to the will of the king. For many years, the dominance of foreigners was established in the Russian state apparatus, whom the tsar often trusted more than Russian subjects.

Peter's reforms and long-term wars exhausted the country's economy and laid a heavy burden on the working population of Russia. The peasants were forced to work more and more on the corvee, and the workers of the manufactories were forever attached to the factories. Thousands of ordinary peasants and working people died of starvation, disease, under the whip of overseers in shipyards, in the construction of new fortresses and cities.

In 1718–1724 a tax reform was carried out, which increased the tax burden by 1.5–2 times. In addition, this reform led to even greater enslavement of the peasants. During the reign of Peter there were several major popular uprisings: in Astrakhan (1705–1706), on the Don, Sloboda Ukraine, the Volga region (1707–1708), in Bashkiria (1705–1711). The church policy of Peter I is also ambiguous. The complete subordination of the church to the state, the weakening of the role of the Orthodox clergy led to the destruction of traditional spiritual values.

Petrovsky acts caused a negative reaction in the upper strata of Russian society. Peter abruptly broke the habitual life of the Russian people, especially the nobles. They hardly got used to the assemblies, refused to shave their beards and go to the theaters. The tsar's son and heir, Alexei Petrovich, did not accept Peter's reforms. Accused of plotting against the tsar, in 1718 he was deprived of the throne and sentenced to death.

The tsar's first wife, Evdokia Lopukhina, was sent to a monastery. From 1703, a simple peasant woman, Marta Skavronskaya, became the wife of the tsar, who received the name of Catherine in Orthodox baptism. But the official wedding took place only in 1712. Several children were born in this marriage, but the sons died in infancy, two daughters survived - Anna (the mother of the future Emperor Peter III) and Elizabeth, the future Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. In 1724, in the Assumption Cathedral, Peter I laid the imperial crown on the head of his wife.

In 1722, Peter I, who by that time had no male heirs, adopted a decree on the succession to the throne: the heir was appointed at the will of the "ruling sovereign", and the sovereign, having appointed an heir, could change his mind if he found that the heir did not justify hopes. This decree laid the foundation for the palace revolutions of the 18th century. and became the reason for the preparation of forged wills of sovereigns In 1797, Paul I canceled the decree. In the last months of his life, Peter was very ill and spent most of his time in bed. Before his death, the emperor did not have time to draw up a will and transfer power to his successor. He was buried in the Petrovsky Cathedral.

EKATERINA I ALEKSEEVNA (04/05/1683-05/06/1727) - Russian Empress in 1725-1727, wife of Peter I. There is no reliable information about the childhood years of the future Russian Empress and her parents. It is only known that among the prisoners captured in 1702 by the Russian troops was the maiden Marta Skavronskaya. First, she fell into the service of Field Marshal B.P. Sheremetev, then to Prince A.D. Menshikov. After some time, Tsar Peter I made her his favorite. In 1705, Martha converted to Orthodoxy and received the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. In 1712 she became the wife of the Russian emperor. On May 7, 1724, Peter I solemnly crowned Ekaterina Alekseevna as empress, he himself placed the imperial crown on her head.

On January 28, 1725, Peter I died without having time to appoint an heir. A struggle began among his closest associates. Menshikov and other "chicks of Petrov's nest" wanted to see Catherine on the throne, noble nobles, the old nobility - the grandson of Peter I, Tsarevich Peter Alekseevich, who at that time was only 10 years old. Menshikov managed to attract the Guards regiments to the side of Catherine. Their position was decisive.

Having taken the throne, Catherine I announced the continuation of her husband's reforms. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was opened in St. Petersburg; an expedition of V. Bering was sent to find out if there is an isthmus between Asia and North America; the system of digital schools and seminaries was streamlined. Special attention devoted to maintaining the combat readiness of the army and navy. Catherine herself could neither read nor write, and her daughter Elizabeth signed for her. To help the Empress in 1726, the Supreme Privy Council was created, in which both the supporters of Peter I and the old nobles participated on an equal footing. The Council was headed by Catherine herself, and Menshikov enjoyed the greatest influence. The Empress herself spent most of her time at balls and arranged numerous holidays. Russia was actually ruled by Menshikov.

Under Catherine I, a policy of increasing the privileges of the nobility begins. At the same time, concessions were made to the common people: the poll tax was reduced, part of the taxes introduced under Peter I was eliminated.

In the beginning. In 1727, the health of Catherine I worsened, and in May she died, appointing Peter Alekseevich as her heir. She was buried in St. Petersburg, in the Peter and Paul Fortress.

In her marriage to Peter I, Ekaterina Alekseevna had several children, but only two daughters survived - Anna (the mother of the future Russian Emperor Peter III) and Elizabeth (the future Russian Empress in 1741-1761)

PETER// (10/13/1715 - 01/19/1730) - Russian emperor in 1727-1730. Peter Alekseevich was the son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich and Princess Sophia Charlotte of Wolfenbüttel. The boy lost his parents early. He did not receive systematic upbringing and education. In 1727, Empress Catherine I, the wife of Peter I, died. Peter was only 12 years old when he became Emperor Peter II. Peter II spent almost all his time at feasts and hunting. But, according to individual statements, the young emperor can be understood that he was drawn to the old Russian customs and was going to pursue a policy different from that of his grandfather.

During the reign of Peter II, the state was ruled by the Supreme Privy Council, within which the struggle of court parties for power intensified. First, the young emperor fell under the influence of A. D. Menshikov, granted the rank of generalissimo to the most illustrious prince and was going to marry his daughter Maria. But after a few months, the princes Dolgorukov and Vice-Chancellor A.I. Osterman managed to denigrate Menshikov in the eyes of Peter II. In September 1727, the young emperor sent the generalissimo into exile in the Siberian city of Berezov. Shortly thereafter, the imperial court moved from St. Petersburg to Moscow. The wedding of the Emperor and Princess Ekaterina Dolgorukova was scheduled for January 1730. However, a few days before the wedding, Peter II fell ill with smallpox and died. With the death of Peter II, the Romanov dynasty ended in a straight male generation. Peter II is buried in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

ANNA IVANOVNA(01/28/1693-10/17/1740) - Russian Empress from 1730, Duchess of Courland from 1710

She was the daughter of Tsar Ivan V Alekseevich, the elder brother of Peter I and Tsarina Praskovya Feodorovna (born Saltykova). In 1710, Anna married the nephew of the Prussian king, Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Courland. The marriage was concluded for political reasons.

In January 1711 Anna's husband died. Anna had to, according to the will of Peter I, settle in Mitava, the capital of the Duchy of Courland (now Jelgava in Latvia). She lived there for 19 years. Until 1730, Anna was completely dependent on her relatives, who occupied the Russian throne. But Emperor Peter II, the grandson of Peter I, unexpectedly died. The Supreme Privy Council invited Anna Ivanovna to take the Russian throne. But the "supervisors" obliged her to sign the "conditions" - the conditions under which power was transferred into the hands of members of the Supreme Privy Council.

In February 1730, Anna Ivanovna, supported by the nobility, refused to carry out the will of the Supreme Privy Council, publicly broke the "conditions" and became an autocratic Russian empress. She liquidated the Supreme Council and dealt with her enemies. The Empress left the state cares to her entourage. A. I. Osterman was in charge foreign policy, Feofan Prokopovich supervised church affairs. The favorite of the Empress E. I. Biron received the greatest freedom of action. He invited foreigners to all important posts in government. The dissatisfied were severely persecuted. No wonder the reign of Anna Ivanovna was called "Biron".

Wars and attempts by the government to collect all taxes and arrears led to the ruin and desolation of many farms, a reduction in the population of Russia. As a result of the Russian-Turkish war of 1735-1739. Russia regained Azov, annexed Moldavia, but lost the lands along the western coast of the Caspian Sea, conquered by Peter I.

At this time, significant benefits were granted to the nobility: the law on single inheritance was abolished, the nobles were allowed to receive education at home, they received the right to retire after 25 years (this law was soon repealed, since so many wanted to take advantage of it). Anna Ivanovna herself spent huge sums on balls, masquerades, receptions of ambassadors and various holidays. The most famous of her entertainments was the funny wedding of jesters in the Ice House, specially built for this. Under her, an opera and a zoo first appeared in Russia.

IVAN VI ANTONOVYCH (08/12/1740-07/05/1764) - Russian emperor from 10/17/1740 to 12/25/1741. Ivan Antonovich was the son of Prince Anton Ulrich of Brunswick and Anna Leopoldovna, the niece of Empress Anna Ivanovna. He was proclaimed Russian Emperor at the age of two months, according to the will of Empress Anna Ivanovna. First, E.I. Biron ruled for the baby, and then - mother Anna Leopoldovna.

During the coup on December 25, 1741, committed by Elizaveta Petrovna, Ivan was arrested and separated from his parents. Almost all of his life was spent in solitary confinement in the Shlisselburg Fortress. According to the instructions, the prisoner was not taught anything; in case of disobedience, it was allowed to put him on a chain and beat him. According to rumors, during the accession of Catherine II, Vice-Chancellor A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin drew up a plan for her marriage to Ivan. Catherine saw him in prison and thought he was crazy.

Ivan was killed during an attempt to free him, undertaken by Lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich. Buried in Shlisselburg.

ELIZAVETA PETROVNA (12/18/1709-12/25/1761) - the Russian Empress from 11/25/1741, the youngest daughter of Peter I and Catherine I.

Peter I loved his youngest daughter and called her Lisetka. He even named the sailboat on which he sailed in the Baltic Sea. Elizabeth did not receive a systematic education and had little interest in politics in her youth. After her mother, Catherine I, died in 1727, and her older sister Anna Petrovna married and left for Holstein, Elizabeth became close to her nephew Peter Alekseevich (future Emperor Peter II). Between them established friendly relations. There was even a plan to marry Peter and Elizabeth, but the princes Dolgorukov married Peter II with Catherine, the daughter of Prince A. E. Dolgorukov. Elizabeth was left to her own devices. She lived separately from the imperial court in the Pokrovskaya settlement near Moscow, in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky or in the Aleksandrovskaya settlement.

The Tsesarevna behaved simply and naturally: she easily got along with people, willingly visited the company of guards soldiers and officers, attended their weddings and baptized children. Elizabeth was cheerful, beautiful, witty, always tastefully dressed. Her popularity among the people and among the guards worried the Empress Anna Ivanovna. She ordered the princess to live at court. A “small court” of Elizabeth arose, which was made up of nobles devoted to her: the brothers Alexander and Peter Shuvalov, Mikhail Vorontsov and the life surgeon Johann Lestok. Aleksey Razumovsky, a simple Cossack, a former church choir singer, also entered the “small courtyard” of Elizabeth. He became the favorite of the princess, and, becoming empress, she granted him the title of count and the rank of field marshal.

After the death of Anna Ivanovna, the ruler of Russia under the young Ivan VI Antonovich was her niece Anna Leopoldovna, extremely unpopular in noble circles. Taking advantage of the weakening of the supreme power, the ambassadors of France and Sweden began to push Elizaveta Petrovna to commit a coup d'état. Familiar guards officers and nobles devoted to her spoke about this. After some time, the princess agreed to oppose the government of Anna Leopoldovna.

On November 25 at 2 am, Elizabeth, accompanied by brothers A. and P. Shuvalov, M. Vorontsov and I. Lestok, appeared in the barracks of the Preobrazhensky Regiment. She reminded the soldiers that she was the daughter of Peter the Great, ordered them to follow her and at the same time forbade them to use weapons unnecessarily. The Jews enthusiastically swore allegiance to the new empress and, on her instructions, without shedding a single drop of blood, they arrested and brought to the fortress Anna Leopoldovna, her husband Anton Ulrich, their son, the infant sovereign Ivan Antonovich, and vice-chancellor M. E. Golovkin, who advised Anna Leopoldovna to declare herself as an empress. The next day, a brief manifesto was issued on the accession to the throne of Elizabeth Petrovna.

From the very beginning of her reign, she declared herself the successor to the work of her father, Peter I. All Germans on public service were dismissed, and close to Anna Ivanovna A. Osterman, B. Minich, Levenvolde were exiled by the decree of Elizabeth.

The new empress appointed capable Russian people to important public positions.

Elizabeth's reign was humane enough for its time. The Secret Chancellery ceased to rage, the “word and deed of the sovereign” receded into the past. The Empress not only did not sign a single death warrant, but actually abolished the death penalty in Russia.

Elizabeth's domestic policy was carried out in the interests of the nobility. In order to support entrepreneurship and alleviate the property situation of the nobles, in May 1754, the Noble Loan Bank was opened in St. Petersburg. This bank provided the nobles with an inexpensive loan on terms of 6% per annum. Reduced requirements for the nobility service. Under Peter I, young nobles were supposed to start serving as soldiers. Under Elizabeth, children were enrolled in the regiment from birth, and they appeared there already in the officer rank. The nobles went on long vacations, sometimes lasting for years.

Elizabeth tried to support the merchant class as well. In 1754, internal customs were abolished and internal duties, which had long been collected along the roads of Russia and at the entrance to cities, were abolished. Increased duties on foreign goods. In the cities, magistrates were restored - the bodies of city self-government "from first-class citizens."

During the reign of Elizabeth, Russian science and arts developed. The government supported cultural figures. The Academy of Sciences was reformed, Russian scientists came there. In 1755, on the initiative and direct participation of I. I. Shuvalov and M. V. Lomonosov, Moscow University was opened. In 1758 the Academy of Arts was opened. navigation school, founded under Peter I, was renamed the Naval gentry cadet corps.

Some changes were also made in the structure of the state apparatus. Elizabeth abolished the Cabinet of Ministers and restored the Senate in the sense that it had under Peter I. Were also restored Chief Magistrate, Manufaktura- and Berg College. At the same time, local government remained in the forms it took after Peter I. In 1756, the Conference was established at the royal court - a permanent assembly of ten senior dignitaries and generals. They discussed "important foreign affairs."

Under Elizabeth, Russia again began to pursue an active foreign policy. The beginning of Elizabeth's reign coincided with Russian-Swedish war 1741–1743 The Swedes wanted to take revenge for the defeat in the Northern War. This war turned out to be successful for Russia: part of Finland went to it.

Until 1744, Elizabeth adhered to foreign policy pro-French orientation. This was due to the great influence that the French envoy Chétardie had on her. However, in the future, Russian diplomacy refocused on an alliance with Austria against Prussia. In 1756, Russia entered the Seven Years' War in order to expand its borders in the west. In 1759, near Kunersdorf, the Prussian army suffered a crushing defeat. IN next year Russian troops for some time occupied Berlin, the capital of Prussia. The death of Elizabeth prevented the successful completion of the defeat of the Prussian army. Her successor, Peter III, dramatically changed Russia's foreign policy towards an alliance with Prussia.

The Empress was passionately fond of the fine arts. She was very fond of the theater and watched the same performances several times. Under her, the Russian professional theaters of F. Volkov and A. Sumarokov appeared. They did not spare money for the Italian opera either.

By order of Elizabeth, the architect V. V. Rastrelli erected the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg - the residence of Russian emperors, the Grand Palace in Peterhof, the Tsarskoye Selo Palace, in which the Amber Room was mounted - a gift from the Prussian King Frederick William I to the Russian Tsar Peter I.

At the end of her life, Elizabeth was sick a lot. She ceased to engage in state affairs and entrusted the administration of the country to P. I. and I. I. Shuvalov, M. I. and R. I. Vorontsov, and others. Her favorite A. E. Razumovsky enjoyed great influence.

Elizaveta Petrovna died at the age of 52. She is buried in St. Petersburg, in the Peter and Paul Cathedral.

PETER III(Karl Peter Ulrich)(02/10/1728 - 07/06/1762) - Russian emperor in the period from 25.12. 1761 to 06/28/1762

Karl Peter Ulrich, the future Emperor Peter III Fedorovich, was born in the small German principality of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp. His father was Duke Karl-Friedrich of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp, and his mother was the Russian Grand Duchess Anna, daughter of Peter I. He was the grandson of Emperor Peter I and the nephew of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. Peter III received the royal crown thanks to Elizabeth Petrovna, who appointed him her successor. In 1742 he came to Russia as the official heir to the throne and converted to Orthodoxy. In 1745 he was married to German princess Sophia Augusta Frederick of Anhalt-Zerbst, who received the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna after baptism.

In con. 1761 Peter III became Russian Emperor and issued several important decrees. He abolished secret office, which was engaged in political investigation and considered cases of extreme importance. He issued a decree on the freedom of the nobility, stopped the persecution of schismatics. However, his admiration for Frederick II and the peace treaty with Prussia, as a result of which Russia lost everything it had won during the Seven Years' War of 1756–1763, aroused the discontent of Russian society. Peter III neglected Russian customs, introduced the Prussian order into the army, and this turned the guards against him. A conspiracy arose, the soul of which was Ekaterina Alekseevna, the wife of Peter III. On June 28, 1762, a palace coup took place, during which the emperor was removed from power. On June 6, Peter III was killed in the Ropsha estate. Peter III is buried in the Peter and Paul Fortress.

EKATERINA II ALEKSEEVNA (04/21/1729-11/06/1796) - Russian Empress from 06/28/1762

Catherine II, nee Sophia Augusta Frederick of Anhalt-Zerbst, was born in Stettin in Pomerania. Her father was Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, a native of the impoverished princely family of Northern Germany, Major General of the army of the Prussian King Frederick II.

In 1744, when the girl was 15 years old, she was married to the heir to the Russian imperial throne, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich. In February 1744, at the invitation of Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, she and her mother arrived in Moscow, where at that time the Russian Empress was with her court. A few months later, Sofia Augusta converted to Orthodoxy and received a new name - Ekaterina Alekseevna. The wedding with Peter Fedorovich took place on August 21, 1745 in St. Petersburg.

From the very beginning, relations between the young spouses did not work out. Peter was more interested in toys and soldiers than in his young wife. Her husband's inattention offended Catherine. Her relationship with Empress Elizabeth was tense, and Catherine did everything possible to win popularity at court and in the guard. The Grand Duchess performed all Orthodox rites seriously and zealously, and very quickly mastered the Russian language. Thanks to her intelligence, charm and natural tact, she managed to enlist the favor of many Elizabethan nobles. The influence of Ekaterina Alekseevna at court, among the guards and the nobility was constantly growing.

Catherine thought that the country could become powerful and rich only in the hands of an enlightened sovereign. She read the works of Plato, Plutarch, Tacitus, the works of the French enlighteners Montesquieu and Voltaire. So she managed to fill in the gaps in her education and gain a thorough knowledge of history and philosophy.

On December 25, 1761, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died. The throne was taken by the husband of Ekaterina Alekseevna - Peter III. He made an alliance with Prussia, abandoned Russia's victories in the Seven Years' War, and began to lose Russia's former allies. Peter exalted and brought the Germans closer to him, especially his relatives. His policy aroused sharp hostility among the guards and the nobility. Even the Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility, promulgated on February 18, 1762, could not alleviate discontent. A conspiracy of courtiers and guardsmen formed against Peter III, the center of which was his ambitious wife Ekaterina Alekseevna, and the main organizers were the Orlov brothers. On June 28, 1762, a palace coup took place. Relying on the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky Guards regiments, Catherine removed her husband from power, and proclaimed herself empress.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine II tried to implement a program of transformations in the economic and political life Russia. In 1767, the Legislative Commission for the development of a new Code - the Code of Laws began its work in Moscow Russian Empire. By the beginning of the work of the commission, Catherine prepared the “Instruction”, designed to become the basis for the creation of the Code. The empress considered absolute monarchy to be the most suitable form of government for Russia. At the same time, in her opinion, it was necessary to introduce laws that would protect the fundamental rights of citizens. The Empress insisted on the need for equality of all before the law. But Catherine was not at all going to deprive the nobility, which was her support, of its main wealth - the serfs. She did not think about freedom for the peasants - there were only general arguments about the humane treatment of the landowners with the peasants.

Under Catherine, elected courts first appeared in Russia. They were elected separately for the nobility, for city dwellers and for state peasants. (The serfs were judged by the landowner himself.) The court must become public, and without its decision no one could be found guilty. In "Nakaz" Catherine opposed torture and the death penalty. She defended the need to develop commercial and industrial activities, build new cities, bring order to the issues of agriculture.

From the very beginning of the work of the Commission, sharp contradictions were revealed between representatives of various estate groups that were part of it. In 1768, the activity of this body was suspended, and then completely terminated.

Catherine continued her reforms in 1775, after the suppression of the uprising of E. I. Pugachev. However, now she did not strive to draw up laws protecting the rights of her subjects, but only cared about strengthening the foundations of Russian statehood and improving discipline.

On November 7, 1775, the “Institution for the Administration of the Provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was published. His goal was to strengthen the local administrative apparatus and give the provincial nobility the means to suppress peasant uprisings. The number of provinces increased from 20 to 51. Each of them was divided into counties. The population of the provinces was 300-400 thousand inhabitants, and the county - 20-30 thousand.

The main merit of Catherine II in the field of education and culture was the creation in Russia of a system of primary education for children from all classes, except for serfs. Medical care has also become a matter of state. Each city was required to have a pharmacy and a hospital. Catherine was one of the first in Russia to get herself vaccinated against smallpox. This was the beginning of vaccination.

April 21, 1785 were published "Charters" to the nobility and cities. The nobility was granted the exclusive right to own peasants, lands and bowels of the earth; the right to establish plants and factories and sell wholesale everything that is produced in their fiefdoms; the right to start auctions and fairs on their lands. The nobles were exempt from taxes and corporal punishment. County nobles once every three years had to gather in the central city of the county and choose the local administration from their midst. Cities received the right to elective self-government.

Catherine II pursued an active foreign policy. As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars 1768–1774 and 1787–1791 the Crimean peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region went to Russia. Russia got access to the Black Sea, and it was no longer threatened by raids Crimean Tatars. Now it was possible to develop the black earth steppes. The Black Sea Fleet was created on the Black Sea.

In 1788, Swedish troops invaded the territory of the Russian Empire, but the war turned out to be fruitless for Sweden: it did not receive any territories. In 1772–1795 Russia took part in the three sections of the Commonwealth, as a result of which the territories of Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland joined the Russian Empire.

Catherine II was extremely worried about the beginning of the revolution in France in 1789. The execution of Louis XVI in 1793 caused her outrage. The Empress allowed French emigrants to enter Russia and provided them with open financial support. All trade and diplomatic relations with France were severed. Preparations began for the war, which stopped only after the death of the Empress in 1796.

Catherine nominated people who had already shown their abilities to the highest state, military and administrative positions. Among them were E. A. Potemkin, P. A. Rumyantsev, Z. E. Chernyshev, brothers G. G. and A. G. Orlovs, Ya. E. Sivere, and others. Suvorov and Admiral F. F. Ushakov.

IN last years life before Catherine II was the question of the heir to the throne. The Empress feared that her son, Pavel Petrovich, might ruin her life's work with her undertakings.

Before her death, Catherine II tried to transfer the imperial throne over Paul's head to her grandson Alexander Pavlovich. But Alexander did not want to enter into a quarrel with his father, and a number of influential dignitaries prevented the dying empress from carrying out this last political intrigue. Catherine II died on November 6, 1796. She was buried in the Peter and Paul Fortress. Her son Pavel ascended the Russian throne.

Under Catherine II, Russia turned into a powerful state, rightfully taking the place of a great power on the world stage. However, autocracy and serfdom under her only strengthened. These facts did not fit into the circle of ideas of the European Enlightenment, which Catherine II shared.

PAUL I (20.09. 1754 - 03/12/1801) - Russian emperor in 1796-1801.

Pavel was the only son of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (future Emperor Peter III) and Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna (future Empress Catherine II). From early childhood, he witnessed the palace intrigues and political struggles that accompanied the reign of his father and mother. In 1762, when Pavel was 8 years old, there was a palace coup organized by Catherine against her husband. These events left a noticeable mark in the mind of the future Russian emperor. Catherine II entrusted the upbringing of her son to N.I. Panin, an enlightened nobleman who was not alien to constitutional ideas. Under his leadership, Paul received a good education.

Growing up, the Grand Duke showed more and more dissatisfaction with the rule of his mother, who illegally seized power. N. I. Panin supported the claims of the Tsarevich, hoping that sooner or later Catherine would have to transfer power to Paul.

In September 1773, Paul married Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt (Natalya Alekseevna in Orthodoxy). In April 1776, Natalya Alekseevna died from childbirth. Princess Sofia Dorothea of Württemberg became the new wife of the heir to the Russian throne. The Grand Duchess in Orthodoxy received the name Maria Feodorovna.

In 1777, a son, Alexander, was born to a young grand ducal couple, and in 1779, a second son, Konstantin. Catherine II herself took up their education. In 1796, the third son, Nikolai, was born.

In 1781–1782 Pavel and his wife made a trip to Europe. Prussia made a particularly favorable impression on him. He took the Prussian order as a model, especially in the army.

In 1783, the Empress presented Pavel with the Gatchina estate. Very quickly, his fiefdom took the form of a military camp with outposts, barriers, barracks and guards. Pavel's concerns were connected with the organization of the Gatchina troops - several battalions transferred under his command.

Catherine cautiously watched the behavior of Paul, and a decision was ripening in her - to deprive her son of the throne and transfer him to her eldest grandson, Alexander.

From the first days of his reign, the new emperor began to pursue a policy different from Catherine's. Pavel solemnly reburied his father in the Peter and Paul Fortress. Then began the reforms in the army. Many Catherine's generals and officers were dismissed from service. The emperor introduced "cane" discipline in the army, fought against abuses and embezzlement of the command staff. He introduced Prussian-style uniforms, which were unaccustomed to Russian soldiers, forced them to engage in the senseless drill adopted in the Prussian army. He surrounded himself with Germans and did not trust Russian officers. Pavel was afraid of conspiracies, he had an obsession with violent death, like his father, Peter III. His actions aroused hostility among the generals and officers.

The new emperor took decisive measures to strengthen the autocratic power. On April 5, 1797, on the day of the coronation, the Act of Succession to the Throne was issued, according to which the imperial power was inherited from father to son, and in his absence, to the next, in seniority, brother of the emperor. Paul I sought to raise discipline among the officials of the state apparatus. Increased police control over the life of society.

The policy of the new emperor on the peasant issue as a whole continued the policy of Catherine II. During the 4 years of his reign, Paul distributed more than 800 thousand state peasants into private hands. At the same time, some laws were issued to limit the exploitation of the peasants. Paul I introduced the practice of swearing in peasants on a par with nobles and

merchants. The Manifesto of April 5, 1797, forbade work in the corvee on Sundays and contained advice to the landowners to limit themselves to three days of corvee per week. Paul's decrees made it possible for the serfs to complain about their masters and thereby eased their lot.

At the same time, the new emperor sought to limit the privileges of the nobles. All the "undergrown", unable to carry military service, provincial noble assemblies, the article of the “Letter of Letters”, which prohibited corporal punishment of nobles, was canceled. At the same time, the emperor showed concern for the economic interests of the nobility. In 1797, the State Auxiliary Noble Bank was established, which issued loans secured by estates. In con. 18th century several privileged educational institutions for the nobility were founded.

This text is an introductory piece. From the book History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire [with illustrations] author Gibbon Edward

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(1672 - 1725) a period of palace coups began in the country. This time was characterized by a rapid change, both of the rulers themselves and of the entire elite surrounding them. However, Catherine II was on the throne for 34 years, lived a long life and died at the age of 67. After her, emperors came to power in Russia, each of whom tried in his own way to raise her prestige throughout the world, and some succeeded. The history of the country forever included the names of those who ruled in Russia after Catherine II.

Briefly about the reign of Catherine II

The full name of the most famous Empress of All Russia is Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Tserbskaya. She was born on May 2, 1729 in Prussia. In 1744, she was invited by Elizabeth II with her mother to Russia, where she immediately began to study the Russian language and the history of her new homeland. In the same year, she converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy. On September 1, 1745, she was married to Peter Fedorovich, the future Emperor Peter III, who was 17 years old at the time of the marriage.

During the years of his reign from 1762 to 1796. Catherine II raised the general culture of the country, her political life to the European level. Under her, new legislation was adopted, which contained 526 articles. During her reign, Crimea, Azov, Kuban, Kerch, Kiburn, the western part of Volyn, as well as some regions of Belarus, Poland and Lithuania were annexed to Russia. Catherine II was founded Russian Academy sciences, a system of secondary education was introduced, institutes for girls were opened. In 1769, paper money, the so-called banknotes, was put into circulation. Money circulation at that time was based on copper money, which was extremely inconvenient for large commercial transactions. For example, 100 rubles in copper coins weighed more than 6 pounds, that is, more than a centner, which made financial transactions very difficult. Under Catherine II, the number of factories and factories increased four times, the army and navy gained strength. But there were many negative assessments of her activities. Including abuse of power by officials, bribery, embezzlement. Favorites of the empress received orders, gifts of fabulous value, privileges. Her generosity extended to almost everyone who was close to the court. During the reign of Catherine II, the situation of serfs worsened significantly.

Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich (1754 - 1801) was the son of Catherine II and Peter III. From birth he was under the care of Elizabeth II. Hieromonk Plato had a great influence on the worldview of the heir to the throne. He was married twice and had 10 children. He ascended the throne after the death of Catherine II. He issued a decree on succession to the throne, which legalized the transfer of the throne from father to son, the Manifesto on a three-day corvee. On the very first day of his reign, A.N. Radishchev from Siberian exile, released N.I. Novikov and A.T. Kosciuszko. He made serious reforms and transformations in the army and navy.

The country began to pay more attention to spiritual and secular education, military educational institutions. New seminaries and theological academies were opened. Paul I in 1798 supported the Order of Malta, which was practically defeated by the troops of France and for this he was proclaimed the protector of the order, that is, its protector, and later the Chief Master. The unpopular recent political decisions made by Paul, his harsh and despotic character caused discontent throughout society. As a result of the conspiracy, he was killed in his bedroom on the night of March 23, 1801.

After the death of Paul I, in 1801, Alexander I (1777 - 1825), his eldest son, ascended the Russian throne. Carried out a number of liberal reforms. He led successful military operations against Turkey, Sweden and Persia. After the victory in the war against Napoleon Bonaparte, he was among the leaders Congress of Vienna and the organizers of the Holy Alliance, which included Russia, Prussia and Austria. He died unexpectedly during an epidemic of typhoid fever in Taganrog. However, due to the fact that he repeatedly mentioned the desire to voluntarily leave the throne and “remove from the world”, a legend arose in society that a double died in Taganrog, and Alexander I became the elder Fyodor Kuzmich, who lived in the Urals and died in 1864.

The next Russian emperor was the brother of Alexander I, Nikolai Pavlovich, since Grand Duke Konstantin, who inherited the throne by seniority, abdicated. During the oath to the new sovereign on December 14, 1825, an uprising of the Decembrists took place, the purpose of which was to liberalize the existing political system, including the abolition of serfdom, and democratic freedoms up to a change in the form of government. The speech was suppressed on the same day, many were sent into exile, and the leaders were executed. Nicholas I was married to Alexandra Feodorovna, the Prussian princess Frederick-Louise-Charlotte-Wilhemine, with whom they had seven children. This marriage had great importance for Prussia and Russia. Nicholas I had engineering education and personally oversaw the construction of railways and the fort "Emperor Paul I", projects for fortifications for the naval defense of St. Petersburg. Died March 2, 1855 from pneumonia.

In 1855, the son of Nicholas I and Alexandra Feodorovna, Alexander II, ascended the throne. He was an excellent diplomat. He carried out the abolition of serfdom in 1861. He carried out a number of reforms that were of great importance for the further development of the country:

in 1857 he issued a decree that liquidated all military settlements;
in 1863 he introduced the university charter, which determined the order in Russian higher institutions;
carried out reforms of city self-government, judicial and secondary education;
approved in 1874 military reform about universal military service.

Several assassination attempts were made on the emperor. He died on March 13, 1881 after Ignaty Grinevitsky, member of the People's Will, threw a bomb at his feet.

Since 1881, Russia was ruled by Alexander III (1845 - 1894). He was married to a princess from Denmark, known in the country as Maria Feodorovna. They had six children. The emperor had a good military education, and after the death of his older brother Nikolai, he mastered an additional course of sciences that you needed to know in order to competently manage the state. His reign was characterized by a series of drastic measures to strengthen administrative control. Judges began to be appointed by the government, censorship of printed publications was again introduced, and Old Believers were given legal status. In 1886 the so-called poll tax was abolished. Alexander III led an open foreign policy, which helped to strengthen his position in the international arena. The prestige of the country during his reign was extremely high, Russia did not participate in any war. He died on November 1, 1894 in the Livadia Palace, in the Crimea.

The years of the reign of Nicholas II (1868 - 1918) were characterized by a rapid economic development Russia and a simultaneous increase in social tension. The increased growth of revolutionary sentiment resulted in the First Russian Revolution of 1905-1907. It was followed by a war with Japan for control of Manchuria and Korea, the country's participation in the First World War. After February Revolution abdicated in 1917.

According to the decision of the Provisional Government, he was sent with his family into exile in Tobolsk. In the spring of 1918 he was transferred to Yekaterinburg, where he was shot along with his wife, children and several close associates. This is the last of those who ruled in Russia after Catherine 2. The family of Nicholas II is glorified by the Russian Orthodox Church as a saint.

The history of Russia is rich in various eras, each of which has left its mark on the life of the country. One of the most intense and controversial was the reign of Peter I the Great, which ended on January 25, 1725 due to the sudden death of the emperor.

Russia without a king? Who ruled after Peter 1

Three years before his death, the autocrat managed to issue a decree that changed the previous order of succession to the throne: now it was not the eldest son who became the heir, but one of the sons whom the father considered worthy to take such an honorable place. This decision was due to the fact that the king's son, the potential heir to the throne, Tsarevich Alexei, was accused of preparing a conspiracy against his own father and, as a result, was sentenced to death. In 1718, the prince died within the walls of the Peter and Paul Fortress.

However, before his death, Peter I did not have time to appoint a new king, leaving the country, for the development of which he had put so much effort, without a ruler.

As a result, the next few years were marked by numerous goals for which the seizure of power was. Since no official heir was appointed, those wishing to sit on the throne tried to prove that it was they who deserved this right.

The very first coup carried out by the guardsmen of the wife of Peter I - by birth Marta Skavronskaya, popularly known as Ekaterina Alekseevna Mikhailova (Catherine I) - brought to power the first woman in the history of Russia.

The enthronement of the future All-Russian Empress was led by an associate of the late tsar, Prince Alexander Danilovich Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the state.

Russia after Peter 1 is a special milestone in world history. The strict orderliness and discipline that partly characterized the reign of the emperor now lost their former strength.

who is she?

Martha Skavronskaya (real name of the Empress) was from a family of Baltic peasants. She was born on April 5, 1684. Having lost both parents early, the girl was brought up in the family of a Protestant pastor.

During the Northern War (between Sweden and Russia), in 1702, Martha, along with other residents, was captured by the Russian troops, and then in the service of Prince Menshikov. There are two versions of how this happened.

One version says that Marta became the mistress of Count Sheremetyev, the commander of the Russian army. She was seen by Prince Alexander Danilovich - the favorite of Peter the Great - and, using his authority, took the girl to his house.

According to another version, Martha became the manager's servant at Colonel Baur, where Menshikov laid eyes on her and took her to his house. And already here Peter I himself noticed her.

Rapprochement with Peter I

For 9 years, Martha was the mistress of the king. In 1704, she gave birth to his first child, the son of Peter, and then the second son, Pavel. However, both boys died.

The future empress was educated by the sister of Peter I, Natalya Alekseevna, who taught Martha to read and write. And in 1705, the girl was baptized into Orthodoxy under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna Mikhailova. In 1708 and 1709, Catherine's daughters from Peter Alekseevich, Anna and Elizabeth (who later took the throne under the name

Finally, in 1712, a wedding with Peter I took place in the church of John of Dalmitsky - Catherine became a full member royal family. The year 1724 was marked by the solemn coronation of Martha Skavronskaya in the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. She received the crown from the hands of the emperor himself.

Who and when ruled in Rus'

After the death of Peter 1, Russia fully learned what a country is worth without an imperious ruler. Since Prince Menshikov won the favor of the tsar, and later helped Catherine I become the head of state, the correct answer to the question of who ruled after Peter 1 would be Prince Alexander Danilovich, who actively participated in the life of the country and made the most important decisions. However, the reign of the empress, despite such strong support, did not last long - until May 1727.

During the reign of Catherine I, an important role in the politics of Russia of that time was played by the one created even before the ascension to the throne of the Empress. It included such noble and prominent people in the Russian Empire of that time as Prince Alexander Menshikov (who headed this body), Dmitry Golitsyn, Fyodor Apraksin, Pyotr Tolstoy.

At the beginning of the reign of Catherine I, taxes were reduced and many condemned to exile and imprisonment were pardoned. Such changes were caused by the fear of riots due to price increases, which invariably had to lead to discontent among the townsfolk.

In addition, the reforms carried out by Peter were canceled or modified:

the Senate began to play a less prominent role in the political life of the country;

governors replaced local authorities;

for the improvement of the troops, a special Commission was organized, consisting of flagships and generals.

Innovations of Catherine I. Domestic and foreign policy

For someone who ruled after Peter 1 (we are talking about his wife), it was extremely difficult to surpass the reformer tsar in the versatility of politics. Of the innovations, it is worth noting the creation of the Academy of Sciences and the organization of an expedition led by the famous navigator Vitus Bering to Kamchatka.

In foreign policy in general, Catherine I adhered to the views of her husband: she supported the claims of the Holstein Duke Karl Friedrich (who was her son-in-law) to Schleswig. This led to an aggravation of relations with England and Denmark. The result of the confrontation was the accession of Russia to the Vienna Union (which included Spain, Prussia and Austria) in 1726.

Russia after Peter 1 gained significant influence in Courland. It was so great that Prince Menshikov planned to become the head of this duchy, but local residents revealed discontent about this.

Thanks to the foreign policy of Catherine I and Alexander Danilovich (that's who ruled Russia after the death of Peter 1 in fact), the empire was able to take possession of the Shirvan region (having achieved concessions on this issue from Persia and Turkey). Also, thanks to Prince Raguzinsky, friendly relations with China were established.

The end of the reign of the empress

The power of Catherine I came to an end in May 1727, when the Empress died at the age of 44 from a lung disease. She was buried in the Peter and Paul Fortress.

Before her death, Catherine wanted to make her daughter Elizabeth empress, but once again she obeyed Menshikov and appointed her grandson, Peter II Alekseevich, who was 11 years old at the time of ascension to the throne, as the heir and tsar of Russia.

The regent was none other than Prince Alexander Danilovich (this fact once again proves who ruled after Peter 1 in Russia). Menshikov soon married the newly-made tsar with his daughter Maria, thus further strengthening his influence on court and state life.

However, the power of Prince Alexander Danilovich did not last long: after the death of the emperor, he was accused of a state conspiracy and died in exile.

Russia after Peter the Great is already a completely different state, where not reforms and transformations came to the fore, but the struggle for the throne and attempts to prove the superiority of some classes over others.